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/lp/springer-journals/a-decision-framework-for-selecting-critically-important-nutrients-from-IVzUJM0nfZ
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- Springer Journals
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- Copyright © The Author(s) 2023
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- 2196-5412
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- 10.1007/s40572-023-00397-5
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Abstract
Purpose of Review Aquatic foods are increasingly being recognized as a diverse, bioavailable source of nutrients, highlighting the importance of fisheries and aquaculture for human nutrition. However, studies focusing on the nutrient supply of aquatic foods often differ in the nutrients they examine, potentially biasing their contribution to nutrition security and leading to ineffective policies or management decisions. Recent Findings We create a decision framework to effectively select nutrients in aquatic food research based on three key domains: human physiological importance, nutritional needs of the target population (demand), and nutrient availability in aquatic foods compared to other accessible dietary sources (supply). We highlight 41 nutrients that are physiologically important, exemplify the importance of aquatic foods relative to other food groups in the food system in terms of concen- tration per 100 g and apparent consumption, and provide future research pathways that we consider of high importance for aquatic food nutrition. Summary Overall, our study provides a framework to select focal nutrients in aquatic food research and ensures a methodical approach to quantifying the importance of aquatic foods for nutrition security and public health. Keywords Macronutrients · Micronutrients · Public health · Planetary health · Blue foods · Fisheries · Aquaculture · Food and nutrition security * Jessica Zamborain-Mason Introduction jzm@hsph.harvard.edu Aquatic foods have historically been considered a critical Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA source of protein intake. However, increasing evidence sug- gests that aquatic foods are also a vital source of essential Division of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, fatty acids and key micronutrients [1–3]. As a consequence, Boston, MA 02111, USA studies have increasingly focused on the contribution of ani- Stanford Center for Ocean Solutions, Stanford University, • mal-sourced aquatic foods to nutrition and public health [4 , Stanford, CA 94305, USA 5], the potential for fisheries and/or aquaculture to contribute Office of Global Food Security, U.S. Department of State, • to nutrition security [6, 7 , 8–10], and pathways to manage Washington, D.C 20502, USA and conserve aquatic foods in nutrition-sensitive ways to Emerson Fellowship, Congressional Hunger Center, • prevent prevalent nutrient deficiencies [11 , 12–15]. Washington, D.C 20502, USA Recent compilations of aquatic food nutrient composi- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mailman • tion data on a diverse range of aquatic species [4 , 16] School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, have expanded the scope of research questions that can NY 10032, USA be addressed on how aquatic foods contribute to nutrition Center for Nutrition, Division of Gastroenterology, security. For example, models have been developed that Hepatology and Nutrition, Boston Children’s Hospital, predict the nutrient composition in finfish using either phy - Boston, MA 02115, USA logenetic traits [6] or species-specific environmental and Markets and Trade Division, FAO, Rome, Italy Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 Current Environmental Health Reports • • life history characteristics [7 ]. The latter model outputs density scores; e.g., [11 , 22]) and potentially misrepresent have been integrated into FishBase [17], making nutrient the role of aquatic food resources for nutrition security. composition estimates available for all fish species (many In this review, we propose a framework to select nutri- with missing observed data) in a global database com- ents based on (i) human physiological importance, (ii) nutri- monly used by ichthyologists, ecologists, and fisheries tional requirements (demand) of the target population, and scientists. (iii) nutrient concentration and total availability of aquatic While the assembly of aquatic food composition data- foods in comparison to other dietary sources accessible in bases and the development of nutrient predictions for miss- the food system (Fig. 1). First, we narrow our nutrient pool ing species have been key steps towards understanding the to focus only on nutrients that are obtained from dietary potential of aquatic foods for nutrition security (i.e., con- sources