Accessibility of Selected Key Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits in the Environmental and Social Context in Poland

Urszula Kaźmierczak; Justyna Górniak-Zimroz

doi:10.3390/resources10010006

Kaźmierczak, Urszula;Górniak-Zimroz, Justyna

2021-01-15 00:00:00

resources Article Accessibility of Selected Key Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits in the Environmental and Social Context in Poland Urszula Kazmierczak ´ and Justyna Górniak-Zimroz * Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeze ˙ Wyspianskiego ´ 27, 50370 Wrocław, Poland; urszula.kazmierczak@pwr.edu.pl * Correspondence: justyna.gorniak-zimroz@pwr.edu.pl Abstract: The increase in demand for mineral resources, the depletion of the resources (deposits) and numerous environmental and social limitations concerning their utilization led to research on the assessment of environmental and the social availability of compact raw material deposits classiﬁed as key raw materials. The methodology of the research is based on the proposed environmental and social assessment procedure for the availability of deposits, in which, based on the constraints resulting from legal, environmental and planning conditions, four deposit availability classes have been determined: class I—very well accessible deposit, class II—well accessible deposit, class III— accessible deposit and class IV—inaccessible deposit. Ultimately, seven variables inﬂuencing the availability of the deposit were selected for the assessment, i.e., forms of nature protection, forests with protective functions, zones of indirect protection of groundwater and surface water intakes, main groundwater reservoirs, surface water reservoirs, rivers, streams and canals, buildings and infrastructure and road and railway. The research was carried out for 244 deposits located in Poland (Central Europe) with total resources of over 7.6 billion tons. The availability of deposits was analyzed for two variants. The ﬁrst one included all the variables. The second variant, on the other hand, excluded railway infrastructure due to the fact that 90% of the compact raw materials transport is carried out by trucks. Finally, in variant I of the assessment, three classes of deposit availability were obtained: class IV inaccessible deposits (146 deposits), class III available deposits (93 deposits), and Citation: Kazmier ´ czak, U.; class II well-accessible deposits (5 deposits). In variant II four classes of deposit availability were Górniak-Zimroz, J. Accessibility of obtained: class IV inaccessible deposits (145 deposits), class III available deposits (68 deposits), class Selected Key Non-Metallic Mineral II well-accessible deposits (28 deposits) and class I deposits very easily accessible (3 deposits). Deposits in the Environmental and Social Context in Poland. Resources Keywords: raw materials; surface mining; rock raw materials; environment protection; conservation 2021, 10, 6. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/resources10010006 Received: 7 December 2020 1. Introduction Accepted: 13 January 2021 Societies are constantly making efforts towards making the most effective use of Published: 15 January 2021 their social and economic development. Improving the quality of life largely depends on Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- mineral resources, as it involves, e.g., urbanization, the development of road and sewage tral with regard to jurisdictional clai- systems, etc. Therefore, there is a continuous increase in demand for mineral resources, ms in published maps and institutio- which increases the exploitation of these resources and the necessity to develop further nal afﬁliations. mineral deposits [1]. However, the process of extending various forms of protection on the areas with documented mineral deposits limits their management potential [2–6]. Therefore, being aware of the depletion of deposits in areas not covered by environmental protection, causes mining companies to begin to pay attention to resources located in legally Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li- protected areas. In addition, the mining of raw materials must be an action accepted by the censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. public [7–11]. The most important aspects to be taken into consideration when requesting This article is an open access article such acceptance are the dust and noise caused by the mining plant. For this reason, a distributed under the terms and con- compromise is needed to ensure that the economic goals of the industry, the environment ditions of the Creative Commons At- protection, and the social acceptance are complementary and not contradictory. tribution (CC BY) license (https:// Reaching an agreement is very difﬁcult, and therefore it seems necessary that per- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ formed research focuses on assessing the environmental and social accessibility of deposits, 4.0/). Resources 2021, 10, 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources10010006 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/resources Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23 questing such acceptance are the dust and noise caused by the mining plant. For this rea- son, a compromise is needed to ensure that the economic goals of the industry, the envi- ronment protection, and the social acceptance are complementary and not contradictory. Resources 2021, 10, 6 2 of 23 Reaching an agreement is very difficult, and therefore it seems necessary that per- formed research focuses on assessing the environmental and social accessibility of depos- which is the aim of this publication. The research aim required in the ﬁrst place is an analy- its, which is the aim of this publication. The research aim required in the first place is an sis which would allow identifying rock raw materials important for the national economy. analysis which would allow identifying rock raw materials important for the national The analysis demonstrated that the focus should be placed on the so-called key raw materi- economy. The analysis demonstrated that the focus should be placed on the so-called key als. These include raw materials of fundamental importance for the proper functioning raw materials. These include raw materials of fundamental importance for the proper of the economy and for satisfying the living needs of people. They are thus raw materi- functioning of the economy and for satisfying the living needs of people. They are thus als which are scarce, but which offer a sustainable supply and a large domestic resource raw materials which are scarce, but which offer a sustainable supply and a large domestic base, and which are the basic resources needed in the industry [12,13]. The next stages resource base, and which are the basic resources needed in the industry [12,13]. The next of research were to analyze the accessibility of documented rock raw material deposits stages of research were to analyze the accessibility of documented rock raw material de- located in legally protected areas of Poland, and to evaluate social and spatial planning posits located in legally protected areas of Poland, and to evaluate social and spatial plan- conditions, such as road and rail accessibility and distance from housing developments, as ning conditions, such as road and rail accessibility and distance from housing develop- investigated in this publication. ments, as investigated in this publication. 2. Materials and Methods 2. Materials and Methods The environmental and social accessibility of key deposits was assessed on the basis The environmental and social accessibility of key deposits was assessed on the basis of the proposed methodology proposed, which included four stages (Figure 1): of the proposed methodology proposed, which included four stages (Figure 1): (1) preliminary research, (1) preliminary research, (2) preparation of data for analysis, (2) preparation of data for analysis, (3) proper research (impact analysis of selected factors), (3) proper research (impact analysis of selected factors), (4) formulation of ﬁnal evaluation. (4) formulation of final evaluation. Figure 1. Methodology for assessing the environmental and social accessibility of key deposits. Figure 1. Methodology for assessing the environmental and social accessibility of key deposits. 2.1. Preliminary Research 2.1. Preliminary Research A preliminary research consisting in: the selection of research objects (undeveloped A preliminary research consisting in: the selection of research objects (undeveloped deposits of non-metallic raw materials); identification of environmental, social and geo- deposits of non-metallic raw materials); identiﬁcation of environmental, social and geo- graphical elements, construction of a database including information on the deposits and graphical elements, construction of a database including information on the deposits and on the above-listed elements and proper research consisting in the analysis of the impact on the above-listed elements and proper research consisting in the analysis of the impact of environmental, social and geographical elements on the accessibility of undeveloped of environmental, social and geographical elements on the accessibility of undeveloped key deposits. key deposits. The objects were selected in the first step of the preliminary research. This was per- The objects were selected in the first step of the preliminary research. This was performed formed for deposits of non-metallic raw materials explored in detail, i.e., deposits of do- for deposits of non-metallic raw materials explored in detail, i.e., deposits of dolomites, lomites, dimension and crushed stones, magnesites, feldspar raw materials and carbonate dimension and crushed stones, magnesites, feldspar raw materials and carbonate raw raw materials for the cement and lime industry to be found in Poland. The data on the materials for the cement and lime industry to be found in Poland. The data on the deposits deposits were obtained from Polish Geological Institute—National Research Institute were obtained from Polish Geological Institute—National Research Institute [14,15]. Var- [14,15]. Various deposits (244 in total) of compact raw materials with the total resources ious deposits (244 in total) of compact raw materials with the total resources being over being over 7.6 billion tons were selected for the study. These were deposits of dolomites 7.6 billion tons were selected for the study. These were deposits of dolomites (3 deposits with the total resources of over 20 million tons), road and building stones (175 deposits, over 2 billion tons), vein quartzes (2 deposits, 281 thousand tons), quartzites (5 deposits, over 5 million tons), limestones and marls for the cement industry (28 deposits, 3.8 billion tons) and limestones and marls for the limestone industry (31, 1.2 billion tons) geographically located in the following voivodships: Dolnosl ´ askie, ˛ Lubelskie, Łódzkie, Małopolskie, Ma- Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23 (3 deposits with the total resources of