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Exploring the Africa-Asia Trade Nexus for Endangered Wildlife Used in Traditional Asian Medicine: Interviews With Traders in South Africa and Vietnam:

Exploring the Africa-Asia Trade Nexus for Endangered Wildlife Used in Traditional Asian Medicine:... Many species in Southeast Asia have been over-hunted to supply the demand for Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) ingredients. As access to their parts become more difficult, consumer’s demand is shifting to novel substitutes. Accurate estimation of the level of illegal wildlife trade is therefore important to ensure long term sustainability. The primary aim of this study is to provide an understanding of the current illegal wildlife trade market for TAM purposes in South Africa. The secondary aim is to explore the possibility of applying different survey methods in detecting the trade in endangered wildlife parts. As the number of criminal’s wildlife of Vietnamese origin has increased in South Africa in recent decades, we surveyed 183 traditional medicine shops in both South Africa and Vietnam between April – August 2017, using direct observation and sensitive questioning techniques to estimate the magnitude of the wildlife trade for TAM purposes. Our results show that the Randomise Response Technique resulted in highest prevalence estimates for the trade in wild animal parts, while False Consensus Bias does not appear to be effective in this study. It is clear that wild animal parts are not only being trafficked from Africa to Asia for TAM use, but Asian originated products such as bear parts might also be smuggled into South Africa for domestic consumption. We recommend that improving wildlife law enforcement and providing protection for non-native species in domestic legislation in both South Africa and Vietnam is required to ensure the survival of these species. Keywords consumption, demand, diaspora, immigrants, illegal wildlife trade, muthi, wildlife traders, traditional medicine practitioners The consumption of endangered animal parts for from Africa being seized, particularly African rhino Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) has been identified horn and pangolin scales (Heinrich et al., 2016; as one of the main drivers for wildlife trafficking globally Nguyen et al., 2018). As access to their parts become (Craig et al., 2009). The variety of wildlife products used more difficult, due to increased rarity and expense or in TAM is extensive and includes many species that have improved law enforcement, consumer’s demand is shift- been designated as threatened by the IUCN Red List ing to novel alternatives, as seen by the increase in lion (Gratwicke et al., 2008; Nowell et al., 2011; Wasser & Jiao, 2010). Species in Southeast Asia that have been Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of Kent, extirpated from the vast majority of their former range Canterbury, UK due to over-hunting to supply the demand for TAM WildAct Vietnam, Khuong Trung, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, Vietnam ingredients include the Indochinese tiger (Stoner & Received 20 May 2020; Revised 17 November 2020; Accepted 17 Perushina, 2013), the Sumatran and Javan rhinos November 2020 (Brook et al., 2014; Kretzschmar et al., 2016). Vietnam Corresponding Author: has long been identified as a major consumer market for T. Nguyen, Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of wildlife and wildlife products, and in recent years there Kent, Canterbury, UK. has been a sharp increase in the volume of shipments Email: trang.nguyen90@gmail.com Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 Tropical Conservation Science bone being traded from Africa to Asia as a substitute for provide respondents with additional privacy, as the truth- farmed tiger bone (Williams et al., 2017), and the poach- fulness of the answers is unknown to the interviewer, ing of African rhinos to satisfy an increase in demand for thereby reducing response bias (St John et al., 2012). rhino horn in Vietnam and China where rhinos are now This is achieved by using a randomising device (e.g. a extirpated (Brook et al., 2014; Milliken & Shaw, 2012). die) to integrate an element of probability in the China’s ambitious and visionary Belt and Road question-answer process (Lensvelt-Mulders et al., 2005). Initiative (BRI) involves an estimated USD4 trillion These methods include the Randomised Response worth of infrastructure investment in 65 countries Technique (RRT) (Hejri et al., 2013), crosswise (Jann along the former Silk Road - an ancient trade route - et al., 2012; Korndorfer et al., 2014), horizontal and par- linking it with a network of countries in Europe, Asia allel (Liu & Tian, 2014). RRT in particular has been and Africa (Tambo et al., 2019). However, the potential widely use, including in the estimation of prevalence in impact of the BRI on biodiversity cannot be overesti- illegal product usage (St John et al., 2012; 2015). Other mated (Hughes, 2019; Lechner et al., 2018; Sutherland methods do not require participants to use a randomising et al., 2019). Chinese migrants, expatriates and tourists device, these include the Unmatched Count Technique have been documented to have an impact on the growth (UCT) and False Consensus Bias (FCB); these have of the local wildlife trade markets in a number of coun- also been successfully applied to address conservation tries in Africa (Brennan & Kalsi, 2015), as well as in questions (Davis et al., 2019; Nuno et al., 2013; St John Southeast Asia ( Lao PDR: Livingstone et al., 2018; et al., 2012). FCB operates on a theory that people who Krishnasamy et al., 2018; Myanmar: Nijman & conduct certain behaviours tend to believe that others are Shepherd, 2014; Nijman et al., 2016 and Cambodia: more likely to behave in the same manner, therefore the Nguyen & Frechette, 2017 ). Increased connectivity respondents give a higher estimation of the population with the Chinese market through Chinese nationals involved in such behaviour (Ross et al., 1977). being present as tourists or through business and devel- Here we aim to provide an understanding of the opment projects, as part of the BRI, could therefore status and scale of wild animal parts trade in TAM, result in an expanded trade in wildlife. Special specifically the available African wildlife parts used as Economic Zones (SEZs) are geographical areas that substitutes in TAM, and the involvement of Asian trad- have economic laws different from a country’s typical ers in the local African wildlife trade markets. In addi- economic laws, with the goal of increasing foreign tion, we aim to evaluate the interview survey techniques investment and boosting the country’s gross domestic by comparison to the direct observations. We surveyed production (Akeredolu, 2018). In the Southeast Asian local African wildlife markets, Traditional South region, the Chinese-run Golden Triangle SEZ in African Medicine (muthi) shops and TAM shops in Northern Lao PDR has been identified as a wildlife South Africa, as well as TAM shops in Vietnam to com- trade hub, where parts of highly threatened species, pare different types of wildlife parts being sold in both such as bear (Ursidae) and tiger (Panthera tigris), are markets, their origin and the use of these parts in TAM. being sold openly to consumers as luxury products and as ingredients for Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Methodology (Krishnasamy et al., 2018; Tan, 2012). In recent years, China has become South Africa’s largest trading partner The study received ethical approval from the Research (Mona, 2018), with 7 SEZs established since 2007, with and Ethics Committee of the School of Anthropology plans to create a further 6 SEZs in the coming years (The and Conservation, University of Kent. Participants Minister of Trade and Industry, 2019). The establish- remain anonymous, their names and details were not ment of SEZs across Africa and especially in South recorded. Africa, with high numbers of workers from China and Southeast Asia, may therefore pose a serious threat to Study Site the local African wildlife. Market surveys in South Africa were conducted in Cape Direct observation is often used to detect frequencies Town, Durban, Johannesburg and Pretoria (Figure 1). of wild animal parts being sold illegally in the market These locations were chosen as they are known to have (Nguyen & Frechette, 2017; Nijman & Shepherd, 2015). large communities of Asian origin (Park & Rugunanan, However, detectability should be considered, as illegal 2009) and also some of the largest wholesale and retail products might not always be visible at the counter, and sales may become more covert over time (Barber-Meyer, markets for traditional medicine in South Africa (i.e. 2010). Interview surveys therefore provide a useful Warwick market in Durban, Faraday and Kwa- method to complement direct observations. A number MaiMai market in Johannesburg) (Williams et al., 2011). of methods have been developed to allow researchers to In Vietnam, surveys were conducted at TAM shops ask questions around sensitive topics. These methods and clinics in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, the two Nguyen and Roberts 3 Figure 1. Location of Study Sites (red circles). South Africa, specifically Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban and Cape Town, and Vietnam specifically Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. largest cities in the country with a high rate of wildlife pills, paste or powdered items), especially those from consumption (Davis et al., 2020; Drury, 2011). TAM rhino, tiger, lion, pangolin and bear, as they are shops and clinics were identified through a systematic known to be endangered but are also popular wild ani- mals used in TAM (Ellis, 2005). Animal taxa were survey in these cities. recorded as stated by vendors and confirmed visually by the author (TN) where possible. Pictures were taken Survey Method of unidentified parts with consent from vendors and sent Market surveys were conducted in South Africa between to South African wildlife experts to seek further advice 10th April and 30th October 2017 and in Vietnam on identification. It is not possible to easily distinguish between 20th September and 8th October 2017. In visually between the bones of lions and tigers, or South Africa, all TAM shops, clinics, pharmacies, mas- between the gallbladders of bears and other similarly sage therapies and local wildlife markets selling ingre- sized mammals such as pigs. Information was recorded dients for traditional medicines were surveyed at the as advertised by the traders and practitioners. four chosen cities by the