Access to employment: A comparison of autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical adults’ experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom

Jade Davies; Brett Heasman; Adam Livesey; Amy Walker; Elizabeth Pellicano; Anna Remington

doi:10.1177/13623613221145377

Access to employment: A comparison of autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical adults’ experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom

Davies, Jade; Heasman, Brett; Livesey, Adam; Walker, Amy; Pellicano, Elizabeth; Remington, Anna 2023-01-01 00:00:00 Autistic people face high unemployment rates. One reason for this may be that hiring processes are inaccessible. This study aimed to establish autistic people’s unique experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom, by comparing them to the experiences of non-autistic neurodivergent people and neurotypical people. Using qualitative and quantitative data from 225 autistic, 64 non-autistic neurodivergent and 88 neurotypical adults, we identified a series of (dis)similarities in participants’ views and experiences of recruitment for employment. Similarities across the three groups included (1) frustration with the focus on social skills; (2) a perceived need for more flexible hiring processes; (3) a desire for more clarity and (4) the importance of the environment. Participants also acknowledged the important role employers play in one’s decision to disclose a diagnosis or access need. Yet, autistic people faced a set of unique barriers to successful recruitment, over and above those that non-autistic people faced. For example, the perceived pressure to mask autistic traits to succeed and concerns about stigma and discrimination. Participants’ recommendations for improvements included the use of more practical recruitment strategies (e.g. work trials), more clarity about what to expect, and improvements in recruiters’ understanding of the challenges autistic and neurodivergent candidates may face. Lay abstract Autistic people are less likely to have a job than non-autistic people. One reason for this may be that hiring processes (e.g. job applications, interviews) can be challenging for autistic people. To better understand the experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom, we asked 225 autistic, 64 neurodivergent (but not autistic) and 64 adults with no reported area of neurodivergence questions about their experiences using an online survey. We found a range of similarities and differences in responses. For example, participants in all three groups were frustrated with the focus on social skills in recruitment and said they wanted more practical methods (e.g. work trials) that help them show their skills and abilities. Autistic and otherwise neurodivergent participants discussed the importance of the environment (e.g. the interview/assessment room) in improving experiences. Participants also discussed how employers can impact whether somebody decides to disclose their diagnosis or needs – or not. Autistic people experienced some barriers to successful recruitment that non-autistic people did not. For example, autistic people felt they had to hide their autistic traits to gain employment and many autistic people were worried about being discriminated against if they disclosed that they were autistic during the hiring process. To make experiences better, our participants said that employers should offer candidates different recruitment methods and give them more information about the hiring process. They also said employers should improve their understanding of autism and other hidden disabilities so they know the challenges that people might face during recruitment. Keywords adulthood, autism, employment, recruitment 1 Corresponding author: University College London, UK 2 Jade Davies, Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE), York St John University, UK 3 IOE, UCL’s Faculty of Education and Society, 55-59 Gordon Square, Neurodiversity Works, UK 4 London, WC1H 0NU, UK. Macquarie University, Australia Email: j.davies@ucl.ac.uk 2 Autism 00(0) Employment is important for a person’s well-being (Clark neurotypical people, and identify specific areas in which & Lepinteur, 2019; Paul & Moser, 2009) and economic typical hiring processes could be improved. gain for individuals and broader society. Autistic people Autistic people are likely to face several hurdles during are no different: research shows that employment can posi- the hiring process. First, barriers exist in finding suitable tively impact autistic individuals’ mental health, well- employment opportunities. Indeed, the process of hearing being and quality of life (Mason et al., 2018; Roux et al., about a job and deciding to apply can be – albeit unwit- 2015; Walsh et al., 2014), particularly when employment tingly – biased against autistic people. For example, a is supported (García-Villamisar & Hughes, 2007). large proportion of jobs are secured through existing social Conversely, unemployment and job loss are associated connections (Markel & Elia, 2016). Yet, autistic people with higher depressive symptoms and lower overall qual- tend to have smaller social networks (Orsmond et al., ity of life for autistic people (Renty & Roeyers, 2006; 2004, 2013) and, as such, may struggle finding appropriate Taylor et al., 2021). The specific nature of the relationship employment. Even when jobs are shared widely, many between employment and mental health is unclear – employers repackage existing vacancies using generic job although poorer mental health and life satisfaction in autis- descriptions that prioritise generic ‘baseline skills’ such as tic adults, relative to non-autistic adults, have been shown ‘team-working’ or ‘communication’ skills as opposed to to be at least partially explained by a greater vulnerability ‘specialised skills’ that are specific and relevant to the job to negative life experiences, such as unemployment or role (Hurley-Hanson et al., 2020). This could be problem- malemployment (Griffiths et al., 2019). Securing and atic for autistic people who are likely to interpret language maintaining employment might therefore be one important literally (Walenski et al., 2006) and may therefore not factor in improving mental health outcomes in autistic apply for a job if they feel they do not entirely fulfil the adults. specific criteria set out as required for the role (Nagib & Yet, 80% of autistic people are estimated to be unem- Wilton, 2020; Vincent, 2020). Indeed, many autistic peo- ployed worldwide (Ki-moon, 2015) and unemployment ple face challenges in social communication (American rates in the United Kingdom are higher for autistic people Psychiatric Association, 2013) and may therefore be dis- than other disability groups (Office for National Statistics, couraged from applying for roles that require high levels 2021). This is despite many autistic people being willing of communication skills. This potential reluctance for and able to engage in employment (Hendricks, 2010) and autistic people to apply for roles in which they do not fulfil possessing a range of unique skills and qualities that may all the job criteria is distinct to their non-autistic counter- be of particular value to employers, for example, attention parts who are likely to apply for job roles despite only to detail, reliability and a tolerance for repetition (Austin broadly fulfilling the criteria provided in the job descrip- & Pisano, 2017; Cope & Remington, 2021; Ortiz, 2020; tion (Markel & Elia, 2016). Russell et al., 2019; Scott et al., 2017). Indeed, organisa- Second, autistic people are likely to face additional bar- tions with autistic employees have emphasised the wide riers during the initial written job application. For exam- range of benefits that neurodiversity can bring to employ- ple, autistic people are less likely to be offered work ment. For example, SAP software solutions (a multina- experience opportunities and may experience challenges tional software corporation and prominent employer of in tailoring the experience they do have to the require- neurodivergent people) report a direct link between work- ments of the prospective job role (Baldwin et al., 2014; place diversity and innovation, with innovations from their Graetz, 2010; Vincent, 2020; Wilczynski et al., 2013). As neurodivergent employees contributing to savings of such, autistic candidates may struggle to showcase their approximately US$40 million (Fox, 2020). Similarly, skillset to potential employers. Indeed, evidence from a Hewlett Packard Enterprise reports their neurodivergent recent white paper suggests that the increasing use of arti- employees to be up to 30% more productive than their ficial intelligence in recruitment (e.g. curriculum vitae neurotypical counterparts (Nelson, 2018). screeners) is problematic in this regard as systems are una- Given the meaningful contributions that autistic people ble to account for such individual differences in experi- can make in the workplace, and the gap between the rates ences (Nugent et al., 2020). As a result, autistic candidates of those who want to work and those who are employed, it may be likely to be ‘screened out’ before they are able to is clear that many organisations are missing out on the tal- demonstrate their skills. ent and skills that autistic people can bring to their work- Third, specific barriers pertaining to the employment force. One reason for this disconnect may be that interview exist (e.g. Sarrett, 2017). The employment inter- inaccessible hiring processes (also referred to as recruit- view is one of the most common recruitment devices used ment processes) act as a barrier to autistic people obtaining by organisations (Levashina et al., 2014; Macan, 2009; employment (Vincent, 2020). The current study therefore Wilk & Cappelli, 2003) and successful performance is sought to examine the recruitment experiences of autistic often contingent on a series of interpersonal communica- people, establish to what extent autistic people’s experi- tion skills, such as the effective use of verbal and non-ver- ences differ from those of otherwise neurodivergent, and bal communication, presentation skills and impression Davies et al. 3 management (Bourdage et al., 2020; DeGroot & no research has directly compared the experiences of autis- Motowidlo, 1999; Lorenz et al., 2016; Macan, 2009; Peck tic and non-autistic people during recruitment. It is there- & Levashina, 2017; Van Iddekinge et al., 2007). However, fore not yet clear precisely which challenges are common there is evidence to suggest that autistic people may be across all candidates and which challenges, if any, are spe- more likely to struggle in this regard than non-autistic peo- cific to autistic people. This study aims to address this gap ple, even if they are capable of doing the job in question. by comparing the first-hand perspectives of autistic, non- For example, some autistic people experience challenges autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical (i.e. people with in managing social expectations, understanding and engag- no disclosed area of neurodivergence) adults in the United ing in verbal and non-verbal communication, and respond- Kingdom. We conclude by establishing ways in which ing to interview questions that require an element of organisations can adapt their processes to support autistic impression management (e.g. about one’s weaknesses) people, and the wider workforce, to access employment. (Black et al., 2019; Flower, Hedley et al., 2019; Hendricks, 2010; Sarrett, 2017). Consequently, autistic candidates Method may be more likely than non-autistic candidates to struggle in employment interviews. The current study forms part of a broader body of research Additional barriers related to the employment interview examining autistic adults’ experiences of employment in exist. For example, interviewers often use open questions the United Kingdom, using the Diverse Minds Survey. The to probe about specific personal experiences (e.g. tell me Diverse Minds Survey was developed in collaboration about a time . . .), yet research shows that autistic people with a group of autistic reviewers and was hosted online, can experience difficulties in recalling episodic memories powered by Qualtrics. The survey gathers information (Crane et al., 2009) and memory often declines the more about an individual’s neurodiversity and their employment open-ended task (Gaigg & Bowler, 2018). Indeed, autistic experiences, including optional modules on specific people often report needing additional processing time to aspects of employment, including recruitment and hiring make sense of what is being asked of them (Honeybourne, processes. While efforts were made to make the survey as 2019). Yet, given the time constraints that employment inclusive as possible (e.g. including options to adjust the interviews are often subjected to, this processing time is screen colour and contrast, and using lay-person language unlikely to be accounted for, potentially placing autistic throughout), participants were nevertheless required to people at a disadvantage. Furthermore, evidence suggests complete an in-depth survey involving reflecting on, and that employers, and therefore interviewers, often lack an discussing, their personal experiences. As such, we understanding about autism and the specific challenges acknowledge that the survey likely precluded the involve- that autistic people may face (López & Keenan, 2014). As ment of adults with intellectual disability. such, it is possible that many interviewers are unaware of The Diverse Minds Survey was advertised through (1) the potential adjustments that could be implemented to Autistica’s Discover Network for autistic people interested support autistic candidates during recruitment. It is per- in taking part in research; (2) the research team’s publicly haps therefore unsurprising that employers typically show accessible social media channels and (3) organisations a preference towards employing non-autistic candidates linked to the project that had expressed an interest in over autistic candidates (Ameri et al., 2018; Flower, understanding more about neurodiversity and employ- Dickens & Hedley, 2019). ment. The current study examined participants’ responses Fourth, there are also practical barriers to the hiring to questions regarding experiences of recruitment between process. In the first instance, attending an employment March 2019 and April 2020. interview requires individuals to deviate from their daily routine. Given that autistic people often demonstrate a Participants need for structure and routine and as such experience anxi- ety in unfamiliar settings (e.g. Milton & Sims, 2016), this Participants were all aged above 18 years and had experi- deviation from daily life is likely to create anxiety and ence of hiring processes in the United Kingdom. The sam- uncertainty surrounding the employment interview. ple was originally intended to be divided into two groups: Furthermore, many autistic people experience sensory autistic participants and non-autistic participants. However, sensitivities (Crane & Goddard, 2008; Tavassoli et al., given the number of participants who had identified them- 2014), including sensitivities to certain sights and sounds, selves as neurodivergent (including those who had a for- and without appropriate adjustments, the interview envi- mal or self-diagnosis of a neurodevelopmental condition, ronment can be overwhelming (Vincent, 2020). other than autism, or a mental health condition), we took As highlighted, there are good empirical reasons to the opportunity to examine potential differences between: expect that autistic people are likely to experience a unique (1) autistic participants (including formally diagnosed and set of challenges during the hiring process, over and above self-identified autistic people ), (2) non-autistic neurodi- those that non-autistic people face. Yet, to our knowledge, vergent participants (including those who had a formal or 4 Autism 00(0) self-diagnosis of a neurodivergent condition excluding (p < 0.001). See Table 1 for further demographic informa- autism, or a mental health condition) and (3) neurotypical tion and group comparisons. participants (those without an identified neurodivergence). By April 2020, 241 autistic people, 83 non-autistic neuro- Materials divergent people and 113 neurotypical people had navi- gated to the recruitment survey. Of those, 16 autistic All participants completed the demographics module on (6.6%), 19 non-autistic neurodivergent (22.9%) and 25 the Diverse Minds Survey, including questions regarding neurotypical (22.1%) participants were removed from their gender identity, ethnicity and highest level of educa- analyses as they did not complete at least 50% of the tion. The demographics module also contained questions recruitment-specific questions. In total, 225 autistic, 64 concerning participants’ employment experiences (e.g. cur- non-autistic neurodivergent and 88 neurotypical adults rent employment status, satisfaction with current job role, were included in the final sample. sector of their most recent employer, highest level they had The majority of autistic participants had a formal autism worked at, most recent income and number of past employ- diagnosis (n = 192, 85.3%), with the remainder (n = 33, ers). The participants in the current study also completed a 14.7%) self-identifying as autistic. More than two thirds of module regarding their experiences of recruitment pro- autistic participants (n = 157, 69.8%) also disclosed a men- cesses. This module began by