over 20 million tons), road and building stones (175 deposits, over 2 billion tons), vein quartzes (2 deposits, 281 thousand tons), quartzites (5 deposits, over 5 million tons), limestones and marls for the cement industry (28 deposits, 3.8 billion tons) and limestones and marls for the limestone industry (31, 1.2 billion tons) Resources 2021, 10, 6 3 of 23 geographically located in the following voivodships: Dolnośląskie, Lubelskie, Łódzkie, Małopolskie, Mazowieckie, Opolskie, Podkarpackie, Śląskie, Świętokrzyskie and ´ ´ zowieckie, Opolskie, Podkarpackie, Slaskie, ˛ Swietokrzyskie ˛ and Zachodniopomorskie Zachodniopomorskie (Figure 2). (Figure 2). Figure 2. Locations of key raw material deposits in Poland, along with the spatial distribution of the Figure 2. deposits L and ocathe tions quantities of key raw materi of the resour al ces de (own posits i study n Pbased oland, on along with the [14,15]). spatial distribution of the deposits and the quantities of the resources (own study based on [14,15]). In the second step of the preliminary research, environmental and social elements were selected for research. By environmental variables, the authors understand all forms of In the second step of the preliminary research, environmental and social elements environmental protection: national parks, nature reserves, nature monuments, landscape were selected for research. By environmental variables, the authors understand all forms parks, the Natura 2000 areas, nature parks (protected landscape areas), landscape-nature of environmental protection: national parks, nature reserves, nature monuments, land- complexes, ecological areas and documentation sites, forests with protective functions, scape parks, the Natura 2000 areas, nature parks (protected landscape areas), landscape- indirect protection zones for groundwater and surface water intakes, major groundwater nature complexes, ecological areas and documentation sites, forests with protective func- reservoirs, surface water reservoirs, rivers, streams and canals. Social variables, on the tion other s, indirect protec hand, relate to objects, tion zones fo infrastr r gro uctur un e d or wa other ter and surface elements of the waenvir ter intakes, onmentmajo directly r ground- related to the life of local residents and affecting the quality and comfort of their lives. water reservoirs, surface water reservoirs, rivers, streams and canals. Social variables, on They include criteria such as the distance from the deposit to the housing developments or the other hand, relate to objects, infrastructure or other elements of the environment di- transport-related accessibility. Additionally, a research method of examining documents rectly related to the life of local residents and affecting the quality and comfort of their was used to assess natural availability, which consists of collecting and analyzing the facts lives. They include criteria such as the distance from the deposit to the housing develop- contained in it. The research was limited to the legal acts related to the establishment of ments or transport-related accessibility. Additionally, a research method of examining individual forms of nature protection. documents was used to assess natural availability, which consists of collecting and ana- 2.2. Preparation of Data for Analysis lyzing the facts contained in it. The research was limited to the legal acts related to the establishment of individual forms of nature protection. For the second stage of the research, databases on environmental and social factors were prepared with the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). For this purpose, data were obtained from state institutions that collect environmental and social data. 2.2. Preparation of Data for Analysis After their collection, the usefulness of the data for research was veriﬁed. Databases of For the second stage of the research, databases on environmental and social factors environmental and social elements were developed for selected data (Figure 3). were prepared with the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). For this purpose, da2.3. ta wer Proper e obt Resear ainech d from s (Impact tAnalysis ate instiof tut Selected ions thFactors) at collect environmental and social data. After their collection, the usefulness of the data for research was verified. Databases of environ- In this research, the accessibility of key deposits was described as a function of many mental and social elements were developed for selected data (Figure 3). variables having an implicit and unknown form and grouped into three variables, i.e., environmental, social and spatial variables: S = f(x , x , . . . , x ), (1) 1 2 i Resources 2021, 10, 6 4 of 23 S = f (p, v, s), (2) where p—environmental variables, Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23 v—spatial variables, s—social variables. Figure 3. Database of environmental and social elements. Figure 3. Database of environmental and social elements. As function f describing relationship between variables and results S is, in general, unknown, the evaluation is completed in an indirect way. 2.3. Proper Research (Impact Analysis of Selected Factors) The above variables occur as both qualitative and quantitative variables, which were In this research, the accessibility of key deposits was described as a function of many converted into numerical variables for the purpose of these analyses. The numerical value variables having an implicit and unknown form and grouped into three variables, i.e., for the i-th variable describing the accessibility of the deposit was calculated on the basis of environmental, social and spatial variables: the accessibility key presented in Table 1. S = f(x1, x2, …, xi), Table 1. Deposit accessibility scale. (1) Deposit Accessibility Scale Description of the Deposit Accessibility Scale Numerical Value S = f (p, v, s), (2) I very well accessible deposit 3 II well accessible deposit 2 where III accessible deposit 1 p—environmental variables, IV inaccessible deposit 0 v—spatial variables, s—social variables. Based on the legal, environmental and planning analysis for environmental and social elements, the deposit availability classes were determined according to the key from Table 1. As function f describing relationship between variables and results S is, in general, The deposit availability classes for the environmental and social elements along with the unknown, the evaluation is completed in an indirect way. conversion of descriptive variables into numerical variables are presented in Table 2. The above variables occur as both qualitative and quantitative variables, which were converted into numerical variables for the purpose of these analyses. The numerical value for the i-th variable describing the accessibility of the deposit was calculated on the basis of the accessibility key presented in Table 1. Table 1. Deposit accessibility scale. Deposit Accessibility Scale Description of the Deposit Accessibility Scale Numerical Value I very well accessible deposit 3 II well accessible deposit 2 III accessible deposit 1 IV inaccessible deposit 0 Based on the legal, environmental and planning analysis for environmental and so- cial elements, the deposit availability classes were determined according to the key from Table 1. The deposit availability classes for the environmental and social elements along with the conversion of descriptive variables into numerical variables are presented in Ta- ble 2. Resources 2021, 10, 6 5 of 23 Table 2. Description of the deposit availability classes for environmental and social elements. Forests with MGRs, Housing Accessibility Evaluation Forms of Environment Protective IPforGWI, Surface Waters Development Road Infrastructure Railway Infrastructure Points Zone Scale Protection Functions IPforSWI Areas no road passes through no railway line passes deposit for which no deposit located the deposit through the deposit deposits located at very well additional requirements deposit located outside the MGR deposit located area—construction of an area—construction of an a distance over I protection area access road is required, access track (siding) 3 accessible must be met in order to outside the forest outside the surface 1000 m from deposit obtain an environmental protection area and outside water waters area deposit located at a required; deposit located buildings conditions decision protection zones distance of 10–500 m at a distance of 10–500 m from road infrastructure from a railway line no road passes through deposit for which the deposit located the deposit construction of an access environmental impact deposits located at well within the MGR area—construction of an track required; deposit assessment procedure deposit of an area up a distance from II accessible protection area access road is required, 2 located at a distance of must show no negative to 10 ha 500 m to 1000 m deposit and outside water deposit located at a 500–1000 m from a from buildings impact on the protected protection zones railway line distance of 500–1000 m form of nature from road infrastructure deposit for which the no road passes through environmental impact the deposit construction of an access assessment procedure deposit having an deposits located at area—construction of an track required; deposit accessible must show no negative area greater than 10 a distance from III access road is required, 1 located at a distance of deposit impact on the protected ha, with additional 200 m to 500 m deposit located at a above 1000 m from a conditions to be met from buildings form of nature and must railway line distance above 1000 m demonstrate meeting from road infrastructure additional conditions deposit located deposit located at a deposit located at a within an area of deposit located deposits located at deposit located distance of 10 m from distance of 10 m from a inaccessible ban on mineral protected forests within the water a distance below railway line, a railway IV road infrastructure, road 0 within the surface deposit extraction with mineral intake protection 200 m from waters area passes through the line passes through the zone buildings extraction deposit area deposit area prohibited Where: MGRs—Major Groundwater Reservoirs, IPforGWI—Indirect Protection zone for Groundwater Intake, IPforSWI—Indirect Protection zone for Surface Water Intake. Resources 2021, 10, 6 6 of 23 Then, an evaluation matrix was developed for the analyzed deposits, in which the evaluations obtained for the environmental and social variables included in the research were entered (Table 3). The ﬁnal deposit assessment was performed according to the rule described below, i.e., ﬁrst for deposits where the variable 0 occurred at least once, the deposit availability class IV was assigned, then for other deposits where the variable 1 occurred at least once, the deposit availability class III was assigned, for the other deposits where at least once it occurred variable 3 was assigned the deposit availability class II and for the remaining deposits the deposit availability class I, as follows: Algorithm for Accessibility