and are essential for human nutrition. Second, we sistent access, availability, and affordability of foods and consider the context of study populations to determine which beverages that promote well-being, prevent disease, and, nutrients must be supplied to avoid inadequate nutrient if needed, treat disease [18]), there remains uncertainty in intake and deficiencies. Third, we compare different food selecting nutrients to prioritize in modeling and optimiza- groups in terms of nutrient concentration per 100 g of food tion exercises. Food composition tables are region-specific and estimated availability (i.e., apparent consumption) to repositories of nutrition content for food that include many emphasize the importance of accounting for other acces- nutrients. But how does one select which nutrients to use in sible food sources in the food system when selecting nutri- aquatic food and nutrition studies? For example, the concen- ents in aquatic food research. Finally, using case studies, we tration of vitamin B (i.e., cobalamin) is considered high in provide examples of how one may follow this framework aquatic foods [4 ] but the nutrient is missing from models to select nutrients more effectively. Our study proposes a that predict fish nutrient composition from environmental methodological approach to nutrient selection for aquatic and life-history fish traits [7 ], and from studies aiming to food research and highlights future data and research needs develop nutrition-sensitive reference points for fisheries or to continue unlocking the role of aquatic foods for nutrition emphasizing the role of fisheries management for nutrition security. [11 , 12]. Additionally, selenium, which is often available in seafood sources [19], is missing from studies comparing the nutrient contribution of aquatic foods to other food groups Identifying Nutrients Important for Public (e.g., [4 ]). Furthermore, some nutrients (e.g., folate) that Health are both important for human health [20] and rich in aquatic food sources relative to other animal-source products [21] First, we reviewed the nutrients essential for human physi- • • are missing entirely from such studies (e.g., [4 , 7 ]). The ological functioning that are obtained from dietary sources. selection of nutrients could influence combined nutrient We found that, based on current evidence, there are a total metric conclusions (e.g., sustainable exploitation rates to of 41 nutrients sourced from the diet that are essential for •• maximize overall nutrient output or pooled micronutrient physiological functioning (Fig. 2; Table S1) [23 ]. Fig. 1 Diagram of a decision framework to select nutrients in aquatic food research 1 3 Current Environmental Health Reports Fig. 2 Diagram identifying key nutrients for physiological functioning from dietary sources. A All nutrients identified from dietary sources that are required for proper human body functioning. B Examples on nutrient benefits for different human life stages Nutrients can be divided into macronutrients and micro- required from the diet that enable proper physiological func- nutrients. Macronutrients—protein, carbohydrates, and tioning and minimize the risk of non-communicable diseases fats—are the nutritious components of food that must be [24, 29]. For an overview of key nutrients, their biological consumed in large quantities to maintain the body’s energy importance, main dietary sources, and examples of defi- •• needs, structure, and metabolic functioning [23 ]. Macro- ciency consequences see Table S1. nutrients are divided into subgroups. For example, protein is composed of amino acids. Of the 20 existing amino acids, nine (histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phe- Accounting for the Target Population nylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine) are essential, and Their Nutritional Needs as they are not synthesized by the body and must be con- sumed in food [24]. Carbohydrates are divided into fiber, After narrowing the nutrient pool to those sourced from simple sugar, and starch, all of which are important energy the diet and essential for human physiological needs (e.g., sources to the human body. Fats are made of fatty acids, Fig. 2), we suggest considering the target population’s need which can be in the form of saturated fatty acids, monoun- (i.e., demand) for particular nutrients (e.g., [30]) given their saturated fatty acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Poly- prevalence of deficiency (e.g., geographical context), and/ unsaturated fats include omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. or biological need (e.g., based on demography). Ideally, one Omega 3 fatty acids include alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), would have a representative measure of the target popula- docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid tion’s health and prevalence of deficiency, such as temporal (EPA) which are crucial for brain development and cardio- trends in biomarkers [31, 32]. However, in the absence of vascular health [25, 26] and are found in high concentrations direct deficiency measurements, other available proxies of in aquatic food sources [27]. nutritional needs, like inadequate intake [33], may be com- Micronutrients—vitamins and minerals—must be con- bined with local context (e.g., demography and geography) sumed in trace amounts for proper physiological function, to inform aquatic food research. growth, and development [28]. Vitamins are organic com- Inadequate intake (e.g., Fig. 3), which is based on the pounds synthesized by plants and animals while minerals are supply and apparent consumption of available foods, is com- •• inorganic compounds absorbed from soil and water [23 ]. monly used to measure the nutrient intake of a population There are at least thirteen vitamins and thirteen minerals and risk of nutrient deficiencies [34, 35]. Globally, there 1 3 Current Environmental Health Reports Fig. 3 Estimated global inade- quate dietary intake. Each point is a country’s mean inadequate intake across age/sex groups and considered global studies [4 , 33, 37, 38]. Nutrients with- out information are those that do not have inadequate intake estimates within the considered global studies (here shaded in gray) is widespread inadequate intake of vitamins and miner- worldwide [42]. However, vitamin D, besides being obtained als, often geographically co-occurring [36]. For example, from dietary sources, is also synthesized by the human body by combining available data of inadequate intake studies from sunlight. Thus, studies focusing on aquatic foods for at global scales [4 , 33, 37, 38], we found that vitamin D nutrition security in regions that receive enough vitamin is estimated to be the nutrient with the highest inadequate D from sunlight year-round (e.g., some tropical coral reef dietary intake globally, followed by fiber, iodine, omega regions), may not need to optimize aquatic foods for such a three fatty acids, vitamin E, calcium, vitamin A, selenium, nutrient, even if dietary intake data may suggest vitamin D thiamine, zinc, iron, and vitamin B (Fig. 3). Thus, these inadequacy. Those living in temperate and polar regions, on nutrients with a high risk of deficiency may be prioritized for the other hand, are likely receiving insufficient sunlight to aquatic food research with a global focus if direct deficiency satisfy their vitamin D requirements [43]; thus, inadequate estimates are not available. intake may indeed be addressed through consumption of Population nutritional requirements vary based on aquatic foods in some seasons. Similarly, iron and zinc defi- demography, with some nutrients becoming particularly ciencies are believed to increase in areas of high infectious important in specific human life stages or demographics disease burden due to decreased absorption, even if nutrient (Fig. 2). Adequate prenatal folate intake, for example, is intake levels are adequate [44]. The prevalence of anemia, critical to lower the risk of fetal neural tube malformations for example, can also be associated with a deficiency in iron, [20], whereas iron intake is critical for adolescent women vitamin A, vitamin B , and/or folate [45, 46]. Estimating in menstruation phases to increase total blood volumes [39]. the likelihood of nutritional vulnerability of a study popu- Similarly, breastfeeding adults require higher intakes of lation that does not have direct deficiency estimates may iodine and choline to promote thyroid synthesis and mem- therefore require combining dietary intake data and/or other brane health [40], whereas adults in their elderly life stages common proxies for nutrient deficiencies. require higher intakes of vitamin D and calcium to prevent bone diseases (Fig. 2). Overall, if one were to select nutrients for a more localized study without accounting for the local Positioning Aquatic Foods Relative to Other population demography, accurate population requirements Accessible Nutrient Sources based only on national-level inadequate intake estimates may be misrepresented, and resulting aquatic food programs and To understand the potential contribution of aquatic foods to policies may not be as effective in achieving their goal. nutrient supply and to determine which nutrients to select Population requirements also vary based on geographical for aquatic food nutrition, we must also account for both the context. Some locations may have higher or lower risk of nutrient concentration and total availability of other dietary nutrient deficiencies than those highlighted by inadequate sources that are culturally acceptable and affordable to the intake due to other related