author (TN), accompanied by We recorded demographic details of the shop owners a local assistant. Due to the linguistic diversity of South such as gender, age and education level. The retail prices Africa, at least one assistant fluent in isiZulu or Khoisan stated in this research are the asking prices. In South was always present at the market survey. Similarly, at Africa, prices were stated in South African Rand, and least one assistant fluent in Mandarin or Cantonese was in Vietnam it was recorded in Vietnamese Dong. Prices present at every interview with Chinese traders and prac- were then converted into USD using the online exchange titioners in South Africa. rates of Oanda (oanda.com) (1 USD ¼ 14.070 South In Vietnam, TAM clinics, shops and pharmacies were African Rand on 10th April 2017; 1 USD ¼ 22.467 surveyed in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with the sup- VND on 20th September 2017). port of Vietnamese staff and volunteers of a local con- servation NGO (WildAct) experienced in wildlife trade Interview Surveys research. Each survey was carried out by pairs of inter- Prior to the survey, the interviewers introduced them- viewers to minimise risk and fatigue. In Vietnam, all selves as a PhD student (and/or assistants of the student) surveys were conducted in Vietnamese. Prior to each from the University of Kent and that they would like to interview, participants were given an oral consent form ask the potential interviewee some general questions in English, isiZulu, Khoisan, Mandarin, Cantonese or about the use and trade of wild animal parts in tradi- Vietnamese. tional medicine. Potential interviewees were told that their participation was voluntary and they can refuse Direct Observation to answer any questions or stop the interview at any Direct observations were carried out prior to the inter- time if they feel uncomfortable. The interviewees were view. Data were recorded on the number of ingredients, asked questions about their demographic, followed by such as wildlife parts, derivatives and products (such as FCB, RRT and finally direct questions (see supporting 4 Tropical Conservation Science documents). In average, the interview took 40 – K-means clustering was applied separating species of 50 minutes to complete. wildlife into two distinct groups. In the FCB section, respondents were asked to esti- Data from RRT was analysed by using a formula mate how many individuals among the people they know adopted from previous research (St John et al., 2012): have been selling wild animal parts for traditional med- ðÞ icine purposes over the last 2 years. They were given ten k  h p ¼ categories to choose from (see Supporting documents). In the RRT section, participants were asked closed end questions on whether they have traded pangolin, where p is the estimated proportion of the respondents lion, tiger, rhino and bear parts over the last 2 years. that have consumed the specified wildlife parts as TAM, Participants were provided with a dice as a randomising k is the proportion of all answers that are “yes”, h is the tool; the dice had one green side, one red side and four probability of the answer being a prescribed ‘yes’, and s blank sides. Participants were instructed to shake the is the probability of being asked to answer the question dice in a cup to hide results from the interviewers and truthfully. The 95% confidence intervals were calculated answer accordingly to the result of the dice roll. For for FCB and RRT from 10,000 bootstraps (St. John example, if the dice came up red, participants will et al., 2010). always say “no” as an answer and if the dice came up To analyse data obtained from FCB method, we green, they will always say “yes”. If the dice was blank, counted the amount each category was chosen by they should answer the question truthfully. Three trial respondents. The category that was chosen the most by questions on non-sensitive behaviours were conducted respondents is used as the prevalent estimation. with the respondents to ensure they understood the Respondents were also separated into users and non- method (see St John et al., 2012). users groups and FCB responses between groups were In addition, direct questions (DQ) about sensitive compared using Chi-squared test. This allowed us to behaviours were asked at the end of the survey. This explore if the prevalence of behaviour is higher among result was used as a baseline to compare with estimation those who admitted having sold protected wild animal obtained from direct observation, FCB and RRT. parts in comparison to those who have not. Analysis Data collected were coded and statistically analysed using the R 3.4.4 software program (R Core Team, Results 2017). Chi-square tests were used for comparison between differences of gender, ages and ethical groups, Socio-Demographic Structure of Respondents the Bonferroni correction method is used to compensate A total of 183 muthi and TAM shops in both South for errors from multiple testing. Africa and Vietnam were surveyed. 55.2% from African One-way ANOVA were used to test the difference in muthi clinics/shops (n ¼ 101), 15.8% from TAM clinics/ number of ingredients found as we expect there will be shops in South Africa (as 97.1% were of Asian origin, differences between muthi, TAM shops in South Africa hereafter Asian) (n ¼ 29) and 29.0% from Vietnamese and Asian owners. Samples were, therefore, grouped in TAM clinics/shops in Vietnam (n ¼ 53). See demographic to African muthi shop, TAM shops in South Africa and information of the respondents summarised in Table 1. TAM shops in Vietnam. Due to the small sample size African respondents were more likely to participate in from the TAM shops in South Africa, it was grouped as an interview, refusal rate 1:5.5, while refusal rate of one with TAM shops in Vietnam for this analysis. Results are significantly different if the p value is less Asians in Africa was 1:3 and in Vietnam 1:1.5. More women were working in TAM shops than muthi than 0.05 (Fisher & Paediatr, 1950). shops, with 57.3% (n ¼ 47 out of 82) at TAM shops In addition, multidimensional scaling (MDS) tech- nique was also used to analyse the market survey data. compared to 21.8% (n ¼ 22 out of 101) in muthi shops. A significant difference was detected between muthi and This technique uses similarities or dissimilarities between different variables in a data set as input. The similarity TAM traders regarding their financial dependence on number indicates how similar variables are in term of trading wildlife parts as traditional medicine ingredients relatedness. Similar variables, therefore, will appear (v ¼ 160.274, df ¼ 1, p< 0.001). All African muthi trad- closely in the map produced by MDS. In this study, ers and practitioners stated that selling wildlife parts was value of all 17 species detected through direct observa- their main income (100%), whereas only 32.9% of Asian tion across 183 shops were inputted for MDS analysis. and Vietnamese traders/practitioners reported this. Nguyen and Roberts 5 Table 1. Demographic Information of Respondents From Traditional South African medicine (Muthi), Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Shops in South Africa and TAM Shops in Vietnam. Muthi shop TAM shops in South Africa TAM shops in Vietnam Gender Male 78.2% (n ¼ 79) 43.4% (n ¼ 12) 47.6% (n ¼ 25) Female 21.8 % (n ¼ 22) 58.6% (n ¼ 17) 52.8% (n ¼ 28) Age Average Range 43.1 47.2 39.5 21–79 30–78 17–70 Education Common highest: Secondary school Secondary school College/university n ¼ 42 n ¼ 10 n ¼ 53 Figure 2. Examples of Wildlife Products Found During The Survey. (a): Pangolin scales and skeleton at Warwick market, Durban, South Africa. (b): Dried bear bile found at Chinatown, Johannesburg, South Africa. (c): Bear bile for sale in Hanoi, Vietnam. (d): Cooked tiger balm found in Ho Chi Minh City. however, they were found for sale in all shop types Status and Magnitude of the Market (n ¼ 6, 3.3%). A total of 219 incidents of trade in the five focus species There was a significant difference in the personal was observed from 183 of the surveyed shops (Figure 2). income of Asian and Vietnamese traders/practitioners The most common observed violation was the sale of and muthi trader (v ¼ 68.136, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.001). 37.8% pangolin parts (n ¼ 95, 51.9%), followed by lions (n ¼ 31) of Asian and Vietnamese traders earned more (n ¼ 57, 31.1%). Observations of bear parts (n ¼ 42, than 1000 USD/month compared to only 0.9% (n ¼ 1) 23.0%) and tigers (n ¼ 19, 10.4%) were only found at of muthi traders. There was also a significant difference TAM shops. Rhino horn was the least observed product; between the frequency of restocking between TAM and 6 Tropical Conservation Science muthi shops, with a majority (62.2%) of Asian and was found for muthi respondents. Prevalence estimates Vietnamese traders restocking every 2 – 6 months, obtained from RRT was significantly higher than DQ while a majority (60.4%) of African traders restock for lion parts amongst muthi and TAM respondents in after more than 6 months (v ¼ 19.051, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.001). Vietnam, however no difference was found for TAM Interview surveys showed that within the muthi respondents in South Africa. respondents, RRT consistently produced higher preva- For rhino horn, prevalence estimations were statisti- lence estimates for the trade of all 5 focus species in cally higher than DQ across all three groups. RRT esti- comparison to direct question (DQ) and FCB. These mations were also significantly higher for bear parts patterns were also found at TAM shops in South amongst TAM South Africa and Vietnam. This pattern Africa and Vietnam, with highest estimations yielded was also found for tiger parts in Vietnam, however con- from RRT for all 5 focused species (Figure 3). There fidence intervals overlapped between RRT and DQ were significant differences between RRT and DQ regarding products from tiger within TAM respondents amongst TAM respondents in South Africa and in South Africa. Amongst the muthi respondents, RRT Vietnam regarding pangolin parts, but no difference confidence intervals overlapped between pangolin and Figure 3. Estimated Proportion of Show Selling (a) pangolin, (b) Lion, (c) Bear, (d) Tiger and (e) Rhino Products Based on the Randomise Response Technique (RRT) (green bars) and Direct Questioning (DQ) (pink bars) for Traditional South African Medicine Shops (muthi), Traditional Asian Medicine Shops in South Africa (TAMSA) and Traditional Asian Medicine shops in Vietnam (TAMVN). Nguyen and Roberts 7 lion parts, but significantly differed for rhino horn. continent. However, TAM shops in South Africa and Products from pangolin were significantly different to Vietnam reported importing products containing wildlife lions, bears and rhinos amongst TAM South Africa parts from Asia and other African countries (34.2% and respondents, however bears and tigers did not differ. 