Evaluation IF (OR(P1=0;P2=0;P3=0;P4=0;P5=0;P6=0;P7=0); “Class IV”; IF (OR(P1=1;P2=1;P3=1;P4=1;P5=1;P6=1;P7=1); “Class III”; IF(OR(P1=2;P2=2;P3=2;P4=2;P5=2;P6=2;P7=2); “Class II”; IF(OR(P1=3;P2=3;P3=3;P4=3;P5=3;P6=3;P7=3); “Class I”; “ ”)))) Table 3. Fragment of the matrix for assessing the availability of key deposits. MGRs, Housing Protective Surface Road Rail Accessibility Name of the Environmental IPforGWI, Development No. Forests Waters Infrastructure Infrastructure of Key Deposit P1 IPforSWI Areas P2 P4 P6 P7 Deposits P3 P5 1 Deposit 1 0 3 3 3 0 3 1 IV 2 Deposit 2 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 IV 3 Deposit 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 3 . . . n Deposit n 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 III 3. Results 3.1. Environmental Analysis The limited accessibility of key raw materials and the depletion of the currently exploited deposits cause the attention to be drawn to resources in areas under various forms of protection: environment-, water- or forest-related. Therefore, it seems important to analyze the environmental accessibility of the analyzed deposits, which concerns four assumed aspects: forms of environmental protection, especially protected forests and surface waters, as well as main underground water reservoirs together with indirect protection zones for groundwater intakes. Environmental protection is signiﬁcant for the maintenance and stability of ecosystems and ecological processes. The regulations regarding protected forests are of particular importance due to the fact that almost half of the forest-covered areas in Poland are protective forests which have primarily ecological and social functions [16]. Waters, on the other hand, prove vital for both residents and basic branches of economy. However, members of society should not forget that changing the location of a given mineral resource is not possible and if they want to maximize the beneﬁts from the progress of civilization (based on mineral resources), a compromise must be found. Such a compromise may include an analysis of the accessibility of key raw material deposits performed among others from the environmental perspective. 3.1.1. Forms of Environment Protection Areas of environmental value, often covered by one or more forms of protection, as speciﬁed in The Nature Conservation Act of 16 April 2004 [17], are locations to 63% of documented and unexploited rock deposits. The analyzed deposits are located in nature protected areas in nine voivodships (Figures 4 and 5). The total resources in these areas are 4630.2 million tons, and are documented in 157 deposits. Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23 Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23 Resources 2021, 10, 6 7 of 23 Figure 4. Locations of the analyzed deposits in nature protected areas (own study based on [18]). Figure 4. Locations of the analyzed deposits in nature protected areas (own study based on [18]). Figure 4. Locations of the analyzed deposits in nature protected areas (own study based on [18]). Figure 5. Number of deposits located in individual nature protected areas. Figure 5. Number of deposits located in individual nature protected areas. Figure 5. Number of deposits located in individual nature protected areas. Extraction of minerals must be performed in accordance with the provisions of The Geological and Mining Act of 9 June 2011 [19], i.e., after obtaining a concession which allows Extraction of minerals must be performed in accordance with the provisions of The Extraction of minerals must be performed in accordance with the provisions of The mining operations in a certain area. However, in accordance with Art. 72 of the Act on Geological and Mining Act of 9 June 2011 [19], i.e., after obtaining a concession which allows Geological and Mining Act of 9 June 2011 [19], i.e., after obtaining a concession which allows provision of information on the environment… [20], prior to obtaining a concession to extract mining operations in a certain area. However, in accordance with Art. 72 of the Act mining operations in a certain area. However, in accordance with Art. 72 of the Act on a mineral from a deposit, an entrepreneur must obtain a decision on environmental con- on provision of information on the environment . . . [20], prior to obtaining a concession to ditions, which is then attached to the concession application. The most important stage in extract provision of information on the env a mineral from a deposit, an entr ironment… epreneur must [20] obtain , prior a to ob decision taining on envir a concess onmental ion to extract obtaining such a decision is to perform an assessment of the environmental impact in ac- conditions, which is then attached to the concession application. The most important stage a mineral from a deposit, an entrepreneur must obtain a decision on environmental con- in corda obtaining nce with Art. 59 such a decision of the is Act on to perform provision of information on an assessment of the the envir environment… onmental [2 impact 0]. Suin ch ditions, which is then attached to the concession application. The most important stage in accor an assessmen dance with t is r Art. equir 59 ed of in the the Act case o on pr f planned ovision of proj information ects if: on the environment . . . [20]. obtaining such a decision is to perform an assessment of the environmental impact in ac- Such an assessment is required in the case of planned projects if: • the project may continuously significantly impact the environment (operations cordance with Art. 59 of the Act on provision of information on the environment… [20]. Such which may continuously significantly impact the environment include inter alia min- the project may continuously signiﬁcantly impact the environment (operations which an assessment is required in the case of planned projects if: ing of minerals from the deposit with the use of surface mining methods on a mining may continuously signiﬁcantly impact the environment include inter alia mining of • are the proj a not smect aller th may con an 25 hat and in inuously stallasign tions for th ificantly e p imp rocessin acgt of m the enviro inerals loca nment ted at (operations minerals from the deposit with the use of surface mining methods on a mining area the premises of surface mines or quarries having an area not smaller than 25 ha [21]), not which may co smaller than 25 ntin hauou andsinstallations ly significant for ly im the pr pact ocessing the envir of minerals onment inc located luat de int the er alia min- • the project may potentially significantly impact the environment (operations which premises of surface mines or quarries having an area not smaller than 25 ha [21]), ing of minerals from the deposit with the use of surface mining methods on a mining may potentially significantly impact the environment include inter alia mining of the project may potentially signiﬁcantly impact the environment (operations which area not smaller than 25 ha and installations for the processing of minerals located at may minera potentially ls from the dep signiﬁcantly osit with th impact e usthe e of envir surface mining metho onment include inter ds on a mining alia mining area of the premises of surface mines or quarries having an area not smaller than 25 ha [21]), • the project may potentially significantly impact the environment (operations which may potentially significantly impact the environment include inter alia mining of minerals from the deposit with the use of surface mining methods on a mining area Resources 2021, 10, 6 8 of 23 minerals from the deposit with the use of surface mining methods on a mining area smaller than 25 ha, but larger than 2 ha, or in the case of extracted volume greater than 20,000 m , installations for the processing of minerals located at the premises of surface mines or quarries having an area smaller than 25 ha, or located in areas under environmental protection [21]), the project may signiﬁcantly impact the Natura 2000 area while not being directly related to the protection of the area or not being the result of such a protection, the obligation to perform an assessment of how the project impacts the Natura 2000 area was imposed by the decision of the Regional Director for Environmental Protection. Considering the resources, the documented area and the location of the analyzed deposits in legally protected areas, such projects will be certainly qualiﬁed for the environ- mental impact assessment and will have to be preceded by an assessment of their impact on the protection objectives of a particular site. An additional issue is related to the restrictions on the exploitation of minerals in legally protected areas, which can be interpreted from the Nature Conservation Act of 16 April 2004 [17]. An obligatory prohibition on mineral exploitation applies to areas of national parks (including buffer zones) and nature reserves. An additional issue is related to the restrictions on the exploitation of minerals in legally protected areas, which can be interpreted from the Nature Conservation Act of 16 April 2004 [17]. As a result, extraction of minerals from 11 documented deposits will not be possible in these areas (Table 4). Table 4. Most important environmentally protected areas being the locations of the analyzed deposits. Number of Possibilities for No. Name of the Form of Environmental Protection Documented Deposits Mineral Extraction National Parks—Buffer Zones 1. The Babia Góra National Park 1 2. The Magura National Park 1 Complete ban on the 3. The Roztocze National Park 2 extraction of minerals 4. 