providing the following defi- tal health condition. The most common diagnoses within nition of recruitment: ‘recruitment processes include all the the non-autistic neurodivergent sample included anxiety steps from a job being advertised to being informed about (n = 20, 31.3%), depression (n = 15, 23.4%) and dyslexia the outcome of the final assessment or interview’. (n = 10, 15.6%). Approximately half of the neurodivergent Participants were then asked to select the recruitment tech- (n = 27, 42.2%) and neurotypical participants (n = 48, niques they had experienced from a series of predetermined 54.5%) identified as male, compared to less than 30% of options, such as ‘online test’, ‘psychometric test’ and ‘inter- the autistic participants (n = 64, 28.4%). Across the whole view’, or provide examples of alternative recruitment expe- sample, there was a notable lack of diversity in regard to riences. Participants were also asked to reflect ‘how ethnicity, with the majority of participants in each group positively’ they would rate their experiences of each recruit- being from a white ethnic background (see Table 1). ment technique on a four-point Likert-type scale ranging Similarly, the majority of participants in all three groups from 1 (very negative) to 4 (very positive). Next, partici- were educated to at least a bachelor’s degree level, and pants were asked a closed question regarding whether they approximately one third of the neurotypical sample (n = 29, had been able to provide feedback to employers about their 33.0%) reported being in senior-level employment. recruitment experience. The module ended by asking par- Fisher’s exact tests employing a Bonferroni correction ticipants two open questions probing for information for multiple comparisons were conducted to determine if related to examples of particularly positive and negative there were group differences in participant characteristics. experiences, and how recruitment processes could be There were significantly more females in the autistic group improved (see Supplementary Materials 1 for full survey). (n = 145, 64.46%) than the non-autistic neurodivergent (n = 35, 54.7%; p = 0.006) and neurotypical (n = 40, 45.5%; Procedure p < 0.001) groups. The majority of participants in all three groups were in a form of paid employment, including full- The module regarding recruitment experiences took time employment, part-time employment and self-employ- approximately 10 min to complete. Ethical approval was ment. However, significantly more neurotypical (n = 73, obtained through the Research Ethics Committee at UCL 83.0%; p < 0.001) and non-autistic neurodivergent (n = 48, Institute of Education, Faculty of Education and Society 75.0%; p < 0.001) participants were in full-time employ- (REC1149) and all participants gave informed consent to ment, relative to autistic participants (n = 86, 38.2%). take part prior to participation. Similarly, there were significant group differences in income, with more neurotypical participants’ salary being Data analysis in a higher range than autistic (p < 0.001) and non-autistic neurodivergent (p = 0.003) participants. Non-autistic neuro- Quantitative data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics divergent participants also reported having higher earning (Version 25; IBM Corp, 2017). Chi-square tests of inde- power than autistic participants (p < 0.001). Perhaps relat- pendence and independent t-tests demonstrated that there edly, significantly fewer autistic participants reported being was no significant difference between the quantitative satisfied with their current job role than non-autistic neuro- responses from self-diagnosed and formally diagnosed divergent (p = 0.002) and neurotypical (p < 0.001) partici- autistic participants. As such, responses from all partici- pants, and fewer non-autistic neurodivergent participants pants in the autistic group were considered together. Chi- reported being satisfied than neurotypical participants square tests of independence (or, where relevant, Fisher’s Davies et al. 5 Table 1. Demographic characteristics. Background variables Autistic participants Non-autistic Neurotypical Group comparisons (n = 225) neurodivergent participants participants (n = 64) (n = 88) Gender identity A > ND****, NT* ND = NT Female (including transwoman) 145 (64.4%) 35 (54.7%) 40 (45.5%) Male (including transman) 64 (28.4%) 27 (42.2%) 48 (54.5%) Non-binary 12 (5.3%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Other 4 (1.8%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Prefer not to say 0 (0.0%) 2 (3.1%) 0 (0.0%) Age (years) A = ND = NT 18–25 26 (11.6%) 5 (7.8%) 10 (11.4%) 26–35 51 (22.7%) 23 (35.9%) 23 (26.1%) 36–45 55 (24.4%) 13 (20.3%) 20 (22.7%) 46–55 67 (29.8%) 16 (25.0%) 29 (33.0%) 56–65 24 (10.7%) 6 (9.4%) 4 (4.5%) 66–75 2 (0.9%) 1 (1.6%) 2 (2.3%) Ethnicity A < NT*, ND = A, NT White 161 (71.6%) 56 (87.5%) 78 (88.6%) Black/African/Caribbean/Black British 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.1%) Asian/Asian British 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.6%) 4 (4.5%) British/English/Scottish/United 24 (10.7%) 2 (3.1%) 2 (2.3%) Kingdom Mixed/multiple ethnic groups 10 (4.4%) 1 (1.6%) 1 (1.1%) Eastern European 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) South African 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Ashkenazi Jewish 1 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Latin 1 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Australian 1 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Irish 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Indian 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.1%) Undisclosed 23 (10.2%) 3 (4.7%) 1 (1.1%) Highest level of education A = ND = NT Bachelor’s degree (e.g., Bsc, BA, BEd) 63 (28.0%) 22 (34.4%) 28 (31.8%) Masters degree (e.g., MA, MSc, MEd) 58 (25.8%) 19 (29.7%) 39 (44.3%) Vocational qualification (e.g., BTEC, 23 (10.2%) 5 (7.8%) 1 (1.1%) GNVQ, HND) A/AS level 23 (10.2%) 3 (4.7%) 4 (4.5%) Other postgraduate study (e.g., 18 (8.0%) 4 (6.3%) 6 (6.8%) PGCe, PGDip) Doctorate 16 (7.1%) 3 (4.7%) 5 (5.7%) GCSE’s 12 (5.3%) 4 (6.3%) 3 (3.4%) Foundation degree 6 (2.7%) 3 (4.7%) 0 (0.0%) No formal qualifications 4 (1.8%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Other (e.g. fellowship to professional 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (2.3%) body) Employment status A < ND*, NT*; ND = NT Employed full-time 86 (38.2%) 48 (75.0%) 73 (83.0%) Employed part-time 51 (22.7%) 9 (14.1%) 13 (14.8%) Self-employed 20 (8.9%) 1 (1.6%) 1 (1.1%) Unemployed (looking for work) 19 (8.4%) 2 (3.1%) 0 (0.0%) Unemployed (not looking for work) 16 (7.1%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Student 10 (4.4%) 1 (1.6%) 1 (1.1%) Volunteer 6 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Full-time career 6 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Other 6 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) (Continued) 6 Autism 00(0) Table 1. (Continued) Background variables Autistic participants Non-autistic Neurotypical Group comparisons (n = 225) neurodivergent participants participants (n = 64) (n = 88) Retired 5 (2.2%) 2 (3.1%) 0 (0.0%) Satisfaction with job role A < ND**, NT*; ND < NT* Satisfied 99 (44.0%) 40 (62.5%) 80 (90.9%) Dissatisfied 66 (29.3%) 11 (17.2%) 1 (1.1%) Uncertain 46 (20.4%) 8 (12.5%) 5 (5.7%) Neither satisfied nor unsatisfied 6 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Other 5 (2.2%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) N/A 3 (1.3%) 2 (3.1%) 0 (0.0%) Prefer not to say 0 (0.0%) 3 (4.7%) 1 (1.1%) Number of past employers A > NT*; ND = NT, A None 5 (2.2%) 4 (6.3%) 3 (3.4%) 1–2 22 (9.8%) 13 (20.3%) 27 (30.7%) 2–4 49 (21.8%) 16 (25.0%) 31 (35.2%) 4–6 37 (16.4%) 12 (18.8%) 11 (12.5%) >6 110 (48.9%) 19 (29.7%) 16 (18.2%) Prefer not to say 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Most recent income (£) A < ND*, NT*; ND < NT*** <10,000 45 (20.0%) 6 (9.4%) 0 (0.0%) 10,000–19,999 59 (26.2%) 6 (9.4%) 3 (3.4%) 20,000–29,999 51 (22.7%) 11 (17.2%) 6 (6.8%) 30,000–39,999 27 (12.0%) 13 (20.3%) 24 (27.3%) 40,000–49,999 9 (4.0%) 13 (20.3%) 11 (12.5%) 50,000–59,999 7 (3.1%) 2 (3.1%) 6 (6.8%) 60,000–79,999 7 (3.1%) 7 (10.9%) 12 (13.6%) 80,000–99,999 3 (1.3%) 2 (3.1%) 10 (11.4%) 100,000–149,999 4 (1.8%) 1 (1.6%) 9 (10.2%) >150,000 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.1%) Prefer not to say 13 (5.8%) 3 (4.7%) 6 (6.8%) Highest level worked at A = ND = NT Mid-level employment 94 (41.8%) 32 (50.0%) 39 (44.3%) Entry level/graduate employment 66 (29.3%) 14 (21.9%) 18 (20.5%) Senior-level employment 39 (17.3%) 11 (17.2%) 29 (33.0%) Intern, apprentice or volunteer 14 (6.2%) 4 (6.3%) 1 (1.1%) Other 7 (3.1%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Prefer not to say 5 (2.2%) 2 (3.1%) 1 (1.1%) Sector (top three for each group shown) Education 41 (18.2%) 4 (6.3%) 3 (3.4%) Healthcare 29 (12.9%) 3 (4.7%) 0 (0.0%) Public sector 22 (9.8%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Technology 8 (3.6%) 12 (18.8%) 18 (20.5%) Transport 1 (0.4%) 11 (17.2%) 15 (17.0%) Infrastructure 3 (1.3%) 8 (12.5%) 21 (23.9%) There were no significant differences in the demographic information between formally diagnosed and self-diagnosed autistic participants. A = autistic, ND = neurodivergent, NT = neurotypical. The question concerning ethnicity had a free-text response box. Some participants disclosed their nationality as opposed to their ethnicity. A/AS Levels are qualifications in the United Kingdom, typically taken between 16 and 18 years of age. GCSEs are qualifications in the United Kingdom, typically taken between 14 and 16 years of age. *p < 0.001, **p = 0.002, ***p = 0.003, ****p = 0.006. exact test) were used to compare the distribution of Wallis tests examined group differences on the mean rat- responses to the closed questions between the three groups ings of the recruitment methods. (autistic, non-autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical). Responses to the two open-ended questions were ana- Finally, one-way ANOVAs or, where necessary, Kruskal– lysed using reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, Davies et al. 7 Table 2. Recruitment methods experienced by autistic and non-autistic participants (n = 349). Autistic participants Non-autistic neurodivergent Neurotypical participants Group comparisons (n = 202) participants (n = 61) (n = 86) Interview 199 (98.5%) 61 (100%) 83 (96.5%) A = ND = NT Written questionnaire 124 (61.4%) 30 (49.2%) 31 (36.0%) A > NT*; ND = NT, A Online test 106 (52.5%) 34 (55.7%) 48 (55.8%) A = ND = NT Group task 96 (47.5%) 29 (47.5%) 43 (50.0%) A = ND = NT Psychometric test 85 (42.1%) 32 (52.5%) 55 (64.0%) NT > A*; ND = NT, A Work trial 71 (35.1%) 17 (27.9%) 16 (18.6%) A = ND = NT Skills assessments 21 (10.4%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (3.5%) A = ND = NT Presentation 8 (4.0%) 2 (3.3%) 2 (2.3%) A = ND = NT Role play activities 2 (1.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.2%) A = ND = NT Informal discussion 1 (0.5%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) A = ND = NT Total percentages exceed 100% as the different recruitment methods were not mutually exclusive (i.e. participants could report on all of the recruitment methods they had experienced); *p < 0.001. 2006, 2013, 2019) Data were analysed within a critical methods they had experienced (see Table 2). The inter- realist framework, involving the inductive (bottom-up) view was the most common recruitment method experi- identification of semantic meanings in the data (Braun & enced, with the vast majority of autistic (n = 199, 98.5%) Clarke, 2013). Data analysis was driven by J.D., a researcher and neurotypical participants (n = 83, 96.5%), and all non- with expertise in autism research, who recursively pro- autistic neurodivergent participants (n = 61, 100%), report- ceeded through the stages of data familiarisation, inductive ing that they had taken part in an employment interview. coding, theme development and review. With support from Also common were online tests (52.2% autistic partici- A.R., a senior researcher with expertise in autism research, pants, 55.7% non-autistic neurodivergent participants and J.D. reviewed the results, refining where necessary, to 55.8% neurotypical participants) and group tasks (47.5% establish a final set of comprehensive and distinct themes autistic participants, 47.5% non-autistic neurodivergent and subthemes. All authors, a neurodiverse group consist- participants and 50% neurotypical participants). In open- ing of autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical individu- text responses, participants also offered insight into a als, agreed on the final set of themes. Responses from range of alternative hiring processes that had been experi- autistic participants (including both formally diagnosed enced. These responses were categorised into skills assess- and self-diagnosed) were analysed independently from the ments, presentations, role play activities and informal responses from non-autistic neurodivergent and neurotypi- discussions for the purpose of analysis. cal participants. The broader themes that were developed Chi-square tests of independence using a Bonferroni were inspected to ensure that they were representative of correction for multiple comparisons showed that signifi- both self-diagnosed and formally diagnosed autistic partici- cantly more autistic participants reported experiencing pants’ experiences. written questionnaires than neurotypical participants: χ (1, n = 287) = 14.35, p < 0.001. Significantly, more neurotypi- cal participants reported experiencing psychometric tests Community involvement than autistic participants: χ (1, n = 287) = 12.30, p < 0.001. Two autistic co-authors (A.L. and A.W.) were involved in No other group differences reached significance. the development of the questionnaire, interpreting the findings, providing feedback on drafts of the article and Perceptions of recruitment methods. Despite being the most developing subsequent recommendations for those commonly experienced recruitment method, interviews involved in hiring processes. were not well endorsed by autistic people (M = 2.21, rating SD = 0.78) (see Table 3). Group tasks were also perceived as particularly negative by autistic participants Results (M = 1.60, SD = 0.80). One-way ANOVAs showed sig- rating nificant group differences in the ratings of interviews (F(2, Quantitative results 355) = 45.38, p < 0.001) and group tasks (F(2, 180) = 32.80, Experiences of recruitment methods. In total, 202 autistic p < 0.001). Tukey’s post hoc tests revealed that autistic participants, 61 non-autistic neurodivergent and 86 neuro- participants rated their experience of interviews and group typical participants gave details regarding the recruitment tasks as significantly less positive than neurotypical 8 Autism 00(0) Table 3. Autistic and non-autistic participants’ perceptions of recruitment methods. Non-autistic neurodivergent Group comparisons Autistic participants participants Neurotypical participants No. of Mean score No. of Mean score No. of Mean score a a a respondents (SD) respondents (SD) respondents (SD) Interview 212 2.21 (0.78) 63 2.75 (0.88) 83 3.13 (0.68) A < NT*, ND*; ND < NT** Written questionnaire 124 2.62 (0.84) 34 2.44 (0.75) 31 2.81 (0.75) A = ND = NT Online test 112 2.59 (0.85) 36 2.39 (0.90) 48 2.77 (0.59) A = ND = NT Group task 108 1.60 (0.80) 32 2.53 (0.98) 43 2.67 (0.81) A < NT*, ND* Psychometric test 91 2.13 (0.91) 35 2.29 (0.83) 55 2.96 (0.72) A*, ND* < NT Work trial 78 2.60 (0.98) 21 2.67 (0.97) 16 3.19 (0.66) A = ND = NT Skills assessment 21 2.85 (1.14) 1 4.00 (N/A) 3 3.33 (0.58) A = ND = NT Presentation 8 2.89 (0.93) 2 3.50 (0.71) 2 3.00 (0.00) A = ND = NT Participants rated their perception of each recruitment method on a Likert-type scale from 1 (very negative) to 4 (very positive). Comparisons using Kruskal–Wallis tests, as the assumption for equal variance was violated. *p < 0.001, **p = 0.008. or negative experiences of recruitment, and provide sugges- (p < 0.001) and non-autistic neurodivergent (p < 0.001) tions for how processes could be improved. Most themes participants. Neurotypical participants rated their experi- and subthemes were common to all three groups. As such, ence of interviews as significantly more positive than non- we report the findings across the whole sample. Any differ- autistic neurodivergent participants (p = 0.008). A ences between the three groups are noted in the text and on Kruskal–Wallis test showed a significant group difference the thematic map (see Figure 1). Illustrative quotes are in the ratings of psychometric tests: χ = 29.79, p < 0.001. accompanied by an ID that represents whether the partici- Post hoc Dunn-Bonferroni tests showed that neurotypical pant is autistic (A), non-autistic neurodivergent (ND) or participants rated their experience of psychometric tests as neurotypical (NT). Further supporting quotations can be significantly more positive than autistic (p < 0.001) and found in Supplementary Table 2. non-autistic neurodivergent (p = 0.008) participants. Recruitment methods should exclusively test the required job Providing feedback on recruitment processes. In total, 212 skills. Participants in all three groups noted that traditional autistic participants, 41 non-autistic neurodivergent par- recruitment methods place an unnecessary emphasis on ticipants and 64 neurotypical participants responded to the personality and social skills, as opposed to the skills question ‘has it been possible to provide feedback about required for the prospective job role: ‘I feel that interviews your experiences of recruitment to employers?’ The are only a test of your acting and social skills’ (A-138). majority of autistic (n = 185, 87.3%), non-autistic neurodi- Participants reported finding the social aspects of recruit- vergent (n = 33, 80.4%) and neurotypical participants ment particularly challenging, for example, finding it ‘very (n = 47, 73.4%) reported that they had been unable to pro- difficult to ‘sell myself’ (ND-040) in one-to-one inter- vide feedback to employers about their experiences (see views, or struggling to effectively contribute during group Table 4). A chi-square test of independence indicated an interviews and tasks: ‘[group tasks are] not good when overall significant association between neurotype and abil- you’re autistic, [I] don’t know when to interject, [and I] ity to provide feedback on recruitment experiences: χ (2, take a while to process information. . . that said, I think it’s n = 327) = 7.24, p = 0.027. Post hoc comparisons, adjusted a pretty horrible thing to do if you’re not autistic!’ (A-136). using a Bonferroni correction, showed that significantly Indeed, one neurotypical participant reflected that ‘inter- fewer autistic participants were able to provide feedback views are stressful and anxiety inducing’ (NT-007). In par- on their recruitment experiences, relative to neurotypical ticular, participants were frustrated with the reliance on participants: χ (1, n = 276) = 7.01, p = 0.008. There were no social skills recruitment methodology when social skills significant differences between autistic and non-autistic were not considered (by the candidate) to be an integral neurodivergent (χ (1, n = 263) = 1.61, p = 0.205) or non- part of the prospective job: ‘The recruitment process and autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical (χ (1, methods should reflect the role – if the job won’t include n = 115) = 0.76, p = 0.382) participants’ experiences. time-limited groups exercise with a presentation at the end of it, then why use this in the recruitment process?’ Qualitative results (A-127). Similarly, many autistic and neurodivergent, but not neurotypical, participants commented on the inappro- We identified five themes from the open questions in which priateness of psychometric tests. For example, some participants were asked to comment on particularly positive Davies et al. 9 Table 4. Experiences of providing feedback to employers about their recruitment processes. Autistic participants Non-autistic neurodivergent Neurotypical (n = 212) participants (n = 51) participants (n = 64) No, I have not been able to provide feedback to 185 (87.3%) 41 (80.4%) 47 (73.4%) employers I have not been able to provide feedback 183 (86.3%) 41 (80.4%) 46 (71.9%) I have tried to provide feedback, but I was not listened 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.6%) to Yes, I have been able to provide feedback about 27 (12.7%) 10 (19.6%) 17 (26.6%) my recruitment experiences Yes, I was asked by the employer to provide feedback 8 (3.8%) 7 (13.7%) 13 (20.3%) Yes, but I had to ask the employer if I could provide 12 (5.7%) 2 (3.9%) 4 (6.3%) feedback Yes, I have provided informal feedback 3 (1.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) I have given feedback to a recruitment agency 2 (0.9%) 1 (2.0%) 0 (0.0%) Somebody else has provided feedback on my behalf 1 (0.5%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Bolded items represent the superordinate response category. argued that ‘psychometric tests test social skills not peo- autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical participants high- ples ability to do the job’ (A-162), while others felt they lighted a need for more practical recruitment methods: ‘I ‘measure my personality type’ (A-139) and might be par- would like to see more work trial or work exercise style ticularly biased against autistic people: ‘psychometric tests interviews where people are put in realistic work situations. are perfected specifically to filter out autistic traits’ . . I feel that’s the only way to assess how someone could (A-188). Participants expressed particular frustration that manage the role’ (ND-20). Indeed, those who had experi- such tests would often be used at the beginning of the hir- enced more practical hiring techniques reported more posi- ing process, meaning candidates who found psychometric tive experiences: ‘Work trials are positive interview tests challenging were screened out before they could experiences as I am confident in my abilities to carry out show their potential: work-based tasks, they are less social and more practical so I can show my skills before my personality’ (A-167). I believe the online tests were an unnecessary screening The need for more flexible hiring processes. Participants in process to filter out people without actually looking at your all three groups expressed a need for more flexibility in CV and professional merit . . . only after completing a literacy, hiring processes, and felt that recruitment should be tai- numeracy and psychometric test was I actually able to speak to a real person. (ND-041) lored to each individual’s needs: ‘[We need] more flexible approaches, tailored to individual strengths’ (ND-003). The focus on social skills during recruitment meant that While some participants suggested ‘there should be differ- many autistic candidates felt they had to mask to succeed. ent recruitment processes for people with disabilities’ Indeed, positive experiences of the interview process were (A-181), others highlighted that ‘there can’t be a one size typically reported when individuals were able to mask suc- fits all approach’ (NT-076). Indeed, participants’ individ- cessfully (‘All the positive processes are the one(s) where ual recruitment preferences were nuanced. For example, I successfully masked and got through. Where I outsmarted some participants felt online interviews would be benefi- them’; A-188) or rote learn responses they perceived as cial (‘I would like to see autistic people given the chance desirable: ‘I learned to interview very well because I to do interviews (if they are needed) by remote tech’; learned to predict the type of questions asked. . . I had a A-182) while others found them more challenging: ‘I prepared script. I could put on a perfect performance for recently did an interview over Skype. It was the worst the duration of the interview’ (A-048). Those who felt una- thing imaginable’ (A-008). ble to mask effectively reported struggling to gain Autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical participants employment. felt that training is integral in developing more flexible Linked to their negative experiences of recruitment and inclusive hiring processes: ‘better training/understand- methods that place emphasis on social skills, participants in ing within those involved in recruitment (is needed)’ (NT- all three groups expressed a need for employers to develop 065). Autistic participants expressed a need for an ‘understanding that a traditional interview is not always autism-specific training – on ‘the benefits of autism (to the best way of assessing someone’s competence to do the employers)’ (A-162), ‘how recruitment interviews impact particular job you are recruiting for!’ (NT-011). Relatedly, on autistic applicants’ (A-082) and ‘knowledge and 10 Autism 00(0) Figure 1. Thematic map of participants’ experiences of hiring processes. Davies et al. 11 understanding about autism’ (A-006) more generally. Both experience was a group interview where we had to com- autistic and non-autistic participants felt more holistic plete surprise group tasks. It was very overwhelming and I training on inclusive recruitment was required: ‘better had to leave half way through’ (A-046). As a result, many training/ understanding within those involved in recruit- participants expressed a need for employers to be clear in ment [is required]’ (NT-066). Specific suggestions what candidates should expect from the hiring process: ‘[I included training on ‘disability awareness. . . and the ben- would like] enough information to help reduce the efit of differently abled employees’ (A-034), ‘unconscious “unknowns” (and cognitive load) on interview day: photos bias’ (ND-061) and ‘more inclusive approaches to recruit- of building and interview room; names and photos of inter- ment’ (NT-003). In particular, participants felt employers viewers; length and basic content of interview and tests’ required more ‘education (preferably [delivered] by autis- (A-042). tic people) about the types of adjustments which are help- Second, autistic participants felt interview questions ful’ (A-005), so that they could be proactive in their were often ambiguous and required a level of reading approach to providing adjustments during recruitment: between the lines. For example, some participants spoke of ‘employers should be more proactive with autistic appli- their challenges in ‘understanding the meaning of the cants in offering reasonable adjustments, describing poten- questions asked, and working out what response is wanted’ tial types of adjustment they can apply, and then actually (A-085) and ‘answering “what would you do in situation applying them’ (A-012). X?” type questions [because] I can’t explain how I would The need for tailored processes extended beyond the react unless it actually happens’ (A-075). Suggestions for traditional interview, with participants in all three groups improvements in this regard included providing ‘interview also expressing the need for meaningful feedback follow- questions in advance’ (A-161) and reducing the overall ing unsuccessful recruitment. Indeed, many participants ambiguity of questions: ‘Questions should be to the point reported not hearing back from prospective employers fol- – none of this reading between the lines malarky’ (A-063). lowing their application: ‘You rarely get even a “thanks for taking the time to see us” let alone any form of “we’re Considering the environment. Autistic and non-autistic neu- sorry but we felt that someone else was better for the job”’ rodivergent participants noted the importance of the physi- (A-038) while others received standardised, generic feed- cal environment in reducing anxiety during the hiring back: ‘Where feedback is provided it is generally, “there process. For example, participants reported experiencing were more suitable applicants”. This tells you nothing challenges with the sensory environment involved in about YOUR reasons for not progressing further’ (A-224). recruitment, including interviews that were often per- As such, participants felt it was important to receive tai- ceived to be ‘undertaken in “hostile environment” of bright lored, timely feedback to help them improve. lights, noise, whispering, circulating assessors’ (A-136). Indeed, particular challenges were noted in relation to arti- Pervasive uncertainty and ambiguity. Autistic, neurodiver- ficial lighting, unregulated room temperatures, close prox- gent and neurotypical participants discussed the undue imity to others and the tactile experience of workwear. As levels of uncertainty and ambiguity that pervade in all such, participants felt it was important for employers to aspects of the recruitment process. Indeed, ambiguity was consider these factors and, where possible, make relevant felt to be an issue right from the start of the hiring process adjustments to the sensory environment: ‘[Employers with many participants noting that job specifications often should] offer seating options and make it easy to be par- name vague, generic skills: ‘We need to change role ticular without feeling difficult. Cool room, no bright descriptions. We need to be more realistic about what we lights’ (A-219). Alternatively, suggestions were made for are recruiting a person to do. (i.e. do they really need to be conducting interviews in settings that are familiar, and thus adaptable, able to be a good consultant?)’ (NT-019). As a more comfortable, for candidates: ‘I prefer online inter- result, some autistic participants were not sure they pos- view as this removes environmental stressors allowing me sessed the necessary skills to apply: ‘I find it difficult to to focus on my answers and take my time without appear- look for jobs and to know whether I would be suitable for ing hesitant’ (A-167). the role’ (A-118). This ambiguity and resulting uncertainty Similarly, participants in all three groups emphasised was highlighted in further aspects of the traditional hiring the importance of the social environment during recruit- process and typically fell into two main categories: (1) a ment. Positive experiences in this regard were often when lack of information in advance and (2) the need to read the interviewer made an effort to create positive connec- between the lines. tions with the interviewee. For example, one participant First, on a practical level, participants in all three groups reflected: often felt they were given insufficient information in advance regarding the hiring process. Indeed, examples of The simple act of an interviewer at a much better interview particularly negative experiences often involved unex- placing a jug of water and a glass on a little table next to me pected situations or events during recruitment: ‘My worst helped to calm me. Before the interview started the lead 12 Autism 00(0) interviewer explained that they understood the process could of the career development process (Harper, 2008). As be worrying, that I could ask them to repeat questions any such, the overrepresentation of neurotypical participants at time, that if I wanted a short break that was absolutely fine a senior-level in this study could have influenced our find- . . . I was offered the job but I would have felt good about the ings. Indeed, a higher proportion of our neurotypical par- interview, the panel, and myself even if I had not been offered ticipants reported taking part in psychometric tests during the job. (NT-008) the hiring process than our other groups. It is therefore possible that the more favourable rating of psychometric tests by neurotypical participants reflects a higher famili- The complicated decision around disclosure (of diagnosis or arity with this recruitment technique. Nonetheless, partici- need). For many autistic and otherwise neurodivergent pants in all three groups highlighted the potential positive participants, disclosure (of a diagnosis or access need) ramifications of using more practical recruitment methods was desirable – and, in many cases, was linked to a need that allow candidates to demonstrate their relevant skills for adjustments during the hiring process: ‘Ideally, a pro- and abilities, such as working interviews and skills spective employee feels safe enough to disclose before assessments. recruitment process. This would lead to the recruiting per- Despite highlighting differences in the endorsement of son acommodating the process accordingly’ (A-179). recruitment methods, the comparative approach of this Despite being desirable, some autistic participants high- study also allowed us to identify many commonalities in lighted the risk of discrimination or stigma following dis- the qualitative experiences of recruitment across all three closure: ‘[employers] only use [a diagnosis] as an excuse groups. Importantly, autistic, non-autistic neurodivergent to discriminate against a person and not hire them’ (A-171). and neurotypical participants reported challenges and, to Indeed, many autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical some degree, frustration with the emphasis on social skills participants acknowledged the important role employers in traditional recruitment methods. Instead, our partici- play in the decision to disclose: ‘[opportunities to disclose pants argued that the focus of recruitment should be on the should] be done in a way that reassured the candidate that key skills that are integral for the prospective job role. if they disclose a diagnosis, this absolutely would not While such challenges with the social components of impact whether they were offered the role or not’ (A-202). recruitment have previously been identified as a challenge Suggestions for ways that employers could support candi- for autistic people (e.g. Vincent, 2020), the unique com- dates in their decision to disclose included taking ‘an parative nature of our study allows us to highlight the simi- overtly enabling approach that clearly states how the pro- lar challenges that both non-autistic neurodivergent and cess has been constructed to be inclusive/adaptable’ neurotypical job seekers also face. Indeed, participants in (A-063), ‘more inclusive adverts [to] appeal to a wider this study indicated that adjustments to the hiring process, audience’ (NT-113) and providing a list of adjustments that including a reduced emphasis on social skills, could could be requested during the recruitment process: ‘Better improve the experiences of all candidates. advertising as part of the [hiring] process of the adjust- We also demonstrated other similarities in our autistic, ments available’ (A-189). non-autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical participants’ views and experiences, including (1) the perceived need for more flexible recruitment methods; (2) a desire for Discussion more clarity surrounding the hiring process and what to The aim of the current study was to understand the unique expect and (3) the importance of the social envrionment hiring experiences of autistic candidates in the United during recruitment. Our autistic and neurodivergent par- Kingdom relative to the experiences of non-autistic neuro- ticipants also highlighted the important role employers divergent and neurotypical candidates. Our results indicate play in one’s decision to disclose. The similarities between clear distinctions between how autistic and non-autistic the recruitment experiences of autistic, non-autistic neuro- people endorse workplace recruitment methods. divergent and neurotypical participants in this study high- Specifically, autistic participants in this study reported light the need to be cautious of pathologising autistic having less positive experiences of interviews and group people’s experiences of hiring processes. Indeed, the over- tasks (which favour social interaction) than non-autistic lap in the experiences of autistic and non-autistic people is neurodivergent and neurotypical participants. Similarly, indicative of broader, systemic issues related to traditional autistic and non-autistic neurodivergent participants had hiring processes; changes that seek to mitigate such issues less positive experiences of psychometric tests (which are are therefore likely to benefit many rather than a few. often perceived to be abstracted from the related job Nonetheless, there were a series of considerations and requirements) than neurotypical participants. Research recruitment barriers that were specific to autistic adults in suggests that those in senior-level positions may be offered this study. First, while all participants negatively endorsed psychometric tests more frequently than those in lower- the emphasis of social skills during recruitment, only level positions, both during initial recruitment and as part autistic participants reported that they had to mask their Davies et al. 13 authentic self to successfully gain employment. This may information given to candidates regarding the hiring pro- be reflective of the learnt or natural tendency of neurotypi- cess. Suggestions for improvements, made by our diverse cal individuals to adapt their social performance to specific range of participants, included (1) removing reference to situations (e.g. using a professional language and demean- non-essential skills in job descriptions; (2) making inter- our in an interview). Consequently, non-autistic partici- view questions less ambiguous (cf. Maras et al., 2021) (3) pants may not have discussed their engagement in masking providing clear documentation regarding the tasks that within the survey as it is perceived as a ‘known unwritten candidates will complete, the time the hiring process will social rule’. However, evidence shows that employers do take, and who will be involved and (4) providing clear show a preference towards employing non-autistic over deadlines regarding when candidates will hear the out- autistic candidates (Ameri et al., 2018; Flower, Dickens & come of the hiring process. Indeed, our participants indi- Hedley, 2019) and autistic people often experience stigma- cated that employers should feel confident that making tisation and discrimination in the workplace, related to such adjustments during recruitment could improve the their autistic identity and traits (Johnson & Joshi, 2016; experiences of autistic, non-autistic neurodivergent and Müller et al., 2003). As such, it is possible that the degree neurotypical candidates alike. to which autistic people feel they must mask, and the spe- Third, while participants in all three groups spoke of the cific traits or behaviours they feel they must mask, differs role of the social environment during the hiring process, to that of non-autistic people. That is, it is possible that autistic and non-autistic neurodivergent people also autistic people must engage in a higher degree of masking, reported experiencing unique challenges related to the sen- and must mask more aspects of their identity than non- sory environment during recruitment. This is perhaps autistic people, in an employment context. Yet, research unsurprising given that many autistic people experience demonstrates the detrimental effect masking can have on sensory sensitivities (Crane et al., 2009; Tavassoli et al., autistic individuals’ mental health and well-being (Bradley 2014). Indeed, a recent study in the United Kingdom et al., 2021; Livingston et al., 2019; Pryke-Hobbes et al., involving interviews with 21 autistic young people indi- under review; Raymaker et al., 2020; Tierney et al., 2016). cated that the sensory environment during recruitment and As such, employers must do better to ensure autistic candi- employment can lead to sensory overload and psychologi- dates are not discriminated against during recruitment. cal distress (Vincent, 2020). As such, and in line with the This may include improvements in the education and train- recommendations from participants in this study, employ- ing those involved in recruitment receive surrounding ers should ensure they they have open communication autism specifically, and ‘hidden disabilities’ more gener- with prospective employees about their needs – including ally. Indeed, existing research suggests that those involved sensory needs – and make adjustments where possible. For in recruitment possess inadequate autism understanding example, as suggested by our participants, ensuring that (e.g. López & Keenan, 2014) and both autistic and non- interviews are conducted in naturally lit, quiet rooms with autistic participants in the current study indicated a need regulated temperature and a neutral odour. for improvements in disability and inclusion training Finally, despite reflecting that disclosure of a diagnosis related to the hiring process. Specific suggestions of train- was desirable and may afford appropriate adjustments to ing programmes provided by the participants in this study the hiring process, autistic people had unique concerns included training concerning the benefits of a diverse regarding the potential stigma and discrimination associ- workforce and training on providing adjustments during ated with disclosing their autism diagnosis. This is consist- recruitment. ent with existing literature which suggests that autistic Second, autistic, but not non-autistic neurodivergent or people often experience concerns related to disclosing neurotypical participants, reflected on the challenges they their autism diagnosis to others (e.g. Romualdez, Heasman faced in ‘reading between the lines’ and decoding what et al., 2021; Sarrett, 2017; Vincent, 2020). This concern is employers were asking. Existing literature points towards not unfounded: research suggests that, while disclosure the fact that autistic people can interpret language more has been linked to improved access to employment for literally than non-autistic people (e.g. Walenski et al., some autistic people (Ohl et al., 2017), stigmatisation and 2006) and autistic people often report requiring additional discrimination are not uncommon experiences following processing time to make sense of what is being asked of the disclosure of an autism diagnosis (Romualdez, Walker them (e.g. Honeybourne, 2019). Indeed, this is in line with & Remington, 2021; Thompson-Hodgetts et al., 2020). research that indicates ambiguity in recruitment is a par- Participants in this study highlighted a need for organisa- ticular barrier for autistic people (Markel & Elia, 2016; tions to develop meaningful diversity and inclusion poli- Nagib & Wilton, 2020; Vincent, 2020). Yet, non-autistic cies that harbour a diverse range of talent and make autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical people in the current people and non-autistic neurodivergent people more study also experienced challenges related to ambiguity and broadly, feel comfortable to disclose their diagnosis, uncertainty in recruitment. For example, participants in all should they wish to. For example, having a clear strategy three groups highlighted a need for improved clarity in the for recruiting autistic and neurodivergent people and 14 Autism 00(0) providing a list of adjustments that can be made during the areas of neurodivergence or diagnoses, and instead divided hiring process, should candidates require them. A truly the sample into autistic participants, non-autistic neurodi- inclusive hiring process, however, may not require an indi- vergent participants and neurotypical participants. The vidual to have, or to disclose, a specific diagnosis to access grouping of participants in this way was not intended to a hiring process that supports them. Indeed, neurotypical suggest that being autistic is distinguished from other participants in this study reported experiencing a similar forms of neurodiversity. Nor was it intended to suggest range of challenges to neurodivergent participants. As that neurodivergent people can, or should, be conceptual- such, organisations should endeavour to proactively pro- ised as one homogeneous group. However, by dividing the vide all candidates, regardless of whether they disclose a sample in this way, we were able to highlight the (dis)simi- diagnosis, with adjustments during recruitment. larities between autistic, non-autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical people’s experiences of hiring processes and highlight valuable questions for future research. Limitations A third limitation is that we did not ask participants This research is not without its limitations. First, our sam- whether they had engaged in any form of supported ple may not be representative of the UK population. employment, that is, schemes that typically involve teach- Indeed, most of our participants were well educated, in ing key workplace skills to support people through the hir- full-time paid employment and were of a white ethnic ing process and beyond (García-Villamisar & Hughes, background. As such, this research only represents the 2007). Without knowing whether any of our participants recruitment experiences of a sub-group of the autistic, neu- had received any form of supported employment, it is dif- rodivergent and neurotypical population. The lack of ficult to determine if their perceived recruitment success diversity in regard to ethnicity is particularly notable given could have been due to these supports. In any case, our that individuals from minority ethnic backgrounds often participants highlighted several areas of the traditional hir- face unique barriers concerning recruitment (Cocchiara ing process that could be adjusted to improve the recruit- et al., 2016; Shore et al., 2021; Zschirnt & Ruedin, 2016). ment experiences of a diverse range of individuals across Indeed, this may mean that Black, Asian and ethnic minor- the United Kingdom, regardless of whether they receive ity autistic and otherwise neurodivergent people are multi- employment support. ply disadvantaged in regard to recruitment. Future research Finally, our recruitment methods might have influenced must redress this imbalance by developing meaningful the findings. Some participants were recruited through relationships with minority ethnic communities and purpo- corporate partners that were interested in the DARE pro- sively recruiting autistic people from minority groups. The ject and therefore have an existing interest in autism, level of employment within our autistic group was also employment and making their employment processes notable. While current estimates suggest as few as 22% of more inclusive. As such, it is possible that people in the autistic adults in the United Kingdom are in paid employ- current study might have had more positive experiences of ment (Office for National Statistics, 2021), more than two recruitment than the wider population. However, as our thirds of autistic participants in the current study reported sample were self-selecting, it is also possible that our par- being in full-time, part-time or self-employment. This dif- ticipants may have opted to take part as they had particu- ference is likely to be reflective of the fact that our research larly negative experiences of recruitment. Nonetheless, we concerns employment experiences, which may have dis- were able to highlight a series of meaningful barriers in couraged those who were not employed from participat- recruitment for both autistic and non-autistic people, that ing. It is also important to note that all participants were employers should seek to address. able to complete a somewhat extensive survey regarding their recruitment experiences. As such, our results are Conclusion unlikely to be representative of the recruitment experi- ences of people with intellectual disabilities or people who This study demonstrated the unique recruitment experi- use non-traditional forms of communication. Similarly, the ences of autistic adults in the United Kingdom. While there gender distribution in our autistic sample (more women were qualitative similarities in experiences, autistic people than men), but not in our non-autistic neurodivergent or appeared to face a set of unique barriers to successful neurotypical samples goes against current estimates sug- recruitment, over and above those that non-autistic neuro- gesting a 3:1 male: female ratio in relation to autism diag- divergent and neurotypical people faced. While all partici- nosis (Loomes et al., 2017). Although this is not unusual pants reported being frustrated by the perceived unnecessary for survey-based research like this one (see for example, emphasis on social skills and personality traits in traditional (Arnold et al., 2019; Kapp et al., 2013), it may have influ- hiring processes, only autistic candidates reported that they enced the pattern of findings reported herein. had to mask their authentic self to successfully gain Another potential limitation of the current study is that employment. Similarly, despite the majority of participants we did not seek to explore differences based on specific reporting that disclosure of a diagnosis or access need was Davies et al. 15 4. A small number of participants (n = 12 of 377, 3.2%) com- desirable, autistic participants expressed unique concerns pleted the survey during the initial COVID-19 lockdown, surrounding the potential stigma and discrimination associ- when businesses were forced to shut down and many moved ated with their diagnosis. Employers have a critical role to to remote working and thus hiring processes. In recognition play in reducing such inequalities in recruitment experi- of the impact the lockdown may have had on recruitment ences. By actively offering and implementing adjustments experiences, we analysed the data first with these partici- for all candidates, employers can be confident that they are pants included and second with them excluded, to see if not only supporting their autistic candidates but also that their inclusion had an impact on the findings. There was no the experiences of otherwise neurodivergent and neurotypi- impact of the inclusion of these participants on our overall cal candidates are also likely to improve. Indeed, by devel- findings. oping more inclusive and accessible hiring processes, 5. Given the significant barriers that exist in relation to receiv- organisations can ensure that they see the best version of ing a formal autism diagnosis, we chose not to exclude self-identified autistic people (Lai & Baron-Cohen, 2015). each candidate and do not overlook highly valuable talent. Nevertheless, we ran analyses to examine whether there were any differences in the demographic details between Acknowledgements formally diagnosed autistic participants and those who self- The authors thank all the participants, who contributed to this identified as autistic. There were none. As such, all autistic research, and Autistica for funding the Discover Autism Research participants were considered together. and Employment (DARE) initiative. Research at the Centre for 6. It should be noted that participants were not asked whether Research in Autism and Education (CRAE) is generously sup- they had wanted to give feedback, only whether they had ported by Pears Foundation. been given the opportunity to do so. Declaration of conflicting interests References The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect Ameri, M., Schur, L., Adya, M., Bentley, F. S., McKay, P., & to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article. Kruse, D. (2018). The disability employment puzzle: A field experiment on employer hiring behavior. ILR Review, 71(2), Funding 329–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793917717474 American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statis- The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support tical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Arnold, S., Foley, K. R., Hwang, Y. I. J., Richdale, A. L., The present study was funded by an Autistica research grant Uljarevic, M., Lawson, L. P., Cai, R. Y., Falkmer, T., (REF: 7263) to AR and BH (https://www.autistica.org.uk/). Falkmer, M., Lennox, N. G., Urbanowicz, A., & Trollor, J. Research at the UCL Centre for Research in Autism and (2019). Cohort profile: The Australian longitudinal study of Education is supported by Pears Foundation (https://pearsfoun- adults with autism (ALSAA). BMJ Open, 9(12), e030798. dation.org.uk/). The funders had no role in study design, data col- https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-030798 lection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the Austin, R. D., & Pisano, G. P. (2017). Neurodiversity as a com- manuscript. petitive advantage. 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Copyright: © The Author(s) 2023
ISSN: 1362-3613
eISSN: 1461-7005
DOI: 10.1177/13623613221145377
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Abstract

Autistic people face high unemployment rates. One reason for this may be that hiring processes are inaccessible. This study aimed to establish autistic people’s unique experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom, by comparing them to the experiences of non-autistic neurodivergent people and neurotypical people. Using qualitative and quantitative data from 225 autistic, 64 non-autistic neurodivergent and 88 neurotypical adults, we identified a series of (dis)similarities in participants’ views and experiences of recruitment for employment. Similarities across the three groups included (1) frustration with the focus on social skills; (2) a perceived need for more flexible hiring processes; (3) a desire for more clarity and (4) the importance of the environment. Participants also acknowledged the important role employers play in one’s decision to disclose a diagnosis or access need. Yet, autistic people faced a set of unique barriers to successful recruitment, over and above those that non-autistic people faced. For example, the perceived pressure to mask autistic traits to succeed and concerns about stigma and discrimination. Participants’ recommendations for improvements included the use of more practical recruitment strategies (e.g. work trials), more clarity about what to expect, and improvements in recruiters’ understanding of the challenges autistic and neurodivergent candidates may face. Lay abstract Autistic people are less likely to have a job than non-autistic people. One reason for this may be that hiring processes (e.g. job applications, interviews) can be challenging for autistic people. To better understand the experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom, we asked 225 autistic, 64 neurodivergent (but not autistic) and 64 adults with no reported area of neurodivergence questions about their experiences using an online survey. We found a range of similarities and differences in responses. For example, participants in all three groups were frustrated with the focus on social skills in recruitment and said they wanted more practical methods (e.g. work trials) that help them show their skills and abilities. Autistic and otherwise neurodivergent participants discussed the importance of the environment (e.g. the interview/assessment room) in improving experiences. Participants also discussed how employers can impact whether somebody decides to disclose their diagnosis or needs – or not. Autistic people experienced some barriers to successful recruitment that non-autistic people did not. For example, autistic people felt they had to hide their autistic traits to gain employment and many autistic people were worried about being discriminated against if they disclosed that they were autistic during the hiring process. To make experiences better, our participants said that employers should offer candidates different recruitment methods and give them more information about the hiring process. They also said employers should improve their understanding of autism and other hidden disabilities so they know the challenges that people might face during recruitment. Keywords adulthood, autism, employment, recruitment 1 Corresponding author: University College London, UK 2 Jade Davies, Centre for Research in Autism and Education (CRAE), York St John University, UK 3 IOE, UCL’s Faculty of Education and Society, 55-59 Gordon Square, Neurodiversity Works, UK 4 London, WC1H 0NU, UK. Macquarie University, Australia Email: j.davies@ucl.ac.uk 2 Autism 00(0) Employment is important for a person’s well-being (Clark neurotypical people, and identify specific areas in which & Lepinteur, 2019; Paul & Moser, 2009) and economic typical hiring processes could be improved. gain for individuals and broader society. Autistic people Autistic people are likely to face several hurdles during are no different: research shows that employment can posi- the hiring process. First, barriers exist in finding suitable tively impact autistic individuals’ mental health, well- employment opportunities. Indeed, the process of hearing being and quality of life (Mason et al., 2018; Roux et al., about a job and deciding to apply can be – albeit unwit- 2015; Walsh et al., 2014), particularly when employment tingly – biased against autistic people. For example, a is supported (García-Villamisar & Hughes, 2007). large proportion of jobs are secured through existing social Conversely, unemployment and job loss are associated connections (Markel & Elia, 2016). Yet, autistic people with higher depressive symptoms and lower overall qual- tend to have smaller social networks (Orsmond et al., ity of life for autistic people (Renty & Roeyers, 2006; 2004, 2013) and, as such, may struggle finding appropriate Taylor et al., 2021). The specific nature of the relationship employment. Even when jobs are shared widely, many between employment and mental health is unclear – employers repackage existing vacancies using generic job although poorer mental health and life satisfaction in autis- descriptions that prioritise generic ‘baseline skills’ such as tic adults, relative to non-autistic adults, have been shown ‘team-working’ or ‘communication’ skills as opposed to to be at least partially explained by a greater vulnerability ‘specialised skills’ that are specific and relevant to the job to negative life experiences, such as unemployment or role (Hurley-Hanson et al., 2020). This could be problem- malemployment (Griffiths et al., 2019). Securing and atic for autistic people who are likely to interpret language maintaining employment might therefore be one important literally (Walenski et al., 2006) and may therefore not factor in improving mental health outcomes in autistic apply for a job if they feel they do not entirely fulfil the adults. specific criteria set out as required for the role (Nagib & Yet, 80% of autistic people are estimated to be unem- Wilton, 2020; Vincent, 2020). Indeed, many autistic peo- ployed worldwide (Ki-moon, 2015) and unemployment ple face challenges in social communication (American rates in the United Kingdom are higher for autistic people Psychiatric Association, 2013) and may therefore be dis- than other disability groups (Office for National Statistics, couraged from applying for roles that require high levels 2021). This is despite many autistic people being willing of communication skills. This potential reluctance for and able to engage in employment (Hendricks, 2010) and autistic people to apply for roles in which they do not fulfil possessing a range of unique skills and qualities that may all the job criteria is distinct to their non-autistic counter- be of particular value to employers, for example, attention parts who are likely to apply for job roles despite only to detail, reliability and a tolerance for repetition (Austin broadly fulfilling the criteria provided in the job descrip- & Pisano, 2017; Cope & Remington, 2021; Ortiz, 2020; tion (Markel & Elia, 2016). Russell et al., 2019; Scott et al., 2017). Indeed, organisa- Second, autistic people are likely to face additional bar- tions with autistic employees have emphasised the wide riers during the initial written job application. For exam- range of benefits that neurodiversity can bring to employ- ple, autistic people are less likely to be offered work ment. For example, SAP software solutions (a multina- experience opportunities and may experience challenges tional software corporation and prominent employer of in tailoring the experience they do have to the require- neurodivergent people) report a direct link between work- ments of the prospective job role (Baldwin et al., 2014; place diversity and innovation, with innovations from their Graetz, 2010; Vincent, 2020; Wilczynski et al., 2013). As neurodivergent employees contributing to savings of such, autistic candidates may struggle to showcase their approximately US$40 million (Fox, 2020). Similarly, skillset to potential employers. Indeed, evidence from a Hewlett Packard Enterprise reports their neurodivergent recent white paper suggests that the increasing use of arti- employees to be up to 30% more productive than their ficial intelligence in recruitment (e.g. curriculum vitae neurotypical counterparts (Nelson, 2018). screeners) is problematic in this regard as systems are una- Given the meaningful contributions that autistic people ble to account for such individual differences in experi- can make in the workplace, and the gap between the rates ences (Nugent et al., 2020). As a result, autistic candidates of those who want to work and those who are employed, it may be likely to be ‘screened out’ before they are able to is clear that many organisations are missing out on the tal- demonstrate their skills. ent and skills that autistic people can bring to their work- Third, specific barriers pertaining to the employment force. One reason for this disconnect may be that interview exist (e.g. Sarrett, 2017). The employment inter- inaccessible hiring processes (also referred to as recruit- view is one of the most common recruitment devices used ment processes) act as a barrier to autistic people obtaining by organisations (Levashina et al., 2014; Macan, 2009; employment (Vincent, 2020). The current study therefore Wilk & Cappelli, 2003) and successful performance is sought to examine the recruitment experiences of autistic often contingent on a series of interpersonal communica- people, establish to what extent autistic people’s experi- tion skills, such as the effective use of verbal and non-ver- ences differ from those of otherwise neurodivergent, and bal communication, presentation skills and impression Davies et al. 3 management (Bourdage et al., 2020; DeGroot & no research has directly compared the experiences of autis- Motowidlo, 1999; Lorenz et al., 2016; Macan, 2009; Peck tic and non-autistic people during recruitment. It is there- & Levashina, 2017; Van Iddekinge et al., 2007). However, fore not yet clear precisely which challenges are common there is evidence to suggest that autistic people may be across all candidates and which challenges, if any, are spe- more likely to struggle in this regard than non-autistic peo- cific to autistic people. This study aims to address this gap ple, even if they are capable of doing the job in question. by comparing the first-hand perspectives of autistic, non- For example, some autistic people experience challenges autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical (i.e. people with in managing social expectations, understanding and engag- no disclosed area of neurodivergence) adults in the United ing in verbal and non-verbal communication, and respond- Kingdom. We conclude by establishing ways in which ing to interview questions that require an element of organisations can adapt their processes to support autistic impression management (e.g. about one’s weaknesses) people, and the wider workforce, to access employment. (Black et al., 2019; Flower, Hedley et al., 2019; Hendricks, 2010; Sarrett, 2017). Consequently, autistic candidates Method may be more likely than non-autistic candidates to struggle in employment interviews. The current study forms part of a broader body of research Additional barriers related to the employment interview examining autistic adults’ experiences of employment in exist. For example, interviewers often use open questions the United Kingdom, using the Diverse Minds Survey. The to probe about specific personal experiences (e.g. tell me Diverse Minds Survey was developed in collaboration about a time . . .), yet research shows that autistic people with a group of autistic reviewers and was hosted online, can experience difficulties in recalling episodic memories powered by Qualtrics. The survey gathers information (Crane et al., 2009) and memory often declines the more about an individual’s neurodiversity and their employment open-ended task (Gaigg & Bowler, 2018). Indeed, autistic experiences, including optional modules on specific people often report needing additional processing time to aspects of employment, including recruitment and hiring make sense of what is being asked of them (Honeybourne, processes. While efforts were made to make the survey as 2019). Yet, given the time constraints that employment inclusive as possible (e.g. including options to adjust the interviews are often subjected to, this processing time is screen colour and contrast, and using lay-person language unlikely to be accounted for, potentially placing autistic throughout), participants were nevertheless required to people at a disadvantage. Furthermore, evidence suggests complete an in-depth survey involving reflecting on, and that employers, and therefore interviewers, often lack an discussing, their personal experiences. As such, we understanding about autism and the specific challenges acknowledge that the survey likely precluded the involve- that autistic people may face (López & Keenan, 2014). As ment of adults with intellectual disability. such, it is possible that many interviewers are unaware of The Diverse Minds Survey was advertised through (1) the potential adjustments that could be implemented to Autistica’s Discover Network for autistic people interested support autistic candidates during recruitment. It is per- in taking part in research; (2) the research team’s publicly haps therefore unsurprising that employers typically show accessible social media channels and (3) organisations a preference towards employing non-autistic candidates linked to the project that had expressed an interest in over autistic candidates (Ameri et al., 2018; Flower, understanding more about neurodiversity and employ- Dickens & Hedley, 2019). ment. The current study examined participants’ responses Fourth, there are also practical barriers to the hiring to questions regarding experiences of recruitment between process. In the first instance, attending an employment March 2019 and April 2020. interview requires individuals to deviate from their daily routine. Given that autistic people often demonstrate a Participants need for structure and routine and as such experience anxi- ety in unfamiliar settings (e.g. Milton & Sims, 2016), this Participants were all aged above 18 years and had experi- deviation from daily life is likely to create anxiety and ence of hiring processes in the United Kingdom. The sam- uncertainty surrounding the employment interview. ple was originally intended to be divided into two groups: Furthermore, many autistic people experience sensory autistic participants and non-autistic participants. However, sensitivities (Crane & Goddard, 2008; Tavassoli et al., given the number of participants who had identified them- 2014), including sensitivities to certain sights and sounds, selves as neurodivergent (including those who had a for- and without appropriate adjustments, the interview envi- mal or self-diagnosis of a neurodevelopmental condition, ronment can be overwhelming (Vincent, 2020). other than autism, or a mental health condition), we took As highlighted, there are good empirical reasons to the opportunity to examine potential differences between: expect that autistic people are likely to experience a unique (1) autistic participants (including formally diagnosed and set of challenges during the hiring process, over and above self-identified autistic people ), (2) non-autistic neurodi- those that non-autistic people face. Yet, to our knowledge, vergent participants (including those who had a formal or 4 Autism 00(0) self-diagnosis of a neurodivergent condition excluding (p < 0.001). See Table 1 for further demographic informa- autism, or a mental health condition) and (3) neurotypical tion and group comparisons. participants (those without an identified neurodivergence). By April 2020, 241 autistic people, 83 non-autistic neuro- Materials divergent people and 113 neurotypical people had navi- gated to the recruitment survey. Of those, 16 autistic All participants completed the demographics module on (6.6%), 19 non-autistic neurodivergent (22.9%) and 25 the Diverse Minds Survey, including questions regarding neurotypical (22.1%) participants were removed from their gender identity, ethnicity and highest level of educa- analyses as they did not complete at least 50% of the tion. The demographics module also contained questions recruitment-specific questions. In total, 225 autistic, 64 concerning participants’ employment experiences (e.g. cur- non-autistic neurodivergent and 88 neurotypical adults rent employment status, satisfaction with current job role, were included in the final sample. sector of their most recent employer, highest level they had The majority of autistic participants had a formal autism worked at, most recent income and number of past employ- diagnosis (n = 192, 85.3%), with the remainder (n = 33, ers). The participants in the current study also completed a 14.7%) self-identifying as autistic. More than two thirds of module regarding their experiences of recruitment pro- autistic participants (n = 157, 69.8%) also disclosed a men- cesses. This module began by providing the following defi- tal health condition. The most common diagnoses within nition of recruitment: ‘recruitment processes include all the the non-autistic neurodivergent sample included anxiety steps from a job being advertised to being informed about (n = 20, 31.3%), depression (n = 15, 23.4%) and dyslexia the outcome of the final assessment or interview’. (n = 10, 15.6%). Approximately half of the neurodivergent Participants were then asked to select the recruitment tech- (n = 27, 42.2%) and neurotypical participants (n = 48, niques they had experienced from a series of predetermined 54.5%) identified as male, compared to less than 30% of options, such as ‘online test’, ‘psychometric test’ and ‘inter- the autistic participants (n = 64, 28.4%). Across the whole view’, or provide examples of alternative recruitment expe- sample, there was a notable lack of diversity in regard to riences. Participants were also asked to reflect ‘how ethnicity, with the majority of participants in each group positively’ they would rate their experiences of each recruit- being from a white ethnic background (see Table 1). ment technique on a four-point Likert-type scale ranging Similarly, the majority of participants in all three groups from 1 (very negative) to 4 (very positive). Next, partici- were educated to at least a bachelor’s degree level, and pants were asked a closed question regarding whether they approximately one third of the neurotypical sample (n = 29, had been able to provide feedback to employers about their 33.0%) reported being in senior-level employment. recruitment experience. The module ended by asking par- Fisher’s exact tests employing a Bonferroni correction ticipants two open questions probing for information for multiple comparisons were conducted to determine if related to examples of particularly positive and negative there were group differences in participant characteristics. experiences, and how recruitment processes could be There were significantly more females in the autistic group improved (see Supplementary Materials 1 for full survey). (n = 145, 64.46%) than the non-autistic neurodivergent (n = 35, 54.7%; p = 0.006) and neurotypical (n = 40, 45.5%; Procedure p < 0.001) groups. The majority of participants in all three groups were in a form of paid employment, including full- The module regarding recruitment experiences took time employment, part-time employment and self-employ- approximately 10 min to complete. Ethical approval was ment. However, significantly more neurotypical (n = 73, obtained through the Research Ethics Committee at UCL 83.0%; p < 0.001) and non-autistic neurodivergent (n = 48, Institute of Education, Faculty of Education and Society 75.0%; p < 0.001) participants were in full-time employ- (REC1149) and all participants gave informed consent to ment, relative to autistic participants (n = 86, 38.2%). take part prior to participation. Similarly, there were significant group differences in income, with more neurotypical participants’ salary being Data analysis in a higher range than autistic (p < 0.001) and non-autistic neurodivergent (p = 0.003) participants. Non-autistic neuro- Quantitative data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics divergent participants also reported having higher earning (Version 25; IBM Corp, 2017). Chi-square tests of inde- power than autistic participants (p < 0.001). Perhaps relat- pendence and independent t-tests demonstrated that there edly, significantly fewer autistic participants reported being was no significant difference between the quantitative satisfied with their current job role than non-autistic neuro- responses from self-diagnosed and formally diagnosed divergent (p = 0.002) and neurotypical (p < 0.001) partici- autistic participants. As such, responses from all partici- pants, and fewer non-autistic neurodivergent participants pants in the autistic group were considered together. Chi- reported being satisfied than neurotypical participants square tests of independence (or, where relevant, Fisher’s Davies et al. 5 Table 1. Demographic characteristics. Background variables Autistic participants Non-autistic Neurotypical Group comparisons (n = 225) neurodivergent participants participants (n = 64) (n = 88) Gender identity A > ND****, NT* ND = NT Female (including transwoman) 145 (64.4%) 35 (54.7%) 40 (45.5%) Male (including transman) 64 (28.4%) 27 (42.2%) 48 (54.5%) Non-binary 12 (5.3%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Other 4 (1.8%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Prefer not to say 0 (0.0%) 2 (3.1%) 0 (0.0%) Age (years) A = ND = NT 18–25 26 (11.6%) 5 (7.8%) 10 (11.4%) 26–35 51 (22.7%) 23 (35.9%) 23 (26.1%) 36–45 55 (24.4%) 13 (20.3%) 20 (22.7%) 46–55 67 (29.8%) 16 (25.0%) 29 (33.0%) 56–65 24 (10.7%) 6 (9.4%) 4 (4.5%) 66–75 2 (0.9%) 1 (1.6%) 2 (2.3%) Ethnicity A < NT*, ND = A, NT White 161 (71.6%) 56 (87.5%) 78 (88.6%) Black/African/Caribbean/Black British 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.1%) Asian/Asian British 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.6%) 4 (4.5%) British/English/Scottish/United 24 (10.7%) 2 (3.1%) 2 (2.3%) Kingdom Mixed/multiple ethnic groups 10 (4.4%) 1 (1.6%) 1 (1.1%) Eastern European 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) South African 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Ashkenazi Jewish 1 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Latin 1 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Australian 1 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Irish 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Indian 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.1%) Undisclosed 23 (10.2%) 3 (4.7%) 1 (1.1%) Highest level of education A = ND = NT Bachelor’s degree (e.g., Bsc, BA, BEd) 63 (28.0%) 22 (34.4%) 28 (31.8%) Masters degree (e.g., MA, MSc, MEd) 58 (25.8%) 19 (29.7%) 39 (44.3%) Vocational qualification (e.g., BTEC, 23 (10.2%) 5 (7.8%) 1 (1.1%) GNVQ, HND) A/AS level 23 (10.2%) 3 (4.7%) 4 (4.5%) Other postgraduate study (e.g., 18 (8.0%) 4 (6.3%) 6 (6.8%) PGCe, PGDip) Doctorate 16 (7.1%) 3 (4.7%) 5 (5.7%) GCSE’s 12 (5.3%) 4 (6.3%) 3 (3.4%) Foundation degree 6 (2.7%) 3 (4.7%) 0 (0.0%) No formal qualifications 4 (1.8%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Other (e.g. fellowship to professional 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (2.3%) body) Employment status A < ND*, NT*; ND = NT Employed full-time 86 (38.2%) 48 (75.0%) 73 (83.0%) Employed part-time 51 (22.7%) 9 (14.1%) 13 (14.8%) Self-employed 20 (8.9%) 1 (1.6%) 1 (1.1%) Unemployed (looking for work) 19 (8.4%) 2 (3.1%) 0 (0.0%) Unemployed (not looking for work) 16 (7.1%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Student 10 (4.4%) 1 (1.6%) 1 (1.1%) Volunteer 6 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Full-time career 6 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Other 6 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) (Continued) 6 Autism 00(0) Table 1. (Continued) Background variables Autistic participants Non-autistic Neurotypical Group comparisons (n = 225) neurodivergent participants participants (n = 64) (n = 88) Retired 5 (2.2%) 2 (3.1%) 0 (0.0%) Satisfaction with job role A < ND**, NT*; ND < NT* Satisfied 99 (44.0%) 40 (62.5%) 80 (90.9%) Dissatisfied 66 (29.3%) 11 (17.2%) 1 (1.1%) Uncertain 46 (20.4%) 8 (12.5%) 5 (5.7%) Neither satisfied nor unsatisfied 6 (2.7%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Other 5 (2.2%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) N/A 3 (1.3%) 2 (3.1%) 0 (0.0%) Prefer not to say 0 (0.0%) 3 (4.7%) 1 (1.1%) Number of past employers A > NT*; ND = NT, A None 5 (2.2%) 4 (6.3%) 3 (3.4%) 1–2 22 (9.8%) 13 (20.3%) 27 (30.7%) 2–4 49 (21.8%) 16 (25.0%) 31 (35.2%) 4–6 37 (16.4%) 12 (18.8%) 11 (12.5%) >6 110 (48.9%) 19 (29.7%) 16 (18.2%) Prefer not to say 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Most recent income (£) A < ND*, NT*; ND < NT*** <10,000 45 (20.0%) 6 (9.4%) 0 (0.0%) 10,000–19,999 59 (26.2%) 6 (9.4%) 3 (3.4%) 20,000–29,999 51 (22.7%) 11 (17.2%) 6 (6.8%) 30,000–39,999 27 (12.0%) 13 (20.3%) 24 (27.3%) 40,000–49,999 9 (4.0%) 13 (20.3%) 11 (12.5%) 50,000–59,999 7 (3.1%) 2 (3.1%) 6 (6.8%) 60,000–79,999 7 (3.1%) 7 (10.9%) 12 (13.6%) 80,000–99,999 3 (1.3%) 2 (3.1%) 10 (11.4%) 100,000–149,999 4 (1.8%) 1 (1.6%) 9 (10.2%) >150,000 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.1%) Prefer not to say 13 (5.8%) 3 (4.7%) 6 (6.8%) Highest level worked at A = ND = NT Mid-level employment 94 (41.8%) 32 (50.0%) 39 (44.3%) Entry level/graduate employment 66 (29.3%) 14 (21.9%) 18 (20.5%) Senior-level employment 39 (17.3%) 11 (17.2%) 29 (33.0%) Intern, apprentice or volunteer 14 (6.2%) 4 (6.3%) 1 (1.1%) Other 7 (3.1%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Prefer not to say 5 (2.2%) 2 (3.1%) 1 (1.1%) Sector (top three for each group shown) Education 41 (18.2%) 4 (6.3%) 3 (3.4%) Healthcare 29 (12.9%) 3 (4.7%) 0 (0.0%) Public sector 22 (9.8%) 1 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) Technology 8 (3.6%) 12 (18.8%) 18 (20.5%) Transport 1 (0.4%) 11 (17.2%) 15 (17.0%) Infrastructure 3 (1.3%) 8 (12.5%) 21 (23.9%) There were no significant differences in the demographic information between formally diagnosed and self-diagnosed autistic participants. A = autistic, ND = neurodivergent, NT = neurotypical. The question concerning ethnicity had a free-text response box. Some participants disclosed their nationality as opposed to their ethnicity. A/AS Levels are qualifications in the United Kingdom, typically taken between 16 and 18 years of age. GCSEs are qualifications in the United Kingdom, typically taken between 14 and 16 years of age. *p < 0.001, **p = 0.002, ***p = 0.003, ****p = 0.006. exact test) were used to compare the distribution of Wallis tests examined group differences on the mean rat- responses to the closed questions between the three groups ings of the recruitment methods. (autistic, non-autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical). Responses to the two open-ended questions were ana- Finally, one-way ANOVAs or, where necessary, Kruskal– lysed using reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, Davies et al. 7 Table 2. Recruitment methods experienced by autistic and non-autistic participants (n = 349). Autistic participants Non-autistic neurodivergent Neurotypical participants Group comparisons (n = 202) participants (n = 61) (n = 86) Interview 199 (98.5%) 61 (100%) 83 (96.5%) A = ND = NT Written questionnaire 124 (61.4%) 30 (49.2%) 31 (36.0%) A > NT*; ND = NT, A Online test 106 (52.5%) 34 (55.7%) 48 (55.8%) A = ND = NT Group task 96 (47.5%) 29 (47.5%) 43 (50.0%) A = ND = NT Psychometric test 85 (42.1%) 32 (52.5%) 55 (64.0%) NT > A*; ND = NT, A Work trial 71 (35.1%) 17 (27.9%) 16 (18.6%) A = ND = NT Skills assessments 21 (10.4%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (3.5%) A = ND = NT Presentation 8 (4.0%) 2 (3.3%) 2 (2.3%) A = ND = NT Role play activities 2 (1.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.2%) A = ND = NT Informal discussion 1 (0.5%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) A = ND = NT Total percentages exceed 100% as the different recruitment methods were not mutually exclusive (i.e. participants could report on all of the recruitment methods they had experienced); *p < 0.001. 2006, 2013, 2019) Data were analysed within a critical methods they had experienced (see Table 2). The inter- realist framework, involving the inductive (bottom-up) view was the most common recruitment method experi- identification of semantic meanings in the data (Braun & enced, with the vast majority of autistic (n = 199, 98.5%) Clarke, 2013). Data analysis was driven by J.D., a researcher and neurotypical participants (n = 83, 96.5%), and all non- with expertise in autism research, who recursively pro- autistic neurodivergent participants (n = 61, 100%), report- ceeded through the stages of data familiarisation, inductive ing that they had taken part in an employment interview. coding, theme development and review. With support from Also common were online tests (52.2% autistic partici- A.R., a senior researcher with expertise in autism research, pants, 55.7% non-autistic neurodivergent participants and J.D. reviewed the results, refining where necessary, to 55.8% neurotypical participants) and group tasks (47.5% establish a final set of comprehensive and distinct themes autistic participants, 47.5% non-autistic neurodivergent and subthemes. All authors, a neurodiverse group consist- participants and 50% neurotypical participants). In open- ing of autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical individu- text responses, participants also offered insight into a als, agreed on the final set of themes. Responses from range of alternative hiring processes that had been experi- autistic participants (including both formally diagnosed enced. These responses were categorised into skills assess- and self-diagnosed) were analysed independently from the ments, presentations, role play activities and informal responses from non-autistic neurodivergent and neurotypi- discussions for the purpose of analysis. cal participants. The broader themes that were developed Chi-square tests of independence using a Bonferroni were inspected to ensure that they were representative of correction for multiple comparisons showed that signifi- both self-diagnosed and formally diagnosed autistic partici- cantly more autistic participants reported experiencing pants’ experiences. written questionnaires than neurotypical participants: χ (1, n = 287) = 14.35, p < 0.001. Significantly, more neurotypi- cal participants reported experiencing psychometric tests Community involvement than autistic participants: χ (1, n = 287) = 12.30, p < 0.001. Two autistic co-authors (A.L. and A.W.) were involved in No other group differences reached significance. the development of the questionnaire, interpreting the findings, providing feedback on drafts of the article and Perceptions of recruitment methods. Despite being the most developing subsequent recommendations for those commonly experienced recruitment method, interviews involved in hiring processes. were not well endorsed by autistic people (M = 2.21, rating SD = 0.78) (see Table 3). Group tasks were also perceived as particularly negative by autistic participants Results (M = 1.60, SD = 0.80). One-way ANOVAs showed sig- rating nificant group differences in the ratings of interviews (F(2, Quantitative results 355) = 45.38, p < 0.001) and group tasks (F(2, 180) = 32.80, Experiences of recruitment methods. In total, 202 autistic p < 0.001). Tukey’s post hoc tests revealed that autistic participants, 61 non-autistic neurodivergent and 86 neuro- participants rated their experience of interviews and group typical participants gave details regarding the recruitment tasks as significantly less positive than neurotypical 8 Autism 00(0) Table 3. Autistic and non-autistic participants’ perceptions of recruitment methods. Non-autistic neurodivergent Group comparisons Autistic participants participants Neurotypical participants No. of Mean score No. of Mean score No. of Mean score a a a respondents (SD) respondents (SD) respondents (SD) Interview 212 2.21 (0.78) 63 2.75 (0.88) 83 3.13 (0.68) A < NT*, ND*; ND < NT** Written questionnaire 124 2.62 (0.84) 34 2.44 (0.75) 31 2.81 (0.75) A = ND = NT Online test 112 2.59 (0.85) 36 2.39 (0.90) 48 2.77 (0.59) A = ND = NT Group task 108 1.60 (0.80) 32 2.53 (0.98) 43 2.67 (0.81) A < NT*, ND* Psychometric test 91 2.13 (0.91) 35 2.29 (0.83) 55 2.96 (0.72) A*, ND* < NT Work trial 78 2.60 (0.98) 21 2.67 (0.97) 16 3.19 (0.66) A = ND = NT Skills assessment 21 2.85 (1.14) 1 4.00 (N/A) 3 3.33 (0.58) A = ND = NT Presentation 8 2.89 (0.93) 2 3.50 (0.71) 2 3.00 (0.00) A = ND = NT Participants rated their perception of each recruitment method on a Likert-type scale from 1 (very negative) to 4 (very positive). Comparisons using Kruskal–Wallis tests, as the assumption for equal variance was violated. *p < 0.001, **p = 0.008. or negative experiences of recruitment, and provide sugges- (p < 0.001) and non-autistic neurodivergent (p < 0.001) tions for how processes could be improved. Most themes participants. Neurotypical participants rated their experi- and subthemes were common to all three groups. As such, ence of interviews as significantly more positive than non- we report the findings across the whole sample. Any differ- autistic neurodivergent participants (p = 0.008). A ences between the three groups are noted in the text and on Kruskal–Wallis test showed a significant group difference the thematic map (see Figure 1). Illustrative quotes are in the ratings of psychometric tests: χ = 29.79, p < 0.001. accompanied by an ID that represents whether the partici- Post hoc Dunn-Bonferroni tests showed that neurotypical pant is autistic (A), non-autistic neurodivergent (ND) or participants rated their experience of psychometric tests as neurotypical (NT). Further supporting quotations can be significantly more positive than autistic (p < 0.001) and found in Supplementary Table 2. non-autistic neurodivergent (p = 0.008) participants. Recruitment methods should exclusively test the required job Providing feedback on recruitment processes. In total, 212 skills. Participants in all three groups noted that traditional autistic participants, 41 non-autistic neurodivergent par- recruitment methods place an unnecessary emphasis on ticipants and 64 neurotypical participants responded to the personality and social skills, as opposed to the skills question ‘has it been possible to provide feedback about required for the prospective job role: ‘I feel that interviews your experiences of recruitment to employers?’ The are only a test of your acting and social skills’ (A-138). majority of autistic (n = 185, 87.3%), non-autistic neurodi- Participants reported finding the social aspects of recruit- vergent (n = 33, 80.4%) and neurotypical participants ment particularly challenging, for example, finding it ‘very (n = 47, 73.4%) reported that they had been unable to pro- difficult to ‘sell myself’ (ND-040) in one-to-one inter- vide feedback to employers about their experiences (see views, or struggling to effectively contribute during group Table 4). A chi-square test of independence indicated an interviews and tasks: ‘[group tasks are] not good when overall significant association between neurotype and abil- you’re autistic, [I] don’t know when to interject, [and I] ity to provide feedback on recruitment experiences: χ (2, take a while to process information. . . that said, I think it’s n = 327) = 7.24, p = 0.027. Post hoc comparisons, adjusted a pretty horrible thing to do if you’re not autistic!’ (A-136). using a Bonferroni correction, showed that significantly Indeed, one neurotypical participant reflected that ‘inter- fewer autistic participants were able to provide feedback views are stressful and anxiety inducing’ (NT-007). In par- on their recruitment experiences, relative to neurotypical ticular, participants were frustrated with the reliance on participants: χ (1, n = 276) = 7.01, p = 0.008. There were no social skills recruitment methodology when social skills significant differences between autistic and non-autistic were not considered (by the candidate) to be an integral neurodivergent (χ (1, n = 263) = 1.61, p = 0.205) or non- part of the prospective job: ‘The recruitment process and autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical (χ (1, methods should reflect the role – if the job won’t include n = 115) = 0.76, p = 0.382) participants’ experiences. time-limited groups exercise with a presentation at the end of it, then why use this in the recruitment process?’ Qualitative results (A-127). Similarly, many autistic and neurodivergent, but not neurotypical, participants commented on the inappro- We identified five themes from the open questions in which priateness of psychometric tests. For example, some participants were asked to comment on particularly positive Davies et al. 9 Table 4. Experiences of providing feedback to employers about their recruitment processes. Autistic participants Non-autistic neurodivergent Neurotypical (n = 212) participants (n = 51) participants (n = 64) No, I have not been able to provide feedback to 185 (87.3%) 41 (80.4%) 47 (73.4%) employers I have not been able to provide feedback 183 (86.3%) 41 (80.4%) 46 (71.9%) I have tried to provide feedback, but I was not listened 2 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (1.6%) to Yes, I have been able to provide feedback about 27 (12.7%) 10 (19.6%) 17 (26.6%) my recruitment experiences Yes, I was asked by the employer to provide feedback 8 (3.8%) 7 (13.7%) 13 (20.3%) Yes, but I had to ask the employer if I could provide 12 (5.7%) 2 (3.9%) 4 (6.3%) feedback Yes, I have provided informal feedback 3 (1.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) I have given feedback to a recruitment agency 2 (0.9%) 1 (2.0%) 0 (0.0%) Somebody else has provided feedback on my behalf 1 (0.5%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) Bolded items represent the superordinate response category. argued that ‘psychometric tests test social skills not peo- autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical participants high- ples ability to do the job’ (A-162), while others felt they lighted a need for more practical recruitment methods: ‘I ‘measure my personality type’ (A-139) and might be par- would like to see more work trial or work exercise style ticularly biased against autistic people: ‘psychometric tests interviews where people are put in realistic work situations. are perfected specifically to filter out autistic traits’ . . I feel that’s the only way to assess how someone could (A-188). Participants expressed particular frustration that manage the role’ (ND-20). Indeed, those who had experi- such tests would often be used at the beginning of the hir- enced more practical hiring techniques reported more posi- ing process, meaning candidates who found psychometric tive experiences: ‘Work trials are positive interview tests challenging were screened out before they could experiences as I am confident in my abilities to carry out show their potential: work-based tasks, they are less social and more practical so I can show my skills before my personality’ (A-167). I believe the online tests were an unnecessary screening The need for more flexible hiring processes. Participants in process to filter out people without actually looking at your all three groups expressed a need for more flexibility in CV and professional merit . . . only after completing a literacy, hiring processes, and felt that recruitment should be tai- numeracy and psychometric test was I actually able to speak to a real person. (ND-041) lored to each individual’s needs: ‘[We need] more flexible approaches, tailored to individual strengths’ (ND-003). The focus on social skills during recruitment meant that While some participants suggested ‘there should be differ- many autistic candidates felt they had to mask to succeed. ent recruitment processes for people with disabilities’ Indeed, positive experiences of the interview process were (A-181), others highlighted that ‘there can’t be a one size typically reported when individuals were able to mask suc- fits all approach’ (NT-076). Indeed, participants’ individ- cessfully (‘All the positive processes are the one(s) where ual recruitment preferences were nuanced. For example, I successfully masked and got through. Where I outsmarted some participants felt online interviews would be benefi- them’; A-188) or rote learn responses they perceived as cial (‘I would like to see autistic people given the chance desirable: ‘I learned to interview very well because I to do interviews (if they are needed) by remote tech’; learned to predict the type of questions asked. . . I had a A-182) while others found them more challenging: ‘I prepared script. I could put on a perfect performance for recently did an interview over Skype. It was the worst the duration of the interview’ (A-048). Those who felt una- thing imaginable’ (A-008). ble to mask effectively reported struggling to gain Autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical participants employment. felt that training is integral in developing more flexible Linked to their negative experiences of recruitment and inclusive hiring processes: ‘better training/understand- methods that place emphasis on social skills, participants in ing within those involved in recruitment (is needed)’ (NT- all three groups expressed a need for employers to develop 065). Autistic participants expressed a need for an ‘understanding that a traditional interview is not always autism-specific training – on ‘the benefits of autism (to the best way of assessing someone’s competence to do the employers)’ (A-162), ‘how recruitment interviews impact particular job you are recruiting for!’ (NT-011). Relatedly, on autistic applicants’ (A-082) and ‘knowledge and 10 Autism 00(0) Figure 1. Thematic map of participants’ experiences of hiring processes. Davies et al. 11 understanding about autism’ (A-006) more generally. Both experience was a group interview where we had to com- autistic and non-autistic participants felt more holistic plete surprise group tasks. It was very overwhelming and I training on inclusive recruitment was required: ‘better had to leave half way through’ (A-046). As a result, many training/ understanding within those involved in recruit- participants expressed a need for employers to be clear in ment [is required]’ (NT-066). Specific suggestions what candidates should expect from the hiring process: ‘[I included training on ‘disability awareness. . . and the ben- would like] enough information to help reduce the efit of differently abled employees’ (A-034), ‘unconscious “unknowns” (and cognitive load) on interview day: photos bias’ (ND-061) and ‘more inclusive approaches to recruit- of building and interview room; names and photos of inter- ment’ (NT-003). In particular, participants felt employers viewers; length and basic content of interview and tests’ required more ‘education (preferably [delivered] by autis- (A-042). tic people) about the types of adjustments which are help- Second, autistic participants felt interview questions ful’ (A-005), so that they could be proactive in their were often ambiguous and required a level of reading approach to providing adjustments during recruitment: between the lines. For example, some participants spoke of ‘employers should be more proactive with autistic appli- their challenges in ‘understanding the meaning of the cants in offering reasonable adjustments, describing poten- questions asked, and working out what response is wanted’ tial types of adjustment they can apply, and then actually (A-085) and ‘answering “what would you do in situation applying them’ (A-012). X?” type questions [because] I can’t explain how I would The need for tailored processes extended beyond the react unless it actually happens’ (A-075). Suggestions for traditional interview, with participants in all three groups improvements in this regard included providing ‘interview also expressing the need for meaningful feedback follow- questions in advance’ (A-161) and reducing the overall ing unsuccessful recruitment. Indeed, many participants ambiguity of questions: ‘Questions should be to the point reported not hearing back from prospective employers fol- – none of this reading between the lines malarky’ (A-063). lowing their application: ‘You rarely get even a “thanks for taking the time to see us” let alone any form of “we’re Considering the environment. Autistic and non-autistic neu- sorry but we felt that someone else was better for the job”’ rodivergent participants noted the importance of the physi- (A-038) while others received standardised, generic feed- cal environment in reducing anxiety during the hiring back: ‘Where feedback is provided it is generally, “there process. For example, participants reported experiencing were more suitable applicants”. This tells you nothing challenges with the sensory environment involved in about YOUR reasons for not progressing further’ (A-224). recruitment, including interviews that were often per- As such, participants felt it was important to receive tai- ceived to be ‘undertaken in “hostile environment” of bright lored, timely feedback to help them improve. lights, noise, whispering, circulating assessors’ (A-136). Indeed, particular challenges were noted in relation to arti- Pervasive uncertainty and ambiguity. Autistic, neurodiver- ficial lighting, unregulated room temperatures, close prox- gent and neurotypical participants discussed the undue imity to others and the tactile experience of workwear. As levels of uncertainty and ambiguity that pervade in all such, participants felt it was important for employers to aspects of the recruitment process. Indeed, ambiguity was consider these factors and, where possible, make relevant felt to be an issue right from the start of the hiring process adjustments to the sensory environment: ‘[Employers with many participants noting that job specifications often should] offer seating options and make it easy to be par- name vague, generic skills: ‘We need to change role ticular without feeling difficult. Cool room, no bright descriptions. We need to be more realistic about what we lights’ (A-219). Alternatively, suggestions were made for are recruiting a person to do. (i.e. do they really need to be conducting interviews in settings that are familiar, and thus adaptable, able to be a good consultant?)’ (NT-019). As a more comfortable, for candidates: ‘I prefer online inter- result, some autistic participants were not sure they pos- view as this removes environmental stressors allowing me sessed the necessary skills to apply: ‘I find it difficult to to focus on my answers and take my time without appear- look for jobs and to know whether I would be suitable for ing hesitant’ (A-167). the role’ (A-118). This ambiguity and resulting uncertainty Similarly, participants in all three groups emphasised was highlighted in further aspects of the traditional hiring the importance of the social environment during recruit- process and typically fell into two main categories: (1) a ment. Positive experiences in this regard were often when lack of information in advance and (2) the need to read the interviewer made an effort to create positive connec- between the lines. tions with the interviewee. For example, one participant First, on a practical level, participants in all three groups reflected: often felt they were given insufficient information in advance regarding the hiring process. Indeed, examples of The simple act of an interviewer at a much better interview particularly negative experiences often involved unex- placing a jug of water and a glass on a little table next to me pected situations or events during recruitment: ‘My worst helped to calm me. Before the interview started the lead 12 Autism 00(0) interviewer explained that they understood the process could of the career development process (Harper, 2008). As be worrying, that I could ask them to repeat questions any such, the overrepresentation of neurotypical participants at time, that if I wanted a short break that was absolutely fine a senior-level in this study could have influenced our find- . . . I was offered the job but I would have felt good about the ings. Indeed, a higher proportion of our neurotypical par- interview, the panel, and myself even if I had not been offered ticipants reported taking part in psychometric tests during the job. (NT-008) the hiring process than our other groups. It is therefore possible that the more favourable rating of psychometric tests by neurotypical participants reflects a higher famili- The complicated decision around disclosure (of diagnosis or arity with this recruitment technique. Nonetheless, partici- need). For many autistic and otherwise neurodivergent pants in all three groups highlighted the potential positive participants, disclosure (of a diagnosis or access need) ramifications of using more practical recruitment methods was desirable – and, in many cases, was linked to a need that allow candidates to demonstrate their relevant skills for adjustments during the hiring process: ‘Ideally, a pro- and abilities, such as working interviews and skills spective employee feels safe enough to disclose before assessments. recruitment process. This would lead to the recruiting per- Despite highlighting differences in the endorsement of son acommodating the process accordingly’ (A-179). recruitment methods, the comparative approach of this Despite being desirable, some autistic participants high- study also allowed us to identify many commonalities in lighted the risk of discrimination or stigma following dis- the qualitative experiences of recruitment across all three closure: ‘[employers] only use [a diagnosis] as an excuse groups. Importantly, autistic, non-autistic neurodivergent to discriminate against a person and not hire them’ (A-171). and neurotypical participants reported challenges and, to Indeed, many autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical some degree, frustration with the emphasis on social skills participants acknowledged the important role employers in traditional recruitment methods. Instead, our partici- play in the decision to disclose: ‘[opportunities to disclose pants argued that the focus of recruitment should be on the should] be done in a way that reassured the candidate that key skills that are integral for the prospective job role. if they disclose a diagnosis, this absolutely would not While such challenges with the social components of impact whether they were offered the role or not’ (A-202). recruitment have previously been identified as a challenge Suggestions for ways that employers could support candi- for autistic people (e.g. Vincent, 2020), the unique com- dates in their decision to disclose included taking ‘an parative nature of our study allows us to highlight the simi- overtly enabling approach that clearly states how the pro- lar challenges that both non-autistic neurodivergent and cess has been constructed to be inclusive/adaptable’ neurotypical job seekers also face. Indeed, participants in (A-063), ‘more inclusive adverts [to] appeal to a wider this study indicated that adjustments to the hiring process, audience’ (NT-113) and providing a list of adjustments that including a reduced emphasis on social skills, could could be requested during the recruitment process: ‘Better improve the experiences of all candidates. advertising as part of the [hiring] process of the adjust- We also demonstrated other similarities in our autistic, ments available’ (A-189). non-autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical participants’ views and experiences, including (1) the perceived need for more flexible recruitment methods; (2) a desire for Discussion more clarity surrounding the hiring process and what to The aim of the current study was to understand the unique expect and (3) the importance of the social envrionment hiring experiences of autistic candidates in the United during recruitment. Our autistic and neurodivergent par- Kingdom relative to the experiences of non-autistic neuro- ticipants also highlighted the important role employers divergent and neurotypical candidates. Our results indicate play in one’s decision to disclose. The similarities between clear distinctions between how autistic and non-autistic the recruitment experiences of autistic, non-autistic neuro- people endorse workplace recruitment methods. divergent and neurotypical participants in this study high- Specifically, autistic participants in this study reported light the need to be cautious of pathologising autistic having less positive experiences of interviews and group people’s experiences of hiring processes. Indeed, the over- tasks (which favour social interaction) than non-autistic lap in the experiences of autistic and non-autistic people is neurodivergent and neurotypical participants. Similarly, indicative of broader, systemic issues related to traditional autistic and non-autistic neurodivergent participants had hiring processes; changes that seek to mitigate such issues less positive experiences of psychometric tests (which are are therefore likely to benefit many rather than a few. often perceived to be abstracted from the related job Nonetheless, there were a series of considerations and requirements) than neurotypical participants. Research recruitment barriers that were specific to autistic adults in suggests that those in senior-level positions may be offered this study. First, while all participants negatively endorsed psychometric tests more frequently than those in lower- the emphasis of social skills during recruitment, only level positions, both during initial recruitment and as part autistic participants reported that they had to mask their Davies et al. 13 authentic self to successfully gain employment. This may information given to candidates regarding the hiring pro- be reflective of the learnt or natural tendency of neurotypi- cess. Suggestions for improvements, made by our diverse cal individuals to adapt their social performance to specific range of participants, included (1) removing reference to situations (e.g. using a professional language and demean- non-essential skills in job descriptions; (2) making inter- our in an interview). Consequently, non-autistic partici- view questions less ambiguous (cf. Maras et al., 2021) (3) pants may not have discussed their engagement in masking providing clear documentation regarding the tasks that within the survey as it is perceived as a ‘known unwritten candidates will complete, the time the hiring process will social rule’. However, evidence shows that employers do take, and who will be involved and (4) providing clear show a preference towards employing non-autistic over deadlines regarding when candidates will hear the out- autistic candidates (Ameri et al., 2018; Flower, Dickens & come of the hiring process. Indeed, our participants indi- Hedley, 2019) and autistic people often experience stigma- cated that employers should feel confident that making tisation and discrimination in the workplace, related to such adjustments during recruitment could improve the their autistic identity and traits (Johnson & Joshi, 2016; experiences of autistic, non-autistic neurodivergent and Müller et al., 2003). As such, it is possible that the degree neurotypical candidates alike. to which autistic people feel they must mask, and the spe- Third, while participants in all three groups spoke of the cific traits or behaviours they feel they must mask, differs role of the social environment during the hiring process, to that of non-autistic people. That is, it is possible that autistic and non-autistic neurodivergent people also autistic people must engage in a higher degree of masking, reported experiencing unique challenges related to the sen- and must mask more aspects of their identity than non- sory environment during recruitment. This is perhaps autistic people, in an employment context. Yet, research unsurprising given that many autistic people experience demonstrates the detrimental effect masking can have on sensory sensitivities (Crane et al., 2009; Tavassoli et al., autistic individuals’ mental health and well-being (Bradley 2014). Indeed, a recent study in the United Kingdom et al., 2021; Livingston et al., 2019; Pryke-Hobbes et al., involving interviews with 21 autistic young people indi- under review; Raymaker et al., 2020; Tierney et al., 2016). cated that the sensory environment during recruitment and As such, employers must do better to ensure autistic candi- employment can lead to sensory overload and psychologi- dates are not discriminated against during recruitment. cal distress (Vincent, 2020). As such, and in line with the This may include improvements in the education and train- recommendations from participants in this study, employ- ing those involved in recruitment receive surrounding ers should ensure they they have open communication autism specifically, and ‘hidden disabilities’ more gener- with prospective employees about their needs – including ally. Indeed, existing research suggests that those involved sensory needs – and make adjustments where possible. For in recruitment possess inadequate autism understanding example, as suggested by our participants, ensuring that (e.g. López & Keenan, 2014) and both autistic and non- interviews are conducted in naturally lit, quiet rooms with autistic participants in the current study indicated a need regulated temperature and a neutral odour. for improvements in disability and inclusion training Finally, despite reflecting that disclosure of a diagnosis related to the hiring process. Specific suggestions of train- was desirable and may afford appropriate adjustments to ing programmes provided by the participants in this study the hiring process, autistic people had unique concerns included training concerning the benefits of a diverse regarding the potential stigma and discrimination associ- workforce and training on providing adjustments during ated with disclosing their autism diagnosis. This is consist- recruitment. ent with existing literature which suggests that autistic Second, autistic, but not non-autistic neurodivergent or people often experience concerns related to disclosing neurotypical participants, reflected on the challenges they their autism diagnosis to others (e.g. Romualdez, Heasman faced in ‘reading between the lines’ and decoding what et al., 2021; Sarrett, 2017; Vincent, 2020). This concern is employers were asking. Existing literature points towards not unfounded: research suggests that, while disclosure the fact that autistic people can interpret language more has been linked to improved access to employment for literally than non-autistic people (e.g. Walenski et al., some autistic people (Ohl et al., 2017), stigmatisation and 2006) and autistic people often report requiring additional discrimination are not uncommon experiences following processing time to make sense of what is being asked of the disclosure of an autism diagnosis (Romualdez, Walker them (e.g. Honeybourne, 2019). Indeed, this is in line with & Remington, 2021; Thompson-Hodgetts et al., 2020). research that indicates ambiguity in recruitment is a par- Participants in this study highlighted a need for organisa- ticular barrier for autistic people (Markel & Elia, 2016; tions to develop meaningful diversity and inclusion poli- Nagib & Wilton, 2020; Vincent, 2020). Yet, non-autistic cies that harbour a diverse range of talent and make autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical people in the current people and non-autistic neurodivergent people more study also experienced challenges related to ambiguity and broadly, feel comfortable to disclose their diagnosis, uncertainty in recruitment. For example, participants in all should they wish to. For example, having a clear strategy three groups highlighted a need for improved clarity in the for recruiting autistic and neurodivergent people and 14 Autism 00(0) providing a list of adjustments that can be made during the areas of neurodivergence or diagnoses, and instead divided hiring process, should candidates require them. A truly the sample into autistic participants, non-autistic neurodi- inclusive hiring process, however, may not require an indi- vergent participants and neurotypical participants. The vidual to have, or to disclose, a specific diagnosis to access grouping of participants in this way was not intended to a hiring process that supports them. Indeed, neurotypical suggest that being autistic is distinguished from other participants in this study reported experiencing a similar forms of neurodiversity. Nor was it intended to suggest range of challenges to neurodivergent participants. As that neurodivergent people can, or should, be conceptual- such, organisations should endeavour to proactively pro- ised as one homogeneous group. However, by dividing the vide all candidates, regardless of whether they disclose a sample in this way, we were able to highlight the (dis)simi- diagnosis, with adjustments during recruitment. larities between autistic, non-autistic neurodivergent and neurotypical people’s experiences of hiring processes and highlight valuable questions for future research. Limitations A third limitation is that we did not ask participants This research is not without its limitations. First, our sam- whether they had engaged in any form of supported ple may not be representative of the UK population. employment, that is, schemes that typically involve teach- Indeed, most of our participants were well educated, in ing key workplace skills to support people through the hir- full-time paid employment and were of a white ethnic ing process and beyond (García-Villamisar & Hughes, background. As such, this research only represents the 2007). Without knowing whether any of our participants recruitment experiences of a sub-group of the autistic, neu- had received any form of supported employment, it is dif- rodivergent and neurotypical population. The lack of ficult to determine if their perceived recruitment success diversity in regard to ethnicity is particularly notable given could have been due to these supports. In any case, our that individuals from minority ethnic backgrounds often participants highlighted several areas of the traditional hir- face unique barriers concerning recruitment (Cocchiara ing process that could be adjusted to improve the recruit- et al., 2016; Shore et al., 2021; Zschirnt & Ruedin, 2016). ment experiences of a diverse range of individuals across Indeed, this may mean that Black, Asian and ethnic minor- the United Kingdom, regardless of whether they receive ity autistic and otherwise neurodivergent people are multi- employment support. ply disadvantaged in regard to recruitment. Future research Finally, our recruitment methods might have influenced must redress this imbalance by developing meaningful the findings. Some participants were recruited through relationships with minority ethnic communities and purpo- corporate partners that were interested in the DARE pro- sively recruiting autistic people from minority groups. The ject and therefore have an existing interest in autism, level of employment within our autistic group was also employment and making their employment processes notable. While current estimates suggest as few as 22% of more inclusive. As such, it is possible that people in the autistic adults in the United Kingdom are in paid employ- current study might have had more positive experiences of ment (Office for National Statistics, 2021), more than two recruitment than the wider population. However, as our thirds of autistic participants in the current study reported sample were self-selecting, it is also possible that our par- being in full-time, part-time or self-employment. This dif- ticipants may have opted to take part as they had particu- ference is likely to be reflective of the fact that our research larly negative experiences of recruitment. Nonetheless, we concerns employment experiences, which may have dis- were able to highlight a series of meaningful barriers in couraged those who were not employed from participat- recruitment for both autistic and non-autistic people, that ing. It is also important to note that all participants were employers should seek to address. able to complete a somewhat extensive survey regarding their recruitment experiences. As such, our results are Conclusion unlikely to be representative of the recruitment experi- ences of people with intellectual disabilities or people who This study demonstrated the unique recruitment experi- use non-traditional forms of communication. Similarly, the ences of autistic adults in the United Kingdom. While there gender distribution in our autistic sample (more women were qualitative similarities in experiences, autistic people than men), but not in our non-autistic neurodivergent or appeared to face a set of unique barriers to successful neurotypical samples goes against current estimates sug- recruitment, over and above those that non-autistic neuro- gesting a 3:1 male: female ratio in relation to autism diag- divergent and neurotypical people faced. While all partici- nosis (Loomes et al., 2017). Although this is not unusual pants reported being frustrated by the perceived unnecessary for survey-based research like this one (see for example, emphasis on social skills and personality traits in traditional (Arnold et al., 2019; Kapp et al., 2013), it may have influ- hiring processes, only autistic candidates reported that they enced the pattern of findings reported herein. had to mask their authentic self to successfully gain Another potential limitation of the current study is that employment. Similarly, despite the majority of participants we did not seek to explore differences based on specific reporting that disclosure of a diagnosis or access need was Davies et al. 15 4. A small number of participants (n = 12 of 377, 3.2%) com- desirable, autistic participants expressed unique concerns pleted the survey during the initial COVID-19 lockdown, surrounding the potential stigma and discrimination associ- when businesses were forced to shut down and many moved ated with their diagnosis. Employers have a critical role to to remote working and thus hiring processes. In recognition play in reducing such inequalities in recruitment experi- of the impact the lockdown may have had on recruitment ences. By actively offering and implementing adjustments experiences, we analysed the data first with these partici- for all candidates, employers can be confident that they are pants included and second with them excluded, to see if not only supporting their autistic candidates but also that their inclusion had an impact on the findings. There was no the experiences of otherwise neurodivergent and neurotypi- impact of the inclusion of these participants on our overall cal candidates are also likely to improve. Indeed, by devel- findings. oping more inclusive and accessible hiring processes, 5. Given the significant barriers that exist in relation to receiv- organisations can ensure that they see the best version of ing a formal autism diagnosis, we chose not to exclude self-identified autistic people (Lai & Baron-Cohen, 2015). each candidate and do not overlook highly valuable talent. Nevertheless, we ran analyses to examine whether there were any differences in the demographic details between Acknowledgements formally diagnosed autistic participants and those who self- The authors thank all the participants, who contributed to this identified as autistic. There were none. As such, all autistic research, and Autistica for funding the Discover Autism Research participants were considered together. and Employment (DARE) initiative. Research at the Centre for 6. It should be noted that participants were not asked whether Research in Autism and Education (CRAE) is generously sup- they had wanted to give feedback, only whether they had ported by Pears Foundation. been given the opportunity to do so. Declaration of conflicting interests References The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect Ameri, M., Schur, L., Adya, M., Bentley, F. S., McKay, P., & to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article. Kruse, D. (2018). The disability employment puzzle: A field experiment on employer hiring behavior. ILR Review, 71(2), Funding 329–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793917717474 American Psychiatric Association. (2013). 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Journal

Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice – SAGE

Published: Jan 1, 2023

Keywords: adulthood; autism; employment; recruitment

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Improving employment outcomes among adolescents and adults on the autism spectrum

Wilczynski, S. M.; Trammell, B.; Clarke, L. S.
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Access to employment: A comparison of autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical adults’ experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom

Access to employment: A comparison of autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical adults’ experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom

Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

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Access to employment: A comparison of autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical adults’ experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom

Access to employment: A comparison of autistic, neurodivergent and neurotypical adults’ experiences of hiring processes in the United Kingdom

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