4.8% respectively). For example, bear bile and bear gall- In the TAM Vietnam group, prevalence estimations bladders were found during this survey in TAM shops in obtained from RRT were significantly different across South Africa, while lion balm (cooked lion bone) were all 5 species. It is important to note that products from found in 2 TAM shops in Vietnam. In addition, 3 TAM lion and tigers yielded an almost identical results, sug- shops in Vietnam falsely advertised that it is legal to gesting that there could be a mistaken identity of these harvest tiger bone in Thailand and that they have products. imported tiger balm from there. Estimations from FCB are illustrated in Figure 4. Estimates for prevalence in the trade of all 5 products The Trade in Wild Animal Parts for Medicine fell within the category 0–10%. No significant difference The use of 5 focal animal species was recorded through- was found between the traders and non-traders of prod- out the surveys in both South Africa and Vietnam ucts from pangolin (v ¼ 5.956, df ¼ 9, p ¼ 0.744); lion (Table 2). Significant difference recorded at Bonferroni 2 2 (v ¼ 5.368, df ¼ 10, p ¼ 0.865) and rhino (v ¼ 1.035, adjusted alpha levels of 0.01 per test (0.05/5). Amongst df ¼ 4, p ¼ 0.940). Bear and tiger parts were not analysed these species, there was a significant difference in the as respondents self-reported that they did not sell these number of shops trading pangolin scales in muthi and two products in their shops within the muthi group. TAM shops (v ¼ 19.719, df ¼ 2, p< 0.001). Pangolin These animal parts were also not detected through the scales were most frequently found in muthi shops market survey. (59.4%, n ¼ 60), compared with TAM shops in South Tests of the hypotheses were conducted using Africa (13.8%, n ¼ 4) and TAM shops in Vietnam Bonferroni adjusted alpha levels of 0.01 per test (0.05/ (58.5%, n ¼ 31). Rhino horn was also found for sale in 5). Results indicated no significant difference was found all three locations; however, it was rare; muthi shops between traders and non-traders within the TAM group (3.0%, n ¼ 3), TAM shops in South Africa (3.4%, in South Africa for pangolin parts (v ¼ 10.427, df ¼ 4, n ¼ 1) and Vietnam (3.7%, n ¼ 2). There was a signifi- p ¼ 0.034), lions (v ¼ 3.538, df ¼ 3, p ¼ 0.316), bears cant difference between locations of lion product found 2 2 (v ¼ 0.884, df ¼ 3, p ¼ 0.829), tigers (v ¼ 0.042, df ¼ 3, (v ¼ 39.374, df ¼ 2, p< 0.001), with the largest number p ¼ 0.998) or rhino (v ¼ 5.368, df ¼ 10, p ¼ 0.865). In of muthi shops selling lion products in South Africa Vietnam, significant differences were also not found (50.5%, n ¼ 51), followed by 7.5% (n ¼ 4) TAM shops between traders and non-traders for products from pan- in South Africa and TAM shops in Vietnam (6.9%, 2 2 golin (v ¼ 13.756, df ¼ 7, p ¼ 0.056), lion (v ¼ 1.336, n ¼ 2). Tiger bone were only found at TAM shops in df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.513), bear (v ¼ 3.128, df ¼ 4, p ¼ 0.537), South Africa (27.6%, n ¼ 8) and Vietnam (20.8%, tiger (v ¼ 10.244, df ¼ 8, p ¼ 0.248) and rhino n ¼ 11). There was no significant difference in the (v ¼ 0.298, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.861). number of shops found with these products (v ¼ 0.491, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.483). Significant differences Substitution were found between the number of shops trading in There was a significant difference between the type of bear products (bile and gall bladder) (v ¼ 27.330, cheapest ingredients nominated by traders across loca- df ¼ 2, p< 0.001) with 13.8% (n ¼ 4) in South Africa tions (v ¼ 16.696, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.001). In both muthi and and 74.50% (n ¼ 38) in Vietnam. TAM shops, plants tended to be cheaper than animal TAM shops had wider variation in the forms of ingre- parts, however there were more animal parts named as dients offered than muthi shops (v ¼ 139.630, df ¼ 1, cheapest ingredients in muthi shop (mean price ¼ 0.74$, p ¼ 0.001). For example, wild animal parts found in median price ¼ 0.52$) than in TAM shops in both South muthi shops were mostly stored as dried and powdered Africa (mean price ¼ 8.56$, median price ¼ 7.03$) and form. However, TAM shops in South Africa and Vietnam (mean price ¼ 6.32$, median price ¼ 5.11$). In Vietnam processed animal parts in various forms: dried general, prices of wild animal parts offered at muthi raw products (100%, n ¼ 82), boiled liquid ready to con- shops were significantly cheaper than those at TAM sume (14.6%, n ¼ 12), mixture of powdered animal parts shops in South Africa and Vietnam (U ¼ 2128.000, and herbs with honey in a paste (13.4%, n ¼ 11), pills p ¼ 0.024). (47.6%, n ¼ 39) and “glue” or “balm” (8.5%, n ¼ 7). Most animal parts in South Africa offered at surveyed Results from MDS are illustrated in Figure 5. Two muthi shops came from local sources (54.5%), with distinct clusters were identified, cluster 1 includes wild 45.5% originating in other African countries as cited animal that are commonly found at TAM shops (deer, by respondents. None were imported from another tiger, bear, saiga, shark and seal) and cluster 2 includes 8 Tropical Conservation Science Pangolin Lion Bear Tiger Rhino 31-40 41-50 51-60 0-10 11-20 21-30 61-70 71-80 81-90 Pangolin Lion Bear Tiger Rhino 0-10 21-30 31-40 61-70 11-20 41-50 51-60 71-80 81-90 Pangolin Lion Bear Tiger Rhino 0-10 51-60 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 61-70 71-80 81-90 Figure 4. Estimated Frequency of Traders in Wildlife Products (i.e. Pangolin, Tiger, Bear, Lion and Rhino) by Respondents Using False Consensus Bias, for (a) Traditional South African Medicine (muthi) shops (n ¼ 101), (b) Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Shops in South Africa (n ¼ 29) and (c) TAM Shops in Vietnam (n ¼ 53). Respondents chose one of 10 different categories, from 0% to 100%. the rest. It is worth noting that there were overlaps Discussion between some species, such as tiger and bear, lion and avian, elephant and giraffe. The goodness-of-fit values This research is the first in-depth study into the trade of was a good fit, at 0.8767543 0.8767543. wild animal parts for traditional medicine consumption (%) Percent of respondent (%) Percent of respondent Percent of respondent Nguyen and Roberts 9 Table 2. Number of Wild Animal Parts and Products One Sale at different forms: at the muthi market, they were sold as Traditional African Medicine (Muthi) Shops (n ¼ 101) and individual scales and the prices varied from 20 Rands Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Shops in South Africa (n ¼ 29) (1.37 USD) to 60 Rands (4.12 USD), depending on and Vietnam (n ¼ 53) for Five Focal Species (i.e. Pangolin, Tiger, their sizes. At TAM shops in South Africa and Bear, Lion and Rhino). Vietnam, pangolin scales were often found as processed Species Muthi TAM SA TAM Vietnam products, either ground up and mixed with other types of herbs as a prescription for illness, or made into com- Rhino 3 1 2 mercialised products, such as pills, paste and liquor. Pangolin 4431 21 152 Amongst the most frequently observed commercial- Tiger 0 31 55 ised products found at TAM shops in South Africa were Lion 1168 68 15 pangolin scales and tortoise shells that have been ground Bear 0 31 388 into powder or made into tablets. These tablets had a long list of applications, including the treatment of eczema, acne, scabbing, skin allergic reactions, and gen- ital infection. In Vietnam, pangolin scales labelled under the name “xuyeˆnsrn gia´p” as an ingredient for commer- cialised cough syrup have been advertised widely on the internet and television. This product can also be found at modern (or western) pharmacists across the country. It is noteworthy that these products, manufactured in Asia, were also found at 3 different TAM shops across South Africa, indicating that there is a demand for TAM products containing pangolin scales within the domestic market in this country. In Vietnam, two TAM shops with lion balm were found in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Tiger bone products, such as tiger bone marinated rice wine, tiger balm (slow cooked bone into hard, gluey paste) and pills advertised to contain tiger bone as an ingredient were found at 8 TAM shops across South Africa. In addition, four TAM shops were found in Johannesburg and Figure 5. A Two-dimensional Multidimensional Scaling of Parts Pretoria, South Africa, with a dried bear gallbladder From 17 Wild Animals Found at 183 Traditional South African and bear bile products. According to the label, bear Medicine (Muthi) and Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Shops in bile products were manufactured by the Chinese compa- South Africa and Vietnam. Group (a1) refers to wild animals found ny Guizhentang Pharmaceutical. This indicates that, in in TAM and group (a2) refers to those found in muthi shops. addition to threatened wild animal parts being smuggled from Africa to Asia for consumption (Challender & in both South Africa and Vietnam. By comparing prod- Hywood, 2012; Heinrich et al., 2016; Pietersen et al., uct availability in the three sample groups (muthi shops 2014), processed wild animal parts as TAM are poten- and TAM shops in South Africa, and TAM shops in tially being trafficked into South Africa for domestic Vietnam), we gained a knowledge of the use of wild use. animal parts in both countries and provide an under- It is important to note that all pangolins species, standing of the complex illegal trade between Africa rhino, tigers and bears are listed on the Convention on and Asia. The results enable us to understand the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild market characteristics and identify target groups for Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix I, and therefore future conservation initiatives. the international commercial trade in parts and deriva- tives is prohibited. Although domestic trade in farmed bear bile is legal in China (Crudge et al., 2019), and there Comparison of Trade Between Africa and Asia may not be a law in South Africa prohibiting sale of this Regarded as the most trafficked mammals in the world, non-native taxa, it remains largely illegal to import or the trade of pangolin parts is estimated to account for export this product for commercial purposes. 20% of all illegal wildlife trade (Heinrich et al., 2016). In Although the frequency at which rhino horn was our survey, pangolin scales were the most frequently found on display at muthi and TAM shops in both traded wild animal products found in both South South Africa and Vietnam was low, the presence of Africa and Vietnam. Pangolin scales were offered in this product indicates there is demand for rhino horn 10 Tropical Conservation Science as an ingredient for traditional medicine usage in both An increased flow of capital and visitors from China countries and practices. The low number of shops found has been linked to increased trade in wildlife products in with rhino horn could be due to the increased sensitivity Southeast Asia (Krishnasamy et al., 2018; Livingstone of the issues, and therefore rhino horn may not be on et al., 2018; Nguyen & Frechette, 2017). In 2013, Chinese arrivals, including those from Hong Kong, to South open display, but rather off display elsewhere and only Africa reached 151,847 individuals, representing a offered to trusted buyers. The distinct clusters on MDS map showed that there 14.7% increase over the previous year. In 2014, China are significant differences in species found between muthi also became a core market for South Africa along with and TAM shops. In this study, MDS perceived similar- the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and ities between species showing a distinct order based on India (Chen & Duggan, 2016). In order to maximize probability of detection. As expected, products of Asian economic benefits for African countries, local African origin and products exclusively found in TAM shops, tour operators need to learn Chinese language and cul- such as saiga, tiger and bear parts are grouped into ture, as well as to understand preferences and behaviours one cluster. While those that are found in both muthi (Kings, 2014). In addition, the establishment of BRI and SEZs pose a potential threat to the African wildlife and TAM shops appeared together in another cluster. through increasing the Chinese consumer population Elephant and giraffe parts, which were only detected at and transmitting cultural practices to the local populace. muthi shops, appeared separately, but closer to the latter The consumption of wildlife products through TAM cluster. There were overlaps between detections of prod- practice has been shown to spread to the local African ucts from bear and tiger, elephant and giraffe, as well as peoples (Nguyen & Robert, 2020). lion and birds. These overlaps suggest that shops offer- The illegal trade of wildlife has long been associated ing one product such as bear parts are also likely to sell with rural poverty and the growth of wealth in consumer the other products (i.e. tiger parts). The overlap between lion and birds is curious and maybe explained by the use groups (Atuo et al., 2015; Brashares et al., 2011; Challender & MacMillan, 2014). Poverty may be the of bird and lion parts in muthi practices (Whiting et al., driver amongst the muthi traders/practitioners’ group 2013). in trading threatened wildlife parts, with the majority Our survey results also indicated there is a significant (85.1%) being in the low-income class, earning less difference in prices of wild animal products for sale at than 6000 Rands/month (412 USD). However, our muthi shops and TAM shops in both South Africa and results showed that TAM traders/practitioners in Vietnam. One of the reasons for this could be because South Africa and Vietnam were not under the same wildlife parts at muthi shops were often sold as raw financial pressure, with 37.8% having incomes above ingredients, whereas TAM shops processed their prod- 1000 USD; amongst the middle-high income class in ucts into a more convenient form to consume, such as both South Africa and Vietnam (General Statistic pills, liquors and paste. In addition, Asian originated Office of Vietnam, 2018; Visagie, 2013). While all products, such as bear bile and gall bladder, are likely muthi respondents working at muthi shops stated it is to have been smuggled into South Africa as the species their main income, only 32.9% of TAM respondents in are not native to the country. The prices of TAM prod- both South Africa and Vietnam depend solely on income ucts, therefore, tends to be higher than those from muthi from TAM. As noted previously, it appears muthi trad- shops. ers are being coerced by Chinese buyers to provide illegal wildlife products to satisfy the demand for TAM. Poverty, Livelihoods and the Chinese Influence China has been cultivating relationships with various The Application of Different Methods to Detect developing regions of the world (Hughes, 2019; Wildlife Trade Lechner et al., 2018). In Africa, China’s policy aims to secure natural resources and consumer markets, and to We compared specialised questioning techniques, direct establish China’s status as a leader in the developing questioning and observations to detect wildlife trade. In world (Duggan, 2014). China’s phenomenal economic general, RRT yielded the highest estimations of wild growth resulted in a mounting need for energy and animal products being sold in the market in compared raw materials to fuel the Chinese economy, and a sub- to FCB and DQ. Significant differences between RRT sequent need for markets in which to sell Chinese prod- and DQ showed that overall, the trade of all 5 species ucts (Chen & Duggan, 2016). From 2009 to 2011, the were considered as sensitive by muthi, TAM South total volume of Chinese African trade reached almost Africa and TAM Vietnam traders. Muthi traders had USD200 billion. Within this period, China’s export to the highest prevalence estimates for pangolin, lion and Africa accounted for USD85 billion, while China’s rhino parts, which may be expected based on the avail- imports from Africa accounted for USD113 billion. ability of these products in South Africa, as well as their Nguyen and Roberts 11 use in muthi practices (Whiting et al., 2013). Significant suspected cases of wildlife trafficking, and where possi- differences in the estimates for trade in tiger and bear ble instances where no punitive action has been taken. Threatened wildlife parts are not only smuggled from parts between TAM in South Africa and Vietnam could Africa to Asia for consumption, but wildlife parts from be explained by the availability of these products (i.e. Asia are being trafficked into Africa for domestic con- bear parts are more available in Vietnam than South sumption or sale within Africa. Despite some laudable Africa). The high prevalence of tiger products in South efforts, most notably anti-poaching and tighten security Africa could be due to the overlap with lion products at airports and borders, South Africa’s inability to better and/or South African domestic regulation is not yet in conserve its wildlife is partly driven by lack of resources place to protect the trade in tiger parts. As such tiger and capacity to respond to the impacts of Chinese parts could be being traded more frequently in South investment. Such investment needs to be matched by Africa than Vietnam. In addition, results show a simi- resources for mitigating impacts, including support for larity between lion and tiger products, this is more likely effective enforcement against illegal wildlife trade. The due to the mistaken identity of these two products, as high level of wild animal parts for sale in South Africa lion parts are being used as alternative for tigers. presents a challenge for effective conservation manage- FCB estimations for the trade of all five species were ment. Traditional African medicine is known for its use very low (0–10%), which is lower than DQ for pangolin, of wild animal parts, but the practice of TAM in this lion, bear and tiger. Significant differences in respond- country may put more pressure on the fragile popula- ents’ estimations using FCB was not detected between tions of protected species in the continent. In addition, users and non-users, suggesting the prevalence of behav- improving wildlife law enforcement and providing pro- iour is not higher among those who admitted selling tection for non-native species in domestic legislation in protected wild animal parts in comparison to those both South Africa and Vietnam is required to ensure the who have not in this study. While it could be that the survival of these species. trade in these species is rare, there is the possibility that traders intentionally provided a lower estimate so as to Acknowledgments give an impression that the products are rare and exclu- The authors wish to thank our volunteers and field assistants sive to their shop. FCB appears not to be successful for their help conducting this study. Thanks go to Brian under this scenario. Crudge for his comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript Overall, our results show that endangered wildlife and Ross Purdon from the South African Environmental parts are being traded for TAM purposes in South Affairs for supporting this study. This research is dedicated Africa and Vietnam, both domestically and internation- to Dr. Tony Whitten for his work. ally. The trade of Asian originated species, such as tiger and bear are much higher than one may expect in South Declaration of Conflicting Interests Africa. In this study, RRT was successfully applied in The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with both South Africa and Vietnam. However, FCB did not respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this appear to be effective in estimating prevalence of wild article. animal parts trade. In addition, future studies should Funding explore the application of other SQTs, such as the ballot box method (Bova et al., 2018; Nuno et al., The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup- 2013) in estimating the prevalence of wildlife trafficking, port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The author (TN) was funded by the Russell E. Train in particular those that have yet to be tested in the field. Fellowships, the Rufford Foundation, the US Fish and In this study, SQTs show a higher rate of detecting wild- Wildlife Service and the Columbus Zoo Fund for life parts in comparison to direct observation. Conservation. Implications for Conservation ORCID iDs T. Nguyen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8579-6102 This study highlights the need to develop effective meth- D. L. Roberts https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6788-2691 ods for detecting and monitoring illegal wildlife trade. 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Exploring the Africa-Asia Trade Nexus for Endangered Wildlife Used in Traditional Asian Medicine: Interviews With Traders in South Africa and Vietnam:

Nguyen, T.; Roberts, D. L.
Tropical Conservation Science , Volume 13: 1 – Dec 17, 2020
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Abstract

Many species in Southeast Asia have been over-hunted to supply the demand for Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) ingredients. As access to their parts become more difficult, consumer’s demand is shifting to novel substitutes. Accurate estimation of the level of illegal wildlife trade is therefore important to ensure long term sustainability. The primary aim of this study is to provide an understanding of the current illegal wildlife trade market for TAM purposes in South Africa. The secondary aim is to explore the possibility of applying different survey methods in detecting the trade in endangered wildlife parts. As the number of criminal’s wildlife of Vietnamese origin has increased in South Africa in recent decades, we surveyed 183 traditional medicine shops in both South Africa and Vietnam between April – August 2017, using direct observation and sensitive questioning techniques to estimate the magnitude of the wildlife trade for TAM purposes. Our results show that the Randomise Response Technique resulted in highest prevalence estimates for the trade in wild animal parts, while False Consensus Bias does not appear to be effective in this study. It is clear that wild animal parts are not only being trafficked from Africa to Asia for TAM use, but Asian originated products such as bear parts might also be smuggled into South Africa for domestic consumption. We recommend that improving wildlife law enforcement and providing protection for non-native species in domestic legislation in both South Africa and Vietnam is required to ensure the survival of these species. Keywords consumption, demand, diaspora, immigrants, illegal wildlife trade, muthi, wildlife traders, traditional medicine practitioners The consumption of endangered animal parts for from Africa being seized, particularly African rhino Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) has been identified horn and pangolin scales (Heinrich et al., 2016; as one of the main drivers for wildlife trafficking globally Nguyen et al., 2018). As access to their parts become (Craig et al., 2009). The variety of wildlife products used more difficult, due to increased rarity and expense or in TAM is extensive and includes many species that have improved law enforcement, consumer’s demand is shift- been designated as threatened by the IUCN Red List ing to novel alternatives, as seen by the increase in lion (Gratwicke et al., 2008; Nowell et al., 2011; Wasser & Jiao, 2010). Species in Southeast Asia that have been Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of Kent, extirpated from the vast majority of their former range Canterbury, UK due to over-hunting to supply the demand for TAM WildAct Vietnam, Khuong Trung, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, Vietnam ingredients include the Indochinese tiger (Stoner & Received 20 May 2020; Revised 17 November 2020; Accepted 17 Perushina, 2013), the Sumatran and Javan rhinos November 2020 (Brook et al., 2014; Kretzschmar et al., 2016). Vietnam Corresponding Author: has long been identified as a major consumer market for T. Nguyen, Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of wildlife and wildlife products, and in recent years there Kent, Canterbury, UK. has been a sharp increase in the volume of shipments Email: trang.nguyen90@gmail.com Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 Tropical Conservation Science bone being traded from Africa to Asia as a substitute for provide respondents with additional privacy, as the truth- farmed tiger bone (Williams et al., 2017), and the poach- fulness of the answers is unknown to the interviewer, ing of African rhinos to satisfy an increase in demand for thereby reducing response bias (St John et al., 2012). rhino horn in Vietnam and China where rhinos are now This is achieved by using a randomising device (e.g. a extirpated (Brook et al., 2014; Milliken & Shaw, 2012). die) to integrate an element of probability in the China’s ambitious and visionary Belt and Road question-answer process (Lensvelt-Mulders et al., 2005). Initiative (BRI) involves an estimated USD4 trillion These methods include the Randomised Response worth of infrastructure investment in 65 countries Technique (RRT) (Hejri et al., 2013), crosswise (Jann along the former Silk Road - an ancient trade route - et al., 2012; Korndorfer et al., 2014), horizontal and par- linking it with a network of countries in Europe, Asia allel (Liu & Tian, 2014). RRT in particular has been and Africa (Tambo et al., 2019). However, the potential widely use, including in the estimation of prevalence in impact of the BRI on biodiversity cannot be overesti- illegal product usage (St John et al., 2012; 2015). Other mated (Hughes, 2019; Lechner et al., 2018; Sutherland methods do not require participants to use a randomising et al., 2019). Chinese migrants, expatriates and tourists device, these include the Unmatched Count Technique have been documented to have an impact on the growth (UCT) and False Consensus Bias (FCB); these have of the local wildlife trade markets in a number of coun- also been successfully applied to address conservation tries in Africa (Brennan & Kalsi, 2015), as well as in questions (Davis et al., 2019; Nuno et al., 2013; St John Southeast Asia ( Lao PDR: Livingstone et al., 2018; et al., 2012). FCB operates on a theory that people who Krishnasamy et al., 2018; Myanmar: Nijman & conduct certain behaviours tend to believe that others are Shepherd, 2014; Nijman et al., 2016 and Cambodia: more likely to behave in the same manner, therefore the Nguyen & Frechette, 2017 ). Increased connectivity respondents give a higher estimation of the population with the Chinese market through Chinese nationals involved in such behaviour (Ross et al., 1977). being present as tourists or through business and devel- Here we aim to provide an understanding of the opment projects, as part of the BRI, could therefore status and scale of wild animal parts trade in TAM, result in an expanded trade in wildlife. Special specifically the available African wildlife parts used as Economic Zones (SEZs) are geographical areas that substitutes in TAM, and the involvement of Asian trad- have economic laws different from a country’s typical ers in the local African wildlife trade markets. In addi- economic laws, with the goal of increasing foreign tion, we aim to evaluate the interview survey techniques investment and boosting the country’s gross domestic by comparison to the direct observations. We surveyed production (Akeredolu, 2018). In the Southeast Asian local African wildlife markets, Traditional South region, the Chinese-run Golden Triangle SEZ in African Medicine (muthi) shops and TAM shops in Northern Lao PDR has been identified as a wildlife South Africa, as well as TAM shops in Vietnam to com- trade hub, where parts of highly threatened species, pare different types of wildlife parts being sold in both such as bear (Ursidae) and tiger (Panthera tigris), are markets, their origin and the use of these parts in TAM. being sold openly to consumers as luxury products and as ingredients for Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Methodology (Krishnasamy et al., 2018; Tan, 2012). In recent years, China has become South Africa’s largest trading partner The study received ethical approval from the Research (Mona, 2018), with 7 SEZs established since 2007, with and Ethics Committee of the School of Anthropology plans to create a further 6 SEZs in the coming years (The and Conservation, University of Kent. Participants Minister of Trade and Industry, 2019). The establish- remain anonymous, their names and details were not ment of SEZs across Africa and especially in South recorded. Africa, with high numbers of workers from China and Southeast Asia, may therefore pose a serious threat to Study Site the local African wildlife. Market surveys in South Africa were conducted in Cape Direct observation is often used to detect frequencies Town, Durban, Johannesburg and Pretoria (Figure 1). of wild animal parts being sold illegally in the market These locations were chosen as they are known to have (Nguyen & Frechette, 2017; Nijman & Shepherd, 2015). large communities of Asian origin (Park & Rugunanan, However, detectability should be considered, as illegal 2009) and also some of the largest wholesale and retail products might not always be visible at the counter, and sales may become more covert over time (Barber-Meyer, markets for traditional medicine in South Africa (i.e. 2010). Interview surveys therefore provide a useful Warwick market in Durban, Faraday and Kwa- method to complement direct observations. A number MaiMai market in Johannesburg) (Williams et al., 2011). of methods have been developed to allow researchers to In Vietnam, surveys were conducted at TAM shops ask questions around sensitive topics. These methods and clinics in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, the two Nguyen and Roberts 3 Figure 1. Location of Study Sites (red circles). South Africa, specifically Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban and Cape Town, and Vietnam specifically Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. largest cities in the country with a high rate of wildlife pills, paste or powdered items), especially those from consumption (Davis et al., 2020; Drury, 2011). TAM rhino, tiger, lion, pangolin and bear, as they are shops and clinics were identified through a systematic known to be endangered but are also popular wild ani- mals used in TAM (Ellis, 2005). Animal taxa were survey in these cities. recorded as stated by vendors and confirmed visually by the author (TN) where possible. Pictures were taken Survey Method of unidentified parts with consent from vendors and sent Market surveys were conducted in South Africa between to South African wildlife experts to seek further advice 10th April and 30th October 2017 and in Vietnam on identification. It is not possible to easily distinguish between 20th September and 8th October 2017. In visually between the bones of lions and tigers, or South Africa, all TAM shops, clinics, pharmacies, mas- between the gallbladders of bears and other similarly sage therapies and local wildlife markets selling ingre- sized mammals such as pigs. Information was recorded dients for traditional medicines were surveyed at the as advertised by the traders and practitioners. four chosen cities by the author (TN), accompanied by We recorded demographic details of the shop owners a local assistant. Due to the linguistic diversity of South such as gender, age and education level. The retail prices Africa, at least one assistant fluent in isiZulu or Khoisan stated in this research are the asking prices. In South was always present at the market survey. Similarly, at Africa, prices were stated in South African Rand, and least one assistant fluent in Mandarin or Cantonese was in Vietnam it was recorded in Vietnamese Dong. Prices present at every interview with Chinese traders and prac- were then converted into USD using the online exchange titioners in South Africa. rates of Oanda (oanda.com) (1 USD ¼ 14.070 South In Vietnam, TAM clinics, shops and pharmacies were African Rand on 10th April 2017; 1 USD ¼ 22.467 surveyed in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City with the sup- VND on 20th September 2017). port of Vietnamese staff and volunteers of a local con- servation NGO (WildAct) experienced in wildlife trade Interview Surveys research. Each survey was carried out by pairs of inter- Prior to the survey, the interviewers introduced them- viewers to minimise risk and fatigue. In Vietnam, all selves as a PhD student (and/or assistants of the student) surveys were conducted in Vietnamese. Prior to each from the University of Kent and that they would like to interview, participants were given an oral consent form ask the potential interviewee some general questions in English, isiZulu, Khoisan, Mandarin, Cantonese or about the use and trade of wild animal parts in tradi- Vietnamese. tional medicine. Potential interviewees were told that their participation was voluntary and they can refuse Direct Observation to answer any questions or stop the interview at any Direct observations were carried out prior to the inter- time if they feel uncomfortable. The interviewees were view. Data were recorded on the number of ingredients, asked questions about their demographic, followed by such as wildlife parts, derivatives and products (such as FCB, RRT and finally direct questions (see supporting 4 Tropical Conservation Science documents). In average, the interview took 40 – K-means clustering was applied separating species of 50 minutes to complete. wildlife into two distinct groups. In the FCB section, respondents were asked to esti- Data from RRT was analysed by using a formula mate how many individuals among the people they know adopted from previous research (St John et al., 2012): have been selling wild animal parts for traditional med- ðÞ icine purposes over the last 2 years. They were given ten k  h p ¼ categories to choose from (see Supporting documents). In the RRT section, participants were asked closed end questions on whether they have traded pangolin, where p is the estimated proportion of the respondents lion, tiger, rhino and bear parts over the last 2 years. that have consumed the specified wildlife parts as TAM, Participants were provided with a dice as a randomising k is the proportion of all answers that are “yes”, h is the tool; the dice had one green side, one red side and four probability of the answer being a prescribed ‘yes’, and s blank sides. Participants were instructed to shake the is the probability of being asked to answer the question dice in a cup to hide results from the interviewers and truthfully. The 95% confidence intervals were calculated answer accordingly to the result of the dice roll. For for FCB and RRT from 10,000 bootstraps (St. John example, if the dice came up red, participants will et al., 2010). always say “no” as an answer and if the dice came up To analyse data obtained from FCB method, we green, they will always say “yes”. If the dice was blank, counted the amount each category was chosen by they should answer the question truthfully. Three trial respondents. The category that was chosen the most by questions on non-sensitive behaviours were conducted respondents is used as the prevalent estimation. with the respondents to ensure they understood the Respondents were also separated into users and non- method (see St John et al., 2012). users groups and FCB responses between groups were In addition, direct questions (DQ) about sensitive compared using Chi-squared test. This allowed us to behaviours were asked at the end of the survey. This explore if the prevalence of behaviour is higher among result was used as a baseline to compare with estimation those who admitted having sold protected wild animal obtained from direct observation, FCB and RRT. parts in comparison to those who have not. Analysis Data collected were coded and statistically analysed using the R 3.4.4 software program (R Core Team, Results 2017). Chi-square tests were used for comparison between differences of gender, ages and ethical groups, Socio-Demographic Structure of Respondents the Bonferroni correction method is used to compensate A total of 183 muthi and TAM shops in both South for errors from multiple testing. Africa and Vietnam were surveyed. 55.2% from African One-way ANOVA were used to test the difference in muthi clinics/shops (n ¼ 101), 15.8% from TAM clinics/ number of ingredients found as we expect there will be shops in South Africa (as 97.1% were of Asian origin, differences between muthi, TAM shops in South Africa hereafter Asian) (n ¼ 29) and 29.0% from Vietnamese and Asian owners. Samples were, therefore, grouped in TAM clinics/shops in Vietnam (n ¼ 53). See demographic to African muthi shop, TAM shops in South Africa and information of the respondents summarised in Table 1. TAM shops in Vietnam. Due to the small sample size African respondents were more likely to participate in from the TAM shops in South Africa, it was grouped as an interview, refusal rate 1:5.5, while refusal rate of one with TAM shops in Vietnam for this analysis. Results are significantly different if the p value is less Asians in Africa was 1:3 and in Vietnam 1:1.5. More women were working in TAM shops than muthi than 0.05 (Fisher & Paediatr, 1950). shops, with 57.3% (n ¼ 47 out of 82) at TAM shops In addition, multidimensional scaling (MDS) tech- nique was also used to analyse the market survey data. compared to 21.8% (n ¼ 22 out of 101) in muthi shops. A significant difference was detected between muthi and This technique uses similarities or dissimilarities between different variables in a data set as input. The similarity TAM traders regarding their financial dependence on number indicates how similar variables are in term of trading wildlife parts as traditional medicine ingredients relatedness. Similar variables, therefore, will appear (v ¼ 160.274, df ¼ 1, p< 0.001). All African muthi trad- closely in the map produced by MDS. In this study, ers and practitioners stated that selling wildlife parts was value of all 17 species detected through direct observa- their main income (100%), whereas only 32.9% of Asian tion across 183 shops were inputted for MDS analysis. and Vietnamese traders/practitioners reported this. Nguyen and Roberts 5 Table 1. Demographic Information of Respondents From Traditional South African medicine (Muthi), Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Shops in South Africa and TAM Shops in Vietnam. Muthi shop TAM shops in South Africa TAM shops in Vietnam Gender Male 78.2% (n ¼ 79) 43.4% (n ¼ 12) 47.6% (n ¼ 25) Female 21.8 % (n ¼ 22) 58.6% (n ¼ 17) 52.8% (n ¼ 28) Age Average Range 43.1 47.2 39.5 21–79 30–78 17–70 Education Common highest: Secondary school Secondary school College/university n ¼ 42 n ¼ 10 n ¼ 53 Figure 2. Examples of Wildlife Products Found During The Survey. (a): Pangolin scales and skeleton at Warwick market, Durban, South Africa. (b): Dried bear bile found at Chinatown, Johannesburg, South Africa. (c): Bear bile for sale in Hanoi, Vietnam. (d): Cooked tiger balm found in Ho Chi Minh City. however, they were found for sale in all shop types Status and Magnitude of the Market (n ¼ 6, 3.3%). A total of 219 incidents of trade in the five focus species There was a significant difference in the personal was observed from 183 of the surveyed shops (Figure 2). income of Asian and Vietnamese traders/practitioners The most common observed violation was the sale of and muthi trader (v ¼ 68.136, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.001). 37.8% pangolin parts (n ¼ 95, 51.9%), followed by lions (n ¼ 31) of Asian and Vietnamese traders earned more (n ¼ 57, 31.1%). Observations of bear parts (n ¼ 42, than 1000 USD/month compared to only 0.9% (n ¼ 1) 23.0%) and tigers (n ¼ 19, 10.4%) were only found at of muthi traders. There was also a significant difference TAM shops. Rhino horn was the least observed product; between the frequency of restocking between TAM and 6 Tropical Conservation Science muthi shops, with a majority (62.2%) of Asian and was found for muthi respondents. Prevalence estimates Vietnamese traders restocking every 2 – 6 months, obtained from RRT was significantly higher than DQ while a majority (60.4%) of African traders restock for lion parts amongst muthi and TAM respondents in after more than 6 months (v ¼ 19.051, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.001). Vietnam, however no difference was found for TAM Interview surveys showed that within the muthi respondents in South Africa. respondents, RRT consistently produced higher preva- For rhino horn, prevalence estimations were statisti- lence estimates for the trade of all 5 focus species in cally higher than DQ across all three groups. RRT esti- comparison to direct question (DQ) and FCB. These mations were also significantly higher for bear parts patterns were also found at TAM shops in South amongst TAM South Africa and Vietnam. This pattern Africa and Vietnam, with highest estimations yielded was also found for tiger parts in Vietnam, however con- from RRT for all 5 focused species (Figure 3). There fidence intervals overlapped between RRT and DQ were significant differences between RRT and DQ regarding products from tiger within TAM respondents amongst TAM respondents in South Africa and in South Africa. Amongst the muthi respondents, RRT Vietnam regarding pangolin parts, but no difference confidence intervals overlapped between pangolin and Figure 3. Estimated Proportion of Show Selling (a) pangolin, (b) Lion, (c) Bear, (d) Tiger and (e) Rhino Products Based on the Randomise Response Technique (RRT) (green bars) and Direct Questioning (DQ) (pink bars) for Traditional South African Medicine Shops (muthi), Traditional Asian Medicine Shops in South Africa (TAMSA) and Traditional Asian Medicine shops in Vietnam (TAMVN). Nguyen and Roberts 7 lion parts, but significantly differed for rhino horn. continent. However, TAM shops in South Africa and Products from pangolin were significantly different to Vietnam reported importing products containing wildlife lions, bears and rhinos amongst TAM South Africa parts from Asia and other African countries (34.2% and respondents, however bears and tigers did not differ. 4.8% respectively). For example, bear bile and bear gall- In the TAM Vietnam group, prevalence estimations bladders were found during this survey in TAM shops in obtained from RRT were significantly different across South Africa, while lion balm (cooked lion bone) were all 5 species. It is important to note that products from found in 2 TAM shops in Vietnam. In addition, 3 TAM lion and tigers yielded an almost identical results, sug- shops in Vietnam falsely advertised that it is legal to gesting that there could be a mistaken identity of these harvest tiger bone in Thailand and that they have products. imported tiger balm from there. Estimations from FCB are illustrated in Figure 4. Estimates for prevalence in the trade of all 5 products The Trade in Wild Animal Parts for Medicine fell within the category 0–10%. No significant difference The use of 5 focal animal species was recorded through- was found between the traders and non-traders of prod- out the surveys in both South Africa and Vietnam ucts from pangolin (v ¼ 5.956, df ¼ 9, p ¼ 0.744); lion (Table 2). Significant difference recorded at Bonferroni 2 2 (v ¼ 5.368, df ¼ 10, p ¼ 0.865) and rhino (v ¼ 1.035, adjusted alpha levels of 0.01 per test (0.05/5). Amongst df ¼ 4, p ¼ 0.940). Bear and tiger parts were not analysed these species, there was a significant difference in the as respondents self-reported that they did not sell these number of shops trading pangolin scales in muthi and two products in their shops within the muthi group. TAM shops (v ¼ 19.719, df ¼ 2, p< 0.001). Pangolin These animal parts were also not detected through the scales were most frequently found in muthi shops market survey. (59.4%, n ¼ 60), compared with TAM shops in South Tests of the hypotheses were conducted using Africa (13.8%, n ¼ 4) and TAM shops in Vietnam Bonferroni adjusted alpha levels of 0.01 per test (0.05/ (58.5%, n ¼ 31). Rhino horn was also found for sale in 5). Results indicated no significant difference was found all three locations; however, it was rare; muthi shops between traders and non-traders within the TAM group (3.0%, n ¼ 3), TAM shops in South Africa (3.4%, in South Africa for pangolin parts (v ¼ 10.427, df ¼ 4, n ¼ 1) and Vietnam (3.7%, n ¼ 2). There was a signifi- p ¼ 0.034), lions (v ¼ 3.538, df ¼ 3, p ¼ 0.316), bears cant difference between locations of lion product found 2 2 (v ¼ 0.884, df ¼ 3, p ¼ 0.829), tigers (v ¼ 0.042, df ¼ 3, (v ¼ 39.374, df ¼ 2, p< 0.001), with the largest number p ¼ 0.998) or rhino (v ¼ 5.368, df ¼ 10, p ¼ 0.865). In of muthi shops selling lion products in South Africa Vietnam, significant differences were also not found (50.5%, n ¼ 51), followed by 7.5% (n ¼ 4) TAM shops between traders and non-traders for products from pan- in South Africa and TAM shops in Vietnam (6.9%, 2 2 golin (v ¼ 13.756, df ¼ 7, p ¼ 0.056), lion (v ¼ 1.336, n ¼ 2). Tiger bone were only found at TAM shops in df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.513), bear (v ¼ 3.128, df ¼ 4, p ¼ 0.537), South Africa (27.6%, n ¼ 8) and Vietnam (20.8%, tiger (v ¼ 10.244, df ¼ 8, p ¼ 0.248) and rhino n ¼ 11). There was no significant difference in the (v ¼ 0.298, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.861). number of shops found with these products (v ¼ 0.491, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.483). Significant differences Substitution were found between the number of shops trading in There was a significant difference between the type of bear products (bile and gall bladder) (v ¼ 27.330, cheapest ingredients nominated by traders across loca- df ¼ 2, p< 0.001) with 13.8% (n ¼ 4) in South Africa tions (v ¼ 16.696, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.001). In both muthi and and 74.50% (n ¼ 38) in Vietnam. TAM shops, plants tended to be cheaper than animal TAM shops had wider variation in the forms of ingre- parts, however there were more animal parts named as dients offered than muthi shops (v ¼ 139.630, df ¼ 1, cheapest ingredients in muthi shop (mean price ¼ 0.74$, p ¼ 0.001). For example, wild animal parts found in median price ¼ 0.52$) than in TAM shops in both South muthi shops were mostly stored as dried and powdered Africa (mean price ¼ 8.56$, median price ¼ 7.03$) and form. However, TAM shops in South Africa and Vietnam (mean price ¼ 6.32$, median price ¼ 5.11$). In Vietnam processed animal parts in various forms: dried general, prices of wild animal parts offered at muthi raw products (100%, n ¼ 82), boiled liquid ready to con- shops were significantly cheaper than those at TAM sume (14.6%, n ¼ 12), mixture of powdered animal parts shops in South Africa and Vietnam (U ¼ 2128.000, and herbs with honey in a paste (13.4%, n ¼ 11), pills p ¼ 0.024). (47.6%, n ¼ 39) and “glue” or “balm” (8.5%, n ¼ 7). Most animal parts in South Africa offered at surveyed Results from MDS are illustrated in Figure 5. Two muthi shops came from local sources (54.5%), with distinct clusters were identified, cluster 1 includes wild 45.5% originating in other African countries as cited animal that are commonly found at TAM shops (deer, by respondents. None were imported from another tiger, bear, saiga, shark and seal) and cluster 2 includes 8 Tropical Conservation Science Pangolin Lion Bear Tiger Rhino 31-40 41-50 51-60 0-10 11-20 21-30 61-70 71-80 81-90 Pangolin Lion Bear Tiger Rhino 0-10 21-30 31-40 61-70 11-20 41-50 51-60 71-80 81-90 Pangolin Lion Bear Tiger Rhino 0-10 51-60 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 61-70 71-80 81-90 Figure 4. Estimated Frequency of Traders in Wildlife Products (i.e. Pangolin, Tiger, Bear, Lion and Rhino) by Respondents Using False Consensus Bias, for (a) Traditional South African Medicine (muthi) shops (n ¼ 101), (b) Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Shops in South Africa (n ¼ 29) and (c) TAM Shops in Vietnam (n ¼ 53). Respondents chose one of 10 different categories, from 0% to 100%. the rest. It is worth noting that there were overlaps Discussion between some species, such as tiger and bear, lion and avian, elephant and giraffe. The goodness-of-fit values This research is the first in-depth study into the trade of was a good fit, at 0.8767543 0.8767543. wild animal parts for traditional medicine consumption (%) Percent of respondent (%) Percent of respondent Percent of respondent Nguyen and Roberts 9 Table 2. Number of Wild Animal Parts and Products One Sale at different forms: at the muthi market, they were sold as Traditional African Medicine (Muthi) Shops (n ¼ 101) and individual scales and the prices varied from 20 Rands Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Shops in South Africa (n ¼ 29) (1.37 USD) to 60 Rands (4.12 USD), depending on and Vietnam (n ¼ 53) for Five Focal Species (i.e. Pangolin, Tiger, their sizes. At TAM shops in South Africa and Bear, Lion and Rhino). Vietnam, pangolin scales were often found as processed Species Muthi TAM SA TAM Vietnam products, either ground up and mixed with other types of herbs as a prescription for illness, or made into com- Rhino 3 1 2 mercialised products, such as pills, paste and liquor. Pangolin 4431 21 152 Amongst the most frequently observed commercial- Tiger 0 31 55 ised products found at TAM shops in South Africa were Lion 1168 68 15 pangolin scales and tortoise shells that have been ground Bear 0 31 388 into powder or made into tablets. These tablets had a long list of applications, including the treatment of eczema, acne, scabbing, skin allergic reactions, and gen- ital infection. In Vietnam, pangolin scales labelled under the name “xuyeˆnsrn gia´p” as an ingredient for commer- cialised cough syrup have been advertised widely on the internet and television. This product can also be found at modern (or western) pharmacists across the country. It is noteworthy that these products, manufactured in Asia, were also found at 3 different TAM shops across South Africa, indicating that there is a demand for TAM products containing pangolin scales within the domestic market in this country. In Vietnam, two TAM shops with lion balm were found in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Tiger bone products, such as tiger bone marinated rice wine, tiger balm (slow cooked bone into hard, gluey paste) and pills advertised to contain tiger bone as an ingredient were found at 8 TAM shops across South Africa. In addition, four TAM shops were found in Johannesburg and Figure 5. A Two-dimensional Multidimensional Scaling of Parts Pretoria, South Africa, with a dried bear gallbladder From 17 Wild Animals Found at 183 Traditional South African and bear bile products. According to the label, bear Medicine (Muthi) and Traditional Asian Medicine (TAM) Shops in bile products were manufactured by the Chinese compa- South Africa and Vietnam. Group (a1) refers to wild animals found ny Guizhentang Pharmaceutical. This indicates that, in in TAM and group (a2) refers to those found in muthi shops. addition to threatened wild animal parts being smuggled from Africa to Asia for consumption (Challender & in both South Africa and Vietnam. By comparing prod- Hywood, 2012; Heinrich et al., 2016; Pietersen et al., uct availability in the three sample groups (muthi shops 2014), processed wild animal parts as TAM are poten- and TAM shops in South Africa, and TAM shops in tially being trafficked into South Africa for domestic Vietnam), we gained a knowledge of the use of wild use. animal parts in both countries and provide an under- It is important to note that all pangolins species, standing of the complex illegal trade between Africa rhino, tigers and bears are listed on the Convention on and Asia. The results enable us to understand the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild market characteristics and identify target groups for Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix I, and therefore future conservation initiatives. the international commercial trade in parts and deriva- tives is prohibited. Although domestic trade in farmed bear bile is legal in China (Crudge et al., 2019), and there Comparison of Trade Between Africa and Asia may not be a law in South Africa prohibiting sale of this Regarded as the most trafficked mammals in the world, non-native taxa, it remains largely illegal to import or the trade of pangolin parts is estimated to account for export this product for commercial purposes. 20% of all illegal wildlife trade (Heinrich et al., 2016). In Although the frequency at which rhino horn was our survey, pangolin scales were the most frequently found on display at muthi and TAM shops in both traded wild animal products found in both South South Africa and Vietnam was low, the presence of Africa and Vietnam. Pangolin scales were offered in this product indicates there is demand for rhino horn 10 Tropical Conservation Science as an ingredient for traditional medicine usage in both An increased flow of capital and visitors from China countries and practices. The low number of shops found has been linked to increased trade in wildlife products in with rhino horn could be due to the increased sensitivity Southeast Asia (Krishnasamy et al., 2018; Livingstone of the issues, and therefore rhino horn may not be on et al., 2018; Nguyen & Frechette, 2017). In 2013, Chinese arrivals, including those from Hong Kong, to South open display, but rather off display elsewhere and only Africa reached 151,847 individuals, representing a offered to trusted buyers. The distinct clusters on MDS map showed that there 14.7% increase over the previous year. In 2014, China are significant differences in species found between muthi also became a core market for South Africa along with and TAM shops. In this study, MDS perceived similar- the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and ities between species showing a distinct order based on India (Chen & Duggan, 2016). In order to maximize probability of detection. As expected, products of Asian economic benefits for African countries, local African origin and products exclusively found in TAM shops, tour operators need to learn Chinese language and cul- such as saiga, tiger and bear parts are grouped into ture, as well as to understand preferences and behaviours one cluster. While those that are found in both muthi (Kings, 2014). In addition, the establishment of BRI and SEZs pose a potential threat to the African wildlife and TAM shops appeared together in another cluster. through increasing the Chinese consumer population Elephant and giraffe parts, which were only detected at and transmitting cultural practices to the local populace. muthi shops, appeared separately, but closer to the latter The consumption of wildlife products through TAM cluster. There were overlaps between detections of prod- practice has been shown to spread to the local African ucts from bear and tiger, elephant and giraffe, as well as peoples (Nguyen & Robert, 2020). lion and birds. These overlaps suggest that shops offer- The illegal trade of wildlife has long been associated ing one product such as bear parts are also likely to sell with rural poverty and the growth of wealth in consumer the other products (i.e. tiger parts). The overlap between lion and birds is curious and maybe explained by the use groups (Atuo et al., 2015; Brashares et al., 2011; Challender & MacMillan, 2014). Poverty may be the of bird and lion parts in muthi practices (Whiting et al., driver amongst the muthi traders/practitioners’ group 2013). in trading threatened wildlife parts, with the majority Our survey results also indicated there is a significant (85.1%) being in the low-income class, earning less difference in prices of wild animal products for sale at than 6000 Rands/month (412 USD). However, our muthi shops and TAM shops in both South Africa and results showed that TAM traders/practitioners in Vietnam. One of the reasons for this could be because South Africa and Vietnam were not under the same wildlife parts at muthi shops were often sold as raw financial pressure, with 37.8% having incomes above ingredients, whereas TAM shops processed their prod- 1000 USD; amongst the middle-high income class in ucts into a more convenient form to consume, such as both South Africa and Vietnam (General Statistic pills, liquors and paste. In addition, Asian originated Office of Vietnam, 2018; Visagie, 2013). While all products, such as bear bile and gall bladder, are likely muthi respondents working at muthi shops stated it is to have been smuggled into South Africa as the species their main income, only 32.9% of TAM respondents in are not native to the country. The prices of TAM prod- both South Africa and Vietnam depend solely on income ucts, therefore, tends to be higher than those from muthi from TAM. As noted previously, it appears muthi trad- shops. ers are being coerced by Chinese buyers to provide illegal wildlife products to satisfy the demand for TAM. Poverty, Livelihoods and the Chinese Influence China has been cultivating relationships with various The Application of Different Methods to Detect developing regions of the world (Hughes, 2019; Wildlife Trade Lechner et al., 2018). In Africa, China’s policy aims to secure natural resources and consumer markets, and to We compared specialised questioning techniques, direct establish China’s status as a leader in the developing questioning and observations to detect wildlife trade. In world (Duggan, 2014). China’s phenomenal economic general, RRT yielded the highest estimations of wild growth resulted in a mounting need for energy and animal products being sold in the market in compared raw materials to fuel the Chinese economy, and a sub- to FCB and DQ. Significant differences between RRT sequent need for markets in which to sell Chinese prod- and DQ showed that overall, the trade of all 5 species ucts (Chen & Duggan, 2016). From 2009 to 2011, the were considered as sensitive by muthi, TAM South total volume of Chinese African trade reached almost Africa and TAM Vietnam traders. Muthi traders had USD200 billion. Within this period, China’s export to the highest prevalence estimates for pangolin, lion and Africa accounted for USD85 billion, while China’s rhino parts, which may be expected based on the avail- imports from Africa accounted for USD113 billion. ability of these products in South Africa, as well as their Nguyen and Roberts 11 use in muthi practices (Whiting et al., 2013). Significant suspected cases of wildlife trafficking, and where possi- differences in the estimates for trade in tiger and bear ble instances where no punitive action has been taken. Threatened wildlife parts are not only smuggled from parts between TAM in South Africa and Vietnam could Africa to Asia for consumption, but wildlife parts from be explained by the availability of these products (i.e. Asia are being trafficked into Africa for domestic con- bear parts are more available in Vietnam than South sumption or sale within Africa. Despite some laudable Africa). The high prevalence of tiger products in South efforts, most notably anti-poaching and tighten security Africa could be due to the overlap with lion products at airports and borders, South Africa’s inability to better and/or South African domestic regulation is not yet in conserve its wildlife is partly driven by lack of resources place to protect the trade in tiger parts. As such tiger and capacity to respond to the impacts of Chinese parts could be being traded more frequently in South investment. Such investment needs to be matched by Africa than Vietnam. In addition, results show a simi- resources for mitigating impacts, including support for larity between lion and tiger products, this is more likely effective enforcement against illegal wildlife trade. The due to the mistaken identity of these two products, as high level of wild animal parts for sale in South Africa lion parts are being used as alternative for tigers. presents a challenge for effective conservation manage- FCB estimations for the trade of all five species were ment. Traditional African medicine is known for its use very low (0–10%), which is lower than DQ for pangolin, of wild animal parts, but the practice of TAM in this lion, bear and tiger. Significant differences in respond- country may put more pressure on the fragile popula- ents’ estimations using FCB was not detected between tions of protected species in the continent. In addition, users and non-users, suggesting the prevalence of behav- improving wildlife law enforcement and providing pro- iour is not higher among those who admitted selling tection for non-native species in domestic legislation in protected wild animal parts in comparison to those both South Africa and Vietnam is required to ensure the who have not in this study. While it could be that the survival of these species. trade in these species is rare, there is the possibility that traders intentionally provided a lower estimate so as to Acknowledgments give an impression that the products are rare and exclu- The authors wish to thank our volunteers and field assistants sive to their shop. FCB appears not to be successful for their help conducting this study. Thanks go to Brian under this scenario. Crudge for his comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript Overall, our results show that endangered wildlife and Ross Purdon from the South African Environmental parts are being traded for TAM purposes in South Affairs for supporting this study. This research is dedicated Africa and Vietnam, both domestically and internation- to Dr. Tony Whitten for his work. ally. The trade of Asian originated species, such as tiger and bear are much higher than one may expect in South Declaration of Conflicting Interests Africa. In this study, RRT was successfully applied in The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with both South Africa and Vietnam. However, FCB did not respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this appear to be effective in estimating prevalence of wild article. animal parts trade. In addition, future studies should Funding explore the application of other SQTs, such as the ballot box method (Bova et al., 2018; Nuno et al., The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup- 2013) in estimating the prevalence of wildlife trafficking, port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The author (TN) was funded by the Russell E. Train in particular those that have yet to be tested in the field. Fellowships, the Rufford Foundation, the US Fish and In this study, SQTs show a higher rate of detecting wild- Wildlife Service and the Columbus Zoo Fund for life parts in comparison to direct observation. Conservation. Implications for Conservation ORCID iDs T. Nguyen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8579-6102 This study highlights the need to develop effective meth- D. L. Roberts https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6788-2691 ods for detecting and monitoring illegal wildlife trade. 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Journal

Tropical Conservation Science – SAGE

Published: Dec 17, 2020

Keywords: consumption; demand; diaspora; immigrants; illegal wildlife trade; muthi; wildlife traders; traditional medicine practitioners

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