3 The Swietokrzyski ˛ National Park Nature Reserves 1. The Buczyna Storczykowa na Białych Skałach Nature Reserve 1 2. The Góra Jeleniowska Nature Reserve 1 3. The Herby Nature Reserve 1 Complete ban on the 4. The Moczydło Nature Reserve 1 extraction of minerals 5. The Mszana i Obłoga Nature Reserve 1 6. The Przełom Osławy Pod Mokrem Nature Reserve 1 7. The Winnica Nature Reserve 1 As the remaining analyzed deposits are located in legally protected areas, such as landscape parks, protected landscape areas, the Natura 2000 areas, landscape-nature complexes, ecological corridors and ecological areas, the possibilities for mineral extraction will be considered only within the borders of these areas. In the case of a landscape park (further: LP), its buffer zone and the protected zone, as well as in the case of a protected landscape area (further: PLA), the Act provides for the possibility of imposing a ban on the extraction of rocks for economic purposes (including peat, as well as minerals and amber) and on the implementation of projects which may signiﬁcantly affect the environment within the meaning of the provisions of the Act on the provision of information on the environment and its protection, public participation in environmental protection and on environmental impact assessment [20]. Thus, the optional nature of the above-mentioned prohibitions indicates that they may (but do not have to) be included in the text of the legal act enacting a speciﬁc landscape park. They become obligatory at the instance of providing such entry in the act establishing the park. In the case of investments within the areas of a landscape park and a protected landscape area, derogation from the ban on the implementation of the projects in question may apply to projects for which the Resources 2021, 10, 6 9 of 23 environmental impact assessment procedure has shown no adverse impact of the planned investment on nature and landscape. The analysis of the provisions of the resolutions and ordinances which concern the landscape parks being locations for the documented deposits showed that in the case of 15 deposits located in the areas of 11 landscape parks, a complete ban is imposed on obtaining rocks for economic purposes in the areas of these parks (Table 5). Mining is also completely banned in the Tenczynek landscape park, except for one limestone deposit named “Płaza Południe”. However, in the case of ﬁve deposits, a ban on projects that may have a signiﬁcant impact on the environment does not apply to the implementation of projects for which the environmental impact procedure may show no adverse impact on the nature and landscape of the park. In the case of seven deposits located in the areas of three parks: The Czarnorzecko–Strzyzowski ˙ LP, the Przemyskie Foothills LP and the Solska Forest LP, the extraction of minerals is possible under certain conditions—the exploitation area must not exceed 2 ha, the extraction should be greater than 20,000 m and should be performed without the use of blasting techniques. Prohibitions regarding the implementation of projects that may have a signiﬁcant impact on the environment are also included in the provisions concerning the Snieznik ˙ Landscape Park and the Sudety Wałbrzyskie Landscape Park (4 documented deposits), but they do not apply to projects involving the extraction of rocks and minerals on an area smaller than 25 ha and, of course, if the environmental impact assessment procedure shows no adverse impact on the nature of the park. Table 5. Number of deposits located within the areas of landscape parks. Number of Documented Deposits No. Name of the Form of Environmental Protection Possibilities for Mineral Extraction Landscape Park Area Buffer Zone Ban—1 deposit 1. The Checiny–Kielce ˛ Landscape Park 6 3 Extraction possible—8 deposits 2. 1 The Cisów–Orłowiny Landscape Park Extraction possible 3. The Czarnorzeki–Strzyz ˙ów Landscape Park 3 Ban 4. The Jasliska ´ Landscape Park 1 Ban Ban—1 deposit 5. The Jeleniowska Landscape Park 1 2 Extraction possible—2 deposits in the buffer zone 6. 1 Ban The Krasnobród Landscape Park 7. The Nida Landscape Park 2 Extraction possible 8. The Little Beskids Landscape Park 1 Ban 9. The Silesian Beskids Landscape Park 1 Extraction possible 10. The Chełmy Landscape Park 3 Ban 11. The Kraków Valleys Landscape Park 1 1 Ban 12. The Warta–Widawka Landscape Park 1 Ban 13. The Eagle Nests Landscape Park 2 1 Ban 14. The Brzanka Range Landscape Park 1 Ban 15. The Przemyskie Foothills Landscape Park 1 Extraction possible under certain conditions Ban—1 deposit 16. The Solska Forest Landscape Park 2 1 Extraction possible under certain conditions 17. The Sudety Wałbrzyskie Landscape Park 2 Extraction possible under certain conditions 18. The Rudno Landscape Park 1 Ban 19. The Sulejów Landscape Park 1 1 Ban 20. 2 The Snieznik ˙ Landscape Park Extraction possible under certain conditions 21. The Tenczynek Landscape Park 1 1 Complete ban except for 1 deposit 22. The Załecze ˛ Landscape Park 2 Ban As regards Protected Landscape Areas, the analysis demonstrated that mineral extrac- tion is completely prohibited in the case of eight deposits located in eight areas (Table 6). A complete ban on mineral extraction is imposed in the case of one deposit located in the PLA, as it is also the area of the Babia Góra National Park. Nevertheless, in the case of 43 deposits, the exploitation of raw materials is possible if the environmental impact assessment procedure shows no negative impact on the nature of the PLA. In the case of one PLA, the Otmuchów–Nysa Protected Landscape Area, exploitation is possible for deposits documented before 27 September 2016 (the deposit located in this area was documented in 2012). For the remaining 11 deposits, exploitation is possible, but under certain conditions: if the deposit areas are introduced to the local development plan (LSDP) and both the strategic environmental impact assessment and the environmental impact assessment Resources 2021, 10, 6 10 of 23 procedures show no adverse impact on the nature of the area—such conditions apply to 7 deposits within the following PLAs: The Roztocze PLA, The Pilica River PLA and The Cie ˛ zkowice ˙ Foothills PLA, if the accomplishment of the project consists in implementing the provisions present in the study of conditions and directions of spatial management for the municipality and in the local spatial development plan, for which the environmental impact assessment procedure showed no negative impact on the nature within the PLA—it applies to three deposits in the Eastern Beskids PLA, on an area smaller than 25 ha, if the environmental impact assessment procedure shows no negative impact on the nature within the area—it applies to 1 deposit in the PLAs of the Bystrzyckie Mountains and the Orlickie Mountains. Table 6. Number of deposits located within the protected landscape area. Number of Documented Possibilities for Mineral No. Name of the Form of Environmental Protection Deposits Extraction 1. The Low Beskids Protected Landscape Area 1 Ban 2. The Checiny–Kielce ˛ Protected Landscape Area 3 Extraction possible 3. The Chełmy Protected Landscape Area 1 Ban 4. The Chmielnik–Szydłów Protected Landscape Area 17 Extraction possible 5. The Cisów–Orłowiny Protected Landscape Area 1 Extraction possible 6. The Kamienna River Valley Protected Landscape Area 2 Extraction possible 7. 4 Ban The Widawka River Valley Protected Landscape Area The Bystrzyckie Mountains and the Orlickie 8. 1 Extraction possible Mountains Protected Landscape Area 9. The Iłza–Makowiec ˙ Protected Landscape Area 1 Ban 10. The Jeleniowska Protected Landscape Area 1 Extraction possible 11. The Jeleniów-Staszów Protected Landscape Area 2 Extraction possible 12. The Konecko–Łopuszno Protected Landscape Area 1 Extraction possible 13. The Otmuchów–Nysa Protected Landscape Area 1 Extraction possible 14. The Pilica River Protected Landscape Area 4 Extraction possible 15. The Kielce-suburban Protected Landscape Area 2 Extraction possible 16. The Cie ˛ zkowice Foothills Protected Landscape Area 1 Extraction possible Ban—1 deposit 17. The Southern Małopolska Protected Landscape Area 9 Extraction possible—8 deposits The Pradolina Warszawsko–Berlin ´ ska (Warsaw–Berlin 18. 1 Ban Urstromtal) Protected Landscape Area 19. The Roztocze Protected Landscape Area 2 Extraction possible 20. The Strzyz ˙ów–Sedzisz ˛ ów Protected Landscape Area 1 Ban 21. The Swietokrzyski ˛ Protected Landscape Area 3 Extraction possible 22. The Eastern Beskids Protected Landscape Area 3 Extraction possible 23. The Miechów Upland Protected Landscape Area 1 Ban In the case of Natura 2000 sites, the Nature Conservation Act does not provide for the possibility of banning the exploitation of minerals. However, all projects, even those located outside the area in question, may be prohibited if their negative impact on the protection objectives of the Natura 2000 site is proven. The decision is based on the results of the environmental impact assessment procedure. In the case of a project planned in a Natura 2000 area, an environmental impact assessment should be performed, which includes an analysis of the impact and an evaluation of the scale of this impact on the protected objects of the Natura 2000 area [22]. A project may be allowed in a Natura 2000 area only if it is demonstrated not to have a signiﬁcant negative impact on this area and if the conditions referred to in Art. 34 of The Nature Conservation Act [17] are fulﬁlled (if required by an overriding public interest, including requirements of a social or economic nature, and in the absence of alternative solutions, the approval may be granted only for the purposes of: protecting human health and life, ensuring public safety, obtaining primary beneﬁcial effects for environment and resulting from the necessary requirements of overriding public interest, after obtaining the opinion of the European Commission (Art. 34 [17])). In other cases, the Regional Director for Environmental Protection withholds the decision on environmental conditions for the project. Resources 2021, 10, 6 11 of 23 As regards the landscape–nature complexes and the ecological areas, the research demon- strated that four and three analyzed deposits are located in their areas, respectively (Table 7). However, in the case of all of these areas, ban is imposed on rock extraction for economic purposes or on the conversion of the surface of a given form of environment protection. Table 7. Number of deposits located within the areas of landscape-nature complexes and of ecological sites. Number of Possibilities for No. Name of the Form of Environmental Protection Notes Documented Deposits Mineral Extraction Landscape-Nature Complexes 1. The Strzelin Hills Landscape–Nature Complex 2 Extraction possible Located within the area of 2. The Kokocz Landscape–Nature Complex 1 Ban the Cie ˛ zkowice ˙ Foothills LA 3. The Sadowa Góra Landscape–Nature Complex 1 Ban Ecological Areas 4. The European hamster in Jaworzno Ecological Area 1 Ban Located within the area of 5. The Winnica Ecological Area 1 Ban the Warta–Widawka Landscape Park Located within the area of 6. PL.ZIPOP.1393.UE.1010093.726 1 Ban the Sulejów Landscape Park The analyzed deposits are also located in the areas of ecological corridors, whose areas cover the above-mentioned forms of nature protection. However, as other forms of nature protection already deﬁne the possibility or prohibition of exploitation within the areas of these corridors, they are approached analogically in this analysis. With the view to this analysis and to the fact that a given deposit may occur within the area of two or more different forms of nature protection, a four-level evaluation of the environmental accessibility of key raw material deposits can be proposed (Table 8). Table 8. Evaluation of the environmental accessibility of key raw materials. Accessibility Evaluation Number of Description ofthe Evaluation Scale Points Zone Scale Deposits very well deposit for which no additional requirements must be I accessible met in order to obtain an environmental 139 3 deposit conditions decision deposit for which the environmental impact well accessible II assessment procedure must show no negative impact 46 2 deposit on the protected form of nature deposit for which the environmental impact accessible assessment procedure must show no negative impact III 14 1 deposit on the protected form of nature and must demonstrate meeting additional conditions inaccessible IV ban on mineral extraction 45 0 deposit 3.1.2. Forests with Protective Functions The deﬁnition of forests under particular protection (also referred to as protective forests) includes forests which serve particular functions or are exposed to a certain degree of threat. In accordance with the Act of 28 September 1991 on Forests [23], the term protective forests (further: PF) applies to such forests that: protect the soil and limit the formation or spread of shifting sands (Soil PF), protect water resources (Waters PF), are permanently damaged (Damaged PF), are seed stands or animal refuges and stands of plants subject to species-speciﬁc protection (Species PF), are of particular importance in Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23 damaged (Damaged PF), are seed stands or animal refuges and stands of plants subject to Resources 2021, 10, 6 12 of 23 species-specific protection (Species PF), are of particular importance in terms of nature and science (Nature and Research PF) or for the defense and security of the State. In ad- terms of nature and science (Nature and Research PF) or for the defense and security of the dition, forests are protected because of their location. Thus, protective forests are those State. In addition, forests are protected because of their location. Thus, protective forests located: in the upper forest border, within the administrative borders of cities and within are those located: in the upper forest border, within the administrative borders of cities 10 km from the administrative borders of cities with over 50,000 residents (City PF) and and within 10 km from the administrative borders of cities with over 50,000 residents (City in the protection zones of spas and in health resort protection areas (Health Resort PF) PF) and in the protection zones of spas and in health resort protection areas (Health Resort (Figure 6). PF) (Figure 6). Figure 6. Locations of the analyzed deposits within the areas of forests under particular protection Figure 6. (own study Lo based cations of on [24 the anal ]). yzed deposits within the areas of forests under particular protection (own study based on [24). Regulations do not prohibit the exploitation of minerals in the areas of protective forests. In cases justiﬁed by important social reasons and the lack of other land, protec- Regulations do not prohibit the exploitation of minerals in the areas of protective tive forests may be used for other purposes, of course, after obtaining an appropriate forests. In cases justified by important social reasons and the lack of other land, protective consent from the competent administrative authority. However, in the case of areas of forests may be used for other purposes, of course, after obtaining an appropriate consent over 10 hectares and intended for mining projects, additional conditions must be met, from the competent administrative authority. However, in the case of areas of over 10 which include providing alternative solutions (variants) for land reclamation and land hectares and intended for mining projects, additional conditions must be met, which in- management during and after the end of industrial activity. In addition, each of the variants clude providing alternative solutions (variants) for land reclamation and land manage- should be presented together with the costs of reclamation and land management as well m asewith nt du estimations ring and af ofter losses theto end o be incurr f indu ed str by ifor al estry activand ity. In agricultur additieon, [25 each ]. of the variants Investigations reveal 90 rock deposits documented within the areas of protected forests should be presented together with the costs of reclamation and land management as well (Figure 7). According to the provisions of the Act on the Protection of Agricultural and Forest as with estimations of losses to be incurred by forestry and agriculture [25]. Land [25], all the above-mentioned deposits have limitations regarding the possibilities Investigations reveal 90 rock deposits documented within the areas of protected for- for their development. However, four deposits have been documented in an area smaller ests (Figure 7). According to the provisions of the Act on the Protection of Agricultural and than 10 hectares and therefore can qualify as well accessible. The remaining 72 deposits Forest Land [25], all the above-mentioned deposits have limitations regarding the possibil- have an area of more than 10 ha, so if their area is intended for purposes other than ities for their development. However, four deposits have been documented in an area forestry, additional conditions resulting from the provisions of the Act on the Protection of smaller than 10 hectares and therefore can qualify as well accessible. The remaining 72 Agricultural and Forest Land must be met. Therefore, they may be classiﬁed into accessibility deposits have an area of more than 10 ha, so if their area is intended for purposes other zone III. Table 9 presents the results of deposit accessibility evaluations with relation to than forestry, additional conditions resulting from the provisions of the Act on the Protec- their locations within the areas of forests under particular protection. tion of Agricultural and Forest Land must be met. Therefore, they may be classified into ac- cessibility zone III. Table 9 presents the results of deposit accessibility evaluations with relation to their locations within the areas of forests under particular protection. Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23 Resources 2021, 10, 6 13 of 23 Figure 7. Number of deposits located in forests under particular protection by forest type. Figure 7. Number of deposits located in forests under particular protection by forest type. Table 9. Evaluation of the accessibility of key raw material deposits located in areas of forests under particular protection. Table 9. Evaluation of the accessibility of key raw material deposits located in areas of forests under particular protection. Accessibility Number of Accessibility Number of Evaluation Scale Description of the Evaluation Scale Points Zone Deposits Evaluation Scale Description of the Evaluation Scale Points Zone Deposits deposit located outside the forest I very well accessible deposit 154 3 I very well accessible deposit deposit located outside the forest protection area 154 3 protection area II well accessible deposit deposit of an area up to 10 ha 14 2 II well accessible deposit deposit of an area up to 10 ha 14 2 deposit having an area greater than 10 ha, with ad- deposit having an area greater than 10 ha, III accessible III accessibledeposit deposit 72 1 72 1 with additional conditions to be met ditional conditions to be met deposit located within an area of deposit located within an area of protected forests IV inaccessible deposit 4 0 IV inaccessible deposit protected forests with mineral 4 0 with mineral extraction prohibited extraction prohibited 3.1.3. Major Groundwater Reservoirs, Zones of Groundwater and Surface Water Intakes 3.1.3. Major Groundwater Reservoirs, Zones of Groundwater and Surface Water Intakes Groundwaters are protected by documenting major groundwater reservoirs (Fur- Groundwaters are protected by documenting major groundwater reservoirs (Further: ther: MGRs). MGRs are water-rich geological structures which constitute strategic MGRs). MGRs are water-rich geological structures which constitute strategic groundwater resour groundw ces forasupplying ter resources the population for supplying the popu and basic sectors of l the atieconomy on and ba (Figur sic esect 8). Pr ors of ohi- the economy bitions, orders and restrictions on land use in the protected MGR areas are deﬁned in order (Figure 8). Prohibitions, orders and restrictions on land use in the protected MGR areas to protect these resources against their depletion and quality degradation. Prohibitions are defined in order to protect these resources against their depletion and quality degra- or restrictions on works or activities relate to the aspects which may cause permanent dation. Prohibitions or restrictions on works or activities relate to the aspects which may contamination of soil or water. The prohibitions or restrictions in question are established cause permanent contamination of soil or water. The prohibitions or restrictions in ques- in the form of an act of local law for a given protection area [26]. With the current mining technology, rock mineral exploitation is possible if safety measures are applied and if tion are established in the form of an act of local law for a given protection area [26]. With the environmental impact assessment procedure demonstrates no impact on the MGR. the current mining technology, rock mineral exploitation is possible if safety measures are However, as the protection of water intakes is prioritized, legal acts establishing water applied and if the environmental impact assessment procedure demonstrates no impact intake zones prohibit the extraction of minerals. on the MGR. However, as the protection of water intakes is prioritized, legal acts estab- The analysis of the presence of deposits in the areas of major groundwater reservoirs showed lishingthat wathis ter int fact ake applies zone to s 96 prohibit deposits. thOn e ex the trac other tion o hand, f minera 21 deposits ls. are located in the indirect protection zones of groundwater intakes, and 11 deposits in the indirect protection zones of surface water intakes (Figure 9). The analysis of the formal and legal conditions together with the identiﬁcation of the locations of deposits in the MGR areas and in the protection zones of groundwater and surface water intakes allow a three-level accessibility scale of key raw material deposits (Table 10). Figure 8. Locations of the analyzed deposits in MGR areas and in groundwater and surface water intake protection zones (own study based on [14]). Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23 Figure 7. Number of deposits located in forests under particular protection by forest type. Table 9. Evaluation of the accessibility of key raw material deposits located in areas of forests under particular protection. Accessibility Number of Evaluation Scale Description of the Evaluation Scale Points Zone Deposits I very well accessible deposit deposit located outside the forest protection area 154 3 II well accessible deposit deposit of an area up to 10 ha 14 2 deposit having an area greater than 10 ha, with ad- III accessible deposit 72 1 ditional conditions to be met deposit located within an area of protected forests IV inaccessible deposit 4 0 with mineral extraction prohibited 3.1.3. Major Groundwater Reservoirs, Zones of Groundwater and Surface Water Intakes Groundwaters are protected by documenting major groundwater reservoirs (Fur- ther: MGRs). MGRs are water-rich geological structures which constitute strategic groundwater resources for supplying the population and basic sectors of the economy (Figure 8). Prohibitions, orders and restrictions on land use in the protected MGR areas are defined in order to protect these resources against their depletion and quality degra- dation. Prohibitions or restrictions on works or activities relate to the aspects which may cause permanent contamination of soil or water. The prohibitions or restrictions in ques- tion are established in the form of an act of local law for a given protection area [26]. With the current mining technology, rock mineral exploitation is possible if safety measures are applied and if the environmental impact assessment procedure demonstrates no impact on the MGR. However, as the protection of water intakes is prioritized, legal acts estab- Resources 2021, 10, 6 14 of 23 lishing water intake zones prohibit the extraction of minerals. Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23 The analysis of the presence of deposits in the areas of major groundwater reservoirs showed that this fact applies to 96 deposits. On the other hand, 21 deposits are located in Figure the in 8.direc Locations t prof otec thetion analyzed zondeposits es of groundwater in in MGR areas and in tagr kes oundwater , and 11 and dep surface osits in water the indirect pro- Figure 8. Locations of the analyzed deposits in MGR areas and in groundwater and surface water intake protection zones (own study based on [14]). tection zones of surface water intakes (Figure 9). intake protection zones (own study based on [14]). Figure 9. Number deposits located in MGR areas and in groundwater and surface water intake Figure 9. Number deposits located in MGR areas and in groundwater and surface water intake pr protection zon otection zones. es. Table 10. Evaluation of the accessibility of key raw material deposits located in the areas of major groundwater reservoirs The analysis of the formal and legal conditions together with the identification of the and in the indirect protection zones of groundwater and surface water intakes. locations of deposits in the MGR areas and in the protection zones of groundwater and Accessibility Number of surface water intakes allow a three-level accessibility scale of key raw material deposits Evaluation Scale Description ofthe Evaluation Scale Points Zone Deposits (Table 10). deposit located outside the MGR I very well accessible deposit protection area and outside water 125 3 Table 10. Evaluation of the accessibility of key raw material deposits located in the areas of major groundwater reservoirs protection zones and in the indirect protection zones of groundwater and surface water intakes. deposit located within the MGR II well accessible deposit protection area and outside water 87 2 Accessibility Description of Number of De- Evaluation Scale Points protection zones Zone the Evaluation Scale posits deposit located within the water intake IV very we inaccessible ll accessib deposit le deposit located outside the MGR protection are 32a and 0 protection zone I 125 3 deposit outside water protection zones well accessible de- deposit located within the MGR protection area and out- II 87 2 posit side water protection zones IV inaccessible deposit deposit located within the water intake protection zone 32 0 3.1.4. Surface Waters The analysis of surface waters included the presence of flowing (rivers and streams) and stagnant (reservoirs) water resources on the surface of documented key raw material deposits. The research demonstrated that no surface water reservoirs are present in the areas of the analyzed deposits (Figure 10). However, in 17 cases, flowing waters were identified on the surfaces of the analyzed deposits. The presence of surface waters in the documented areas of the analyzed deposits was included in a two-level scale for assessing their accessibility (Table 11). Table 11. Evaluation of the accessibility of key raw material deposits located in the areas of major groundwater reservoirs. Accessibility Number of Evaluation Scale Description of the Evaluation Scale Points Zone Deposits I very well accessible deposit deposit located outside the surface waters area 227 3 IV inaccessible deposit deposit located within the surface waters area 17 0 Resources 2021, 10, 6 15 of 23 3.1.4. Surface Waters The analysis of surface waters included the presence of ﬂowing (rivers and streams) and stagnant (reservoirs) water resources on the surface of documented key raw material deposits. The research demonstrated that no surface water reservoirs are present in the areas of the analyzed deposits (Figure 10). However, in 17 cases, ﬂowing waters were identiﬁed on the surfaces of the analyzed deposits. The presence of surface waters in the Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23 documented areas of the analyzed deposits was included in a two-level scale for assessing their accessibility (Table 11). Figure 10. Locations of the analyzed deposits in the areas of surface waters (own study based on [27]). Figure 10. Locations of the analyzed deposits in the areas of surface waters (own study based on [27]). Table 11. Evaluation of the accessibility of key raw material deposits located in the areas of major groundwater reservoirs. 3.2. Spatial and Social Analysis Accessibility Number of The research on the accessibility of key raw material deposits concerned spatial and Evaluation Scale Description of the Evaluation Scale Points Zone Deposits social aspects: the distance of the documented key raw material deposits from the nearest deposit located outside the surface residential buildings as well as accessibility by road and rail. These factors were examined I very well accessible deposit 227 3 waters area in terms of the impact of noise, the accessibility of road and rail transport, the latter being deposit located within the surface more beneficial for the local community. Road transport causes noise, vibrations, deterio- IV inaccessible deposit 17 0 waters area ration of the technical condition of roads or an increased nuisance for residents, and in the case of rail transport these aspects are not an issue or are much less important. 3.2. Spatial and Social Analysis 3.2.1. Housing Development Areas The research on the accessibility of key raw material deposits concerned spatial and The main factors determining the selection of the type and technology of exploitation social aspects: the distance of the documented key raw material deposits from the nearest are: the type of mined rocks and their physical and mechanical properties, the geological residential buildings as well as accessibility by road and rail. These factors were examined structure of the deposit, the intended use of the mined minerals along with the volume of in terms of the impact of noise, the accessibility of road and rail transport, the latter extraction and environmental conditions. The two main methods that are used for mining being more beneﬁcial for the local community. Road transport causes noise, vibrations, non-metallic rock raw materials are mechanical mining and blasting. Mechanical mining deterioration of the technical condition of roads or an increased nuisance for residents, and is performed with the use of: high-power single-bucket excavators equipped with me- in the case of rail transport these aspects are not an issue or are much less important. chanical or hydraulic rippers, hydraulic hammers, falling balls or other devices. Mining b 3.2.1. y mea Housing ns of blasting is the Development basic method Areas of extracting non-metallic raw materials. It allows relatively cheap production of large amounts of pre-comminuted material. However, this The main factors determining the selection of the type and technology of exploitation method produces scattered rock fragments, as well as air shock waves and seismic waves, are: the type of mined rocks and their physical and mechanical properties, the geological which have a destructive effect on various objects in the vicinity of the mine. Therefore, structure of the deposit, the intended use of the mined minerals along with the volume ensuring safety conditions in the surroundings of blasting operations in the mine becomes of extraction and environmental conditions. The two main methods that are used for essential [28,29]. The site where blasting works are performed should be surrounded by risk zones due to air shock waves, rock scattering and para-seismic vibrations of the rock mass in the manner specified in Annex 4 to the Regulation of the Ministry of Energy of November 9, 2016 on the detailed requirements for the storage and use of blasting materials and equipment in the operations of the mining plant [30]. These risk zones should allow the safety of people and protection of property against the effects of blasting works. The above-mentioned annex was used in this research to define key deposit accessi- bility zones for housing development areas including compact housing estates, public utility buildings, industrial buildings, non-housing and historic buildings (Table 12). After Resources 2021, 10, 6 16 of 23 mining non-metallic rock raw materials are mechanical mining and blasting. Mechanical mining is performed with the use of: high-power single-bucket excavators equipped with mechanical or hydraulic rippers, hydraulic hammers, falling balls or other devices. Mining by means of blasting is the basic method of extracting non-metallic raw materials. It allows relatively cheap production of large amounts of pre-comminuted material. However, this method produces scattered rock fragments, as well as air shock waves and seismic waves, which have a destructive effect on various objects in the vicinity of the mine. Therefore, ensuring safety conditions in the surroundings of blasting operations in the mine becomes essential [28,29]. The site where blasting works are performed should be surrounded by risk zones due to air shock waves, rock scattering and para-seismic vibrations of the rock mass in the manner speciﬁed in Annex 4 to the Regulation of the Ministry of Energy of November 9, 2016 on the detailed requirements for the storage and use of blasting materials and equipment in the operations of the mining plant [30]. These risk zones should allow the safety of people and protection of property against the effects of blasting works. The above-mentioned annex was used in this research to deﬁne key deposit acces- sibility zones for housing development areas including compact housing estates, public utility buildings, industrial buildings, non-housing and historic buildings (Table 12). After outlining the buffer zones, an accessibility analysis was performed, which showed that 209 deposits are located within 1000 m from the built-up areas (Figure 11). Table 12. Evaluation of the accessibility of key deposits located within housing development areas. Accessibility Zone Description of the Number of Evaluation Scale Points Zone Width (m) Evaluation Scale Deposits very well deposits located at a distance over I >1000 35 3 accessible deposit 1000 m from buildings well accessible deposits located at a distance from II 500–1000 62 2 deposit 500 m to 1000 m from buildings deposits located at a distance from Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23 III 200–500 accessible deposit 59 1 200 m to 500 m from buildings deposits located at a distance below IV <200 inaccessible deposit 88 0 200 m from buildings outlining the buffer zones, an accessibility analysis was performed, which showed that 209 deposits are located within 1000 m from the built-up areas (Figure 11). Figure 11. Analysis of the accessibility of key deposits located within housing development areas Figure 11. Analysis of the accessibility of key deposits located within housing development areas (own study based on [27]). (own study based on [27]). Table 12. Evaluation of the accessibility of key deposits located within housing development areas. Number of De- Accessibility Zone Zone Width (m) Evaluation Scale Description of the Evaluation Scale Points posits very well accessible deposits located at a distance over 1000 m I >1000 35 3 deposit from buildings well accessible de- deposits located at a distance from 500 m II 500–1000 62 2 posit to 1000 m from buildings deposits located at a distance from 200 m III 200–500 accessible deposit 59 1 to 500 m from buildings deposits located at a distance below 200 m IV <200 inaccessible deposit 88 0 from buildings 3.2.2. Road and Rail Infrastructure The mined non-metallic raw materials are usually transported by cars using the avail- able road infrastructure and the operational railway infrastructure. Therefore, in this re- search the transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits was evaluated on the basis of access to road and rail infrastructure. The road infrastructure within the re- search area includes national, voivodeship, district and local roads (Figure 12). In total, four zones of transport-related accessibility of the deposits were identified for the road infrastructure and described according to the key from Table 13. This accessibility is char- acterized with parameters developed on the basis of the spatial planning limits for deposit accessibility, as described in the paper by Radwanek-Bąk [31]. Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23 Table 13. Evaluation of transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits—road infrastructure. Accessibility Zone Width Evaluation Number of Description of the Evaluation Scale Points Zone [m] Scale Deposits no road passes through the deposit very well acces- area—construction of an access road is Resources 2021I 1 , 10, 6 0–500 153 3 17 of 23 sible deposit required, deposit located at a distance of 10–500 m from road infrastructure no road passes through the deposit 3.2.2. Road and Rail Infrastructure well accessible area—construction of an access road is II 500–1000 57 2 The mined non-metallic raw materials are usually transported by cars using the deposit required, deposit located at a distance of available road infrastructure and the operational railway infrastructure. Therefore, in this 500–1000 m from road infrastructure research the transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits was evaluated no road passes through the deposit on the basis of access to road and rail infrastructure. The road infrastructure within the accessible de- area—construction of an access road is III >1000 9 1 research area includes national, voivodeship, district and local roads (Figure 12). In total, posit required, deposit located at a distance four zones of transport-related accessibility of the deposits were identiﬁed for the road above 1000 m from road infrastructure infrastructure and described according to the key from Table 13. This accessibility is deposit located at a distance of 10 m from inaccessible de- characterized with parameters developed on the basis of the spatial planning limits for IV 0–10 road infrastructure, road passes through 25 0 posit deposit accessibility, as described in the paper by Radwanek-Bak ˛ [31]. the deposit area Figure 12. Analysis of transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits—road infra- Figure 12. Analysis of transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits—road infrastruc- structure (own study based on [27]). ture (own study based on [27]). In the case of railway infrastructure, the following types of railway tracks were iden- Table 13. Evaluation of transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits—road infrastructure. tified in the research area: standard running tracks, station running tracks and siding tracks (Figure 13). This step was followed with an analysis of the accessibility of deposits Accessibility Zone Description of the Number of in zones des Evaluation ignated aro Scale und the railway infrastructure (Table 14). Points Zone Width [m] Evaluation Scale Deposits no road passes through the deposit area—construction of an access very well I 10–500 road is required, deposit located at 153 3 accessible deposit a distance of 10–500 m from road infrastructure no road passes through the deposit area—construction of an access well accessible II 500–1000 road is required, deposit located at 57 2 deposit a distance of 500–1000 m from road infrastructure no road passes through the deposit area—construction of an access III >1000 accessible deposit road is required, deposit located at 9 1 a distance above 1000 m from road infrastructure deposit located at a distance of 10 IV 0–10 inaccessible deposit m from road infrastructure, road 25 0 passes through the deposit area Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23 Table 14. Evaluation of transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits—railway infrastructure. Accessibility Zone Width Evaluation Number of Description of the Evaluation Scale Points Zone (m) Scale Deposits no railway line passes through the deposit very well acces- area—construction of an access track (sid- I 10–500 23 3 sible deposit ing) required; deposit located at a distance of 10–500 m from a railway line construction of an access track required; de- well accessible II 500–1000 posit located at a distance of 500–1000 m 28 2 deposit from a railway line construction of an access track required; de- Resources 2021, 10, 6 accessible de- 18 of 23 III >1000 posit located at a distance of above 1000 m 191 1 posit from a railway line In the case of railway infrastructure, the following types of railway tracks were deposit located at a distance of 10 m from a inaccessible de- identiﬁed in the research area: standard running tracks, station running tracks and siding IV 0–10 railway line, a railway line passes through 2 0 tracks (Figure 13). This step was followed with an analysis of the accessibility of deposits posit the deposit area in zones designated around the railway infrastructure (Table 14). Figure 13. Analysis of transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits—railway infra- Figure 13. Analysis of transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits—railway infras- stru tructur ctu er(own e (own study stu based dy based on [27 on ]). [27]). Table 14. Evaluation of transport-related accessibility of key raw material deposits—railway infrastructure. 3.3. Evaluation of the Environmental and Social Accessibility of Key Deposits Accessibility Zone Description of the Number of After preparing an inventory list of environmental and social elements located in the Evaluation Scale Points Zone Width (m) Evaluation Scale Deposits selected research area, an evaluation was made of the accessibility of non-metallic raw no railway line passes through the material deposits explored in detail and classified as key raw materials in the environ- deposit area—construction of an mental and social aspect. The evaluation was performed on the basis of seven variables very well I 10–500 access track (siding) required; 23 3 accessible deposit influencing the accessibility of the deposit: forms of nature protection, forests with pro- deposit located at a distance of tective functions, indirect protection zones of groundwater and surface water intakes, ma- 10–500 m from a railway line jor groundwater reservoirs, surface water reservoirs, rivers, streams and canals, buildings construction of an access track well accessible required; deposit located at a and road rail infrastructure. The impact of these variables on the analyzed deposits was II 500–1000 28 2 deposit distance of 500–1000 m from a identified according to the accessibility scale presented in Table 1. In the next step, an railway line evaluation matrix was developed for the analyzed deposits (244 deposits), and filled with construction of an access track the evaluation results obtained for the above-mentioned variables. Table 15 presents frag- required; deposit located at a III >1000 accessible deposit 191 1 ments of result matrix. distance of above 1000 m from a railway line deposit located at a distance of 10 IV 0–10 inaccessible deposit m from a railway line, a railway 2 0 line passes through the deposit area Resources 2021, 10, 6 19 of 23 3.3. Evaluation of the Environmental and Social Accessibility of Key Deposits After preparing an inventory list of environmental and social elements located in the selected research area, an evaluation was made of the accessibility of non-metallic raw ma- terial deposits explored in detail and classiﬁed as key raw materials in the environmental and social aspect. The evaluation was performed on the basis of seven variables inﬂuencing the accessibility of the deposit: forms of nature protection, forests with protective functions, indirect protection zones of groundwater and surface water intakes, major groundwater reservoirs, surface water reservoirs, rivers, streams and canals, buildings and road rail infrastructure. The impact of these variables on the analyzed deposits was identiﬁed Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23 according to the accessibility scale presented in Table 1. In the next step, an evaluation matrix was developed for the analyzed deposits (244 deposits), and ﬁlled with the evalua- tion results obtained for the above-mentioned variables. Table 15 presents fragments of Table 15. Fragment of the matrix filled with variables. result matrix. MGRs, Housing De- Protective Surface Road Infrastruc- Rail Infra- Accessibility Name of the Environmental IPforGWI, velopment Table 15. Fragment of the matrix ﬁlled with variables. No. Forests Waters ture structure of Key Depos- Deposit P1 IPforSWI Areas P2 P4 P6 P7 its MGRs, P3 Housing P5 Protective Surface Road Rail Accessibility Name of the Environmental IPforGWI, Development Kamień–Od- No. Forests Waters Infrastructure Infrastructure of Key Deposit P1 IPforSWI Areas 1 0 3 3 3 0 3 1 IV P2 P4 P6 P7 Deposits wozy P3 P5 Nida–Lu- 1 Kamien–Odwozy ´ 0 3 3 3 0 3 1 IV 2 2 1 3 3 0 3 3 IV rowizna 2 Nida–Lurowizna 2 1 3 3 0 3 3 IV 3 Wilkołaz II 3 3 2 3 0 3 2 IV 3 Wilkołaz II 3 3 2 3 0 3 2 IV 4 Rejowiec I 3 3 2 3 0 3 3 IV 4 Rejowiec I 3 3 2 3 0 3 3 IV (…) ( . . . ) Żerkowice– 244 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 III Skała I 244 Zerkowice–Skała I 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 III Complete calculations of deposit accessibility were performed in two variants. In the Complete calculations of deposit accessibility were performed in two variants. In the first first variant, all of the assumed variables were used. This variant provided the following variant, all of the assumed variables were used. This variant provided the following results: results: deposit