causes [41]. Vitamin D deficien- population, as well as available supplementation and fortifi- cies, for example, are estimated to affect 1 billion people cation in a given context. In other words, for a given nutrient 1 3 Current Environmental Health Reports required by the population, are aquatic foods appropriate higher than all other foods for iodine, vitamins D, and B nutrient sources or are other accessible dietary sources in (Fig. 4). This suggests that aquatic foods, when available and the food system more appropriate? To exemplify this, we affordable, are ideal candidates to tackle such nutrient defi- ranked the concentrations and apparent consumption of each ciencies. In contrast, aquatic foods were not ranked highly essential nutrient among different food sources using the as a source of vitamin A. However, if other vitamin A-rich Aquatic Food Composition Database [4 , 47], the United food sources (e.g., dairy and eggs in Fig. 4) are not acces- States Department of Agriculture (USDA) food composition sible to the study population (e.g., not available in sufficient tables [48], and nutrient apparent consumption estimates quantities or not affordable), aquatic foods may become a •• [49 ] (NB: if available, food composition tables relevant to critical source. This highlights the need to consider aquatic the study location should be considered [50]). This process foods relative to other accessible foods. allowed us to emphasize that a key step when prioritizing Intra-food group variability (e.g., which specific aquatic nutrients in aquatic food research is to consider other food foods) also matters when we select nutrients. For example, and/or nutrient sources in the food system and their potential within aquatic foods, bivalves had the highest concentrations contribution to nutrient supply and intake in terms of both per 100 g of raw muscle tissue in 10 out of the 40 nutrients nutrient concentration and food quantity (including how examined with available data, whereas crustaceans were prevalent their consumption is). relatively higher than all other aquatic foods in copper, phos- In terms of nutrient concentrations, we show that, based phorus, sodium, tryptophan, and zinc (Fig. 4). This within- on median raw muscle tissue values, aquatic foods rank group variability also applies to non-aquatic foods (Fig. S1). Fig. 4 Ranking of aquatic foods relative to other food groups. A Aquatic foods relative to other food groups in terms of concen- tration per 100 g of raw product. Raster map is based on median values and scaled according to the food group with the highest median concentration per 100 g. See supplementary information Figure S1 to see within-group variability. B Within aquatic food group variability. The raster map is based on median concentration per 100 g raw muscle tissue values and scaled according to the median con- centration of all aquatic foods jointly. C Proportion of median per-capita nutrient apparent consumption obtained from aquatic foods relative to the total diet. In A–C, gray values indicate nutrients without data in the databases we examined. Note that in this section omega 3 and omega 6 (e.g., Fig. 2) are combined into polyunsaturated fatty acids (i.e., PUFA) due to data availability. MUFA refers to monounsaturated fatty acids 1 3 Current Environmental Health Reports For example, within vegetables, leafy greens—such as kale Examples of Nutrient Selection in Aquatic and spinach—have a much higher concentration of vitamin Food Research K compared to carrots or cruciferous vegetables like cauli- flower [51]. Thus, it is critical to consider the availability of Here, we provide several examples to select nutrients in alternative specific food sources, how specific food groups aquatic food research under different data-availability sce- are combined (e.g., dietary patterns), and how aquatic foods narios (Fig. 5). Imagine you are conducting aquatic food can best contribute towards addressing specific population nutrition research in a tropical coastal community to under- nutritional needs. stand how local fisheries can be managed to optimize nutri- To evaluate total nutrient supply and the relative importance • ent supplies and improve population health (e.g., [11 , 53]). of aquatic foods, one must account for the product of concen- The first question one might ask is: which dietary source tration and quantity of each available and affordable food type nutrients are essential for the population? The answer to this (i.e., not only what food types are accessible, but in what quan- question will provide a wide list of nutrients that are physi- tities and how prevalent their consumption is in the diet). For ologically required (e.g., Fig. 2). The second question is: instance, although rice does not have a high concentration of which nutrients are at risk of deficiency