accessibility scale I (very well accessible)—0 deposits • deposit accessibility scale I (very well accessible)—0 deposits deposit accessibility scale II (well accessible)—5 deposits • deposit accessibility scale II (well accessible)—5 deposits deposit accessibility scale III (accessible)—93 deposits • deposit accessibility scale III (accessible)—93 deposits deposit accessibility scale IV (inaccessible)—146 deposits. • deposit accessibility scale IV (inaccessible)—146 deposits. Figure 14 shows the spatial distribution of the results. Figure 14 shows the spatial distribution of the results. (a) (b) Figure 14. Results of the accessibility analysis of non-metallic raw material deposits in the environ- Figure 14. Results of the accessibility analysis of non-metallic raw material deposits in the environmental and social aspect mental and social aspect in Poland—variant 1: spatial distribution of the classification result (a) and in Poland—variant 1: spatial distribution of the classiﬁcation result (a) and the percentage of the classiﬁcation result (b). the percentage of the classification result (b). In the second variant of deposit accessibility evaluation, the railway infrastructure In the second variant of deposit accessibility evaluation, the railway infrastructure was not assessed. The railway infrastructure in the vicinity of the deposit was assumed was not assessed. The railway infrastructure in the vicinity of the deposit was assumed not to be a decisive factor for its accessibility, as in most cases (90%) non-metallic raw materials are transported with the use of road vehicles [32]. As a result, the second variant was performed for six variables. The results in this variant were as follows: 145 deposits were classified as inaccessible, 68 deposits—as accessible deposits, 28 deposits—as well accessible deposits, and 3 deposits—as very well accessible deposits. Figure 15 shows the spatial distribution of the deposits according to the results. Resources 2021, 10, 6 20 of 23 not to be a decisive factor for its accessibility, as in most cases (90%) non-metallic raw materials are transported with the use of road vehicles [32]. As a result, the second variant was performed for six variables. The results in this variant were as follows: 145 deposits were classiﬁed as inaccessible, 68 deposits—as accessible deposits, 28 deposits—as well Resources 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 23 accessible deposits, and 3 deposits—as very well accessible deposits. Figure 15 shows the spatial distribution of the deposits according to the results. (a) (b) Figure 15. Results of the accessibility analysis of non-metallic raw material deposits in the environ- Figure 15. Results of the accessibility analysis of non-metallic raw material deposits in the environmental and social aspect mental and social aspect in Poland—variant 2: spatial distribution of the classification result (a) in Poland—variant 2: spatial distribution of the classiﬁcation result (a) and the percentage of the classiﬁcation result (b). and the percentage of the classification result (b). The following deposits have been classiﬁed as very well accessible: two deposits The following deposits have been classified as very well accessible: two deposits of of road and building stones—Bieganów II (sandstone, resources of 15,245,000 tons) and road and building stones—Bieganów II (sandstone, resources of 15,245,000 tons) and Jor- Jordanów 1 (serpentinite, resources of 17,742,000 tons), and one deposit of vein quartz— danów 1 (serpentinite, resources of 17,742,000 tons), and one deposit of vein quartz— Nowa Kamienica (resources of 113,000 tons). These deposits are located in the Dolnosl ´ askie ˛ Nowa Kamienica (resources of 113,000 tons). These deposits are located in the Dolnośląs- voivodship. kie voivodship. 4. Discussion and Conclusions 4. Discussion and Conclusions The research demonstrated a number of environmental and social constraints limiting the exploitation of these deposits. The above fact applies particularly to the environmental The research demonstrated a number of environmental and social constraints limit- constraints. The analysis showed that approx. 60% of the investigated deposits with total ing the exploitation of these deposits. The above fact applies particularly to the environ- resources of approx. 6300 million tons are inaccessible, both in variant 1 (146 deposits) mental constraints. The analysis showed that approx. 60% of the investigated deposits and in variant 2 (145 deposits). This means that these deposits have no development with total resources of approx. 6300 million tons are inaccessible, both in variant 1 (146 potential, despite their rich resources and despite being essential for the proper functioning deposits) and in variant 2 (145 deposits). This means that these deposits have no develop- of the economy and for satisfying the living needs of people (being thus a group of key ment potential, despite their rich resources and despite being essential for the proper func- raw materials). If the variable of accessibility to railway infrastructure is excluded, the tioning of the economy and for satisfying the living needs of people (being thus a group situation differs for three deposits which are in such cases reclassiﬁed into class I of deposit of key raw materials). If the variable of accessibility to railway infrastructure is excluded, accessibility—very well accessible. Table 16 shows the results obtained for both variants, the situation differs for three deposits which are in such cases reclassified into class I of together with the total resources for each accessibility class. deposit accessibility—very well accessible. Table 16 shows the results obtained for both In conclusion, environmental considerations play a decisive role in evaluations of de- variants, together with the total resources for each accessibility class. posit accessibility and in the vast majority of cases they completely exclude the possibility In conclusion, environmental considerations play a decisive role in evaluations of of mineral extraction. In other cases, obtaining a concession to extract a mineral from a deposit accessibility and in the vast majority of cases they completely exclude the possi- documented deposit depends on the successful completion of the environmental impact bility of mineral extraction. In other cases, obtaining a concession to extract a mineral from assessment procedure followed by issuing a decision on environmental conditions for the a documented deposit depends on the successful completion of the environmental impact project [2–6]. The social constraints (distance from facilities, as well as road and rail infras- assessment procedure followed by issuing a decision on environmental conditions for the tructure) were observed to be of little signiﬁcance in the evaluations of deposit accessibility. project [2–6]. The social constraints (distance from facilities, as well as road and rail infra- The built-up infrastructure is an important element in this group of variables, as it excludes, structure) were observed to be of little significance in the evaluations of deposit accessi- especially in class IV, the possibility of extracting minerals from the analyzed deposits. bility. The built-up infrastructure is an important element in this group of variables, as it excludes, especially in class IV, the possibility of extracting minerals from the analyzed deposits. Resources 2021, 10, 6 21 of 23 Table 16. Evaluation of deposit accessibility for two variants. Variant 1 Variant 2 Deposit Accessibility Number of Resources Number of Resources Class Raw Material Raw Material Deposits (thou. tons) Deposits (thou. tons) very well 2 16,129 dimension and crushed stones, vein quartz I 0 0 accessible deposit 1 102 2 12,719 dimension and crushed stones, 23 105,793 dimension and crushed stones, limestone well accessible 2 76,953 limestone and marls for lime 1 200,832 and marls for cement industry, limestone II deposit 1 102 industry, vein quartz 4 78,294 and marls for lime industry 80 947,627 58 840,435 1 17,443 1 17,443 dimension and crushed stones, 1 86 dimension and crushed stones, dolomites dolomites limestone and marls for 2 200,918 limestone and marls for cement industry, accessible deposit cement industry limestone and III limestone and marls for lime industry, 6 67,481 marls for lime industry, quartzites, quartzites, vein quartz 8 68,822 vein quartz 1 357 1 357 1 179 1 179 93 1,366,377 92 1,364,366 dimension and crushed stones, dimension and crushed stones, dolomites 2 192,299 2 192,299 inaccessible dolomites limestone and marls for limestone and marls for cement industry, 26 3,657,812 26 3,657,812 IV deposit cement industry, limestone and limestone and marls for lime industry, 21 1,074,869 21 1,074,869 marls for lime industry, quartzites quartzites 3 4868 4 4868 Resources 2021, 10, 6 22 of 23 Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.G.-Z. and U.K.; methodology, J.G.-Z. and U.K.; software, J.G.-Z.; validation, U.K.; formal analysis, J.G.-Z.; investigation, U.K. and J.G.-Z.; resources, J.G.-Z. and U.K.; data curation, J.G.-Z.; writing—U.K. and J.G.-Z., original draft preparation, J.G.-Z. and U.K.; writing—review and editing, U.K. and J.G.-Z.; visualization, J.G.-Z.; supervision, U.K.; project administration, J.G.-Z.; funding acquisition, U.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This scientiﬁc work was ﬁnanced within Statute Research Studies order No. RRD_PODST_B AD_EXP8201. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The data cannot be made available due to the confidentiality agreement. Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank institutions listed in the paper for providing essential data. Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest. References 1. Fidrych, E.; Górecki, A.; Hodzynska, ´ M.; Marczak, A.; Pazik, A.; Szewczuk, K.; Tumiłowicz, J. Production of Industrial Products in 2000–2019; Walkowska, K., Ed.; Statistics Poland: Warsaw, Poland, 2020. Available online: https://stat.gov.pl/ (accessed on 23 September 2020). 2. Radwanek-Bak, ˛ B. Mineral deposits accessibility as a priority for mineral resources protection. Part. 2. Raw Mater. Mach. Constr. Ind. 2008, 1, 18–20. 3. Radwanek-Bak, ˛ B.; Sobczyk, W.; Sobczyk, E. 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Accessibility of Selected Key Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits in the Environmental and Social Context in Poland

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DOI: 10.3390/resources10010006
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Accessibility of Selected Key Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits in the Environmental and Social Context in Poland

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Accessibility of Selected Key Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits in the Environmental and Social Context in Poland

Accessibility of Selected Key Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits in the Environmental and Social Context in Poland

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