in the population zinc, the sheer volume of consumption in countries like Bang- given their characteristics? Given the location of the study ladesh and Madagascar causes rice to be the primary source population, one may measure their current deficiency sta - of zinc to the population [52]. Based on median concentration tus (e.g., with biomarker repeated measures) and/or, if such values, aquatic foods did not rank the highest in 90% of the data is not available, evaluate the population’s demography nutrients we examined. However, when we account for appar- and/or use proxies (e.g., nutrient inadequate intake, anemia •• ent consumption of such foods [49 ], which includes quantity, or stunting) that give a measure of nutrient deficiency risk. aquatic foods were estimated to contribute > 10% of the per- Such a process may reveal that the population is deficient capita apparent consumption for vitamin B , selenium, and (or at risk of deficiency) in protein, missing six out of nine all essential amino acids with available information (based on essential amino acids in sufficient quantities, vitamins A, C, median values from 193 countries; Fig. 4c). Therefore, when and B , folate, and zinc (e.g., Fig. 5). One may initially aim selecting nutrients for aquatic food nutrition research, which to consider these nutrients. However, there are likely nutrient foods are available and affordable in the food environment, trade-offs, with some management measures optimizing one in what quantities and how prevalent their consumption is in nutrient but not others. For example, harvesting fish stocks the diet, is an important step to understand (i) which nutri- at different rates maximizes dier ff ent nutrient yields depend - ents aquatic foods could contribute the most to, and (ii) what • ing on the species mix [11 ]. Consequently, the most sali- nutrients are obtained from other foods, supplementation or ent research question may actually be as follows: to which fortification so aquatic foods can complement them. nutrient intakes can aquatic foods contribute most given the Fig. 5 Decision framework for nutrient selection in aquatic foods diagram) and potential pathways to operationalize nutrient selection research. We provide an example of how one may prioritize nutri- depending on data availability (right side of filter diagram) ents in aquatic food research under a given context (left side of filter 1 3 Current Environmental Health Reports existing food environment? At such a stage other accessible [48]). For aquatic foods specifically, several datasets exist, food sources come into play: which foods does the popu- however each with its own benefits and caveats [57], and lation have access to and in what quantities are they con- with limited spatio-temporal resolution. Strategically allo- sumed? For our coastal community example, cereals/grains cating research efforts to collect baseline food composition and aquatic foods are the primary food sources, with cere- data that is spatially and temporally representative, espe- als/grains consumed in larger quantities. Food composition cially for nutrients that have been under sampled (e.g., iso- tables and intake estimates (e.g., from repeated food recalls leucine or vitamin K in aquatic foods; Fig. 4) will increase or apparent consumption) reveal that available cereals and our understanding on the current and future role of aquatic grains are richer in zinc and vitamin C and contribute the foods for nutrition [53]. highest percentage to those nutrient intakes in comparison to accessible seafood resources, whereas aquatic foods contrib- Improving Aquatic Food Nutrient Composition ute most to all other nutrients the population is deficient in. Inference Thus, one may choose to prioritize research on the six essen- tial amino acids, vitamin A, vitamin B , and folate, which Better baseline data will allow to further improve nutrient are (i) essential for the population from dietary sources, (ii) composition predictability and inference. For example, mod- deficient (or at risk of deficiency) in the target population, els that build upon observed nutrient concentration data to and (iii) most relevant in aquatic foods in comparison to predict the nutrient concentration of fish raw muscle tissue other accessible food sources (i.e., cereals and grains). based on life-history traits (e.g., [7 ]) or phylogeny (e.g., Of course, food access and dietary needs of a population [6]) are useful tools to infer nutrient composition for species may change over time, and such dynamics require timely lacking such information. However, such inferences need re-evaluation of nutrient selection. For example, one may to be expanded to include (i) other nutrients important for also ask: is access to current food resources and quanti- public health such as vitamin B or vitamin D (Fig. 2), (ii) ties stable and/or sustainable? In our case study, imagine other aquatic food groups besides ray-finned fishes that are freshwater resources used to cultivate available cereals and important nutritionally (e.g., invertebrates or aquatic plants; grains become scarce due to ongoing reduction in precipita- e.g., Fig. 4), (iii) spatio-temporal variability within species tion with climate change [54]. Cereals and grains may still groups [53, 58], and (iv) nutrition variability among con- be accessible to the population but in much lower quantities sumed body parts, production sectors and/or preparation that are insufficient to satisfy the population’s zinc require- methods. Such advancements will increase the accuracy ment [55]. In such a case, available aquatic resources may of nutrient predictions and inform policy agendas aimed at become a critical source of zinc for the population in the minimizing the burden of malnutrition through aquatic food medium to long term. management (e.g., [59]). Improving the Accuracy of Target Population Needs Frontiers to Improve Nutrition‑Based Aquatic Food Research There is a lack of complete, accurate, and high-quality data on micronutrient intake and malnutrition around the globe Our study proposes a methodological and evidence-based [34], limiting our understanding on population needs and decision framework to select nutrients in aquatic food requirements, and in turn which nutrients we need to pri- research. The established criteria within the framework oritize. For example, many essential nutrients (e.g., Fig. 2) vary by space and time and we suggest considering nutrient are lacking inadequate intake information (Fig. 3), dietary targets at the start of the sampling design of any nutritional references such as the estimated average requirements research on aquatic foods. Furthermore, below, we outline (EAR) [24], and/or accurate deficiency estimates based six future research avenues that we consider of high impor- only on access to foods (e.g., zinc intake from national tance to further inform nutrient selection and understand the food supplies compared to biological outcomes of zinc contribution of aquatic foods to nutrition security. deficiency [34, 60]). Assessing the nutritional needs of the target population will require better compilation of multiple Improving Nutrient Composition Data evidence sources (e.g., biological, clinical, or functional markers; nutrient adequacy of individual diets; nutrient Often, nutrient selection in aquatic food research is driven by adequacy of household diets; nutrient adequacy of national data availability (e.g., [7 ]). Many food composition tables food supplies; and nutrient-informative food-group intake are limited in the nutrients reported relative to those high- of individuals or households; [35]), and different bioavail- lighted in Fig. 2 (e.g., [56]) or are biased towards foods and ability and absorption rates. Compiling accurate population countries that have better monitoring and/or reporting (e.g., deficiencies will better inform aquatic food research needs. 1 3 Current Environmental Health Reports and toxicants, allergies or microbial pathogens) associated Understanding Bioavailability and Nutrient Interactions with aquatic food consumption such as the accumulation of heavy metals (e.g., mercury), microplastics, or polychlorin- Distinctions between nutrient bioavailability and absorp- ated biphenyls (PCBs) that are toxic for the human body [64, 65]. Likewise, food production has a big environmental tion with particular relevance for aquatic food research and which nutrients to select also exist. For example, total impact, with aquatic systems estimated to contribute 9.9% of the pressures of the global food system [66]. A better iron is typically broken up into heme iron (animal-sourced) and non-heme iron (plant-sourced) with varying absorption understanding of the trade-offs between nutritional bene- fits, upper intake levels, pathogens, contaminant risks, and rates in the human body [61]. Other compounds such as phytates inhibit the absorption of iron, calcium, and zinc environmental footprints relative to other food sources will allow researchers and practitioners to add extra dimensions [62]. Additionally, metabolic interactions between vitamins and minerals determine their physiologic utility and intake to nutrient selection, set better spatially and species-specific safe consumption limits, and inform holistic management requirements. For example, the mineral calcium is neces- sary for healthy cardiovascular and skeletal systems. Yet, approaches that maximize nutritional benefits. absorption of calcium from the diet is strongly dependent on the vitamin D derivative calcitriol. In conditions of vita- Conclusion min D deficiency, the body draws upon calcium stores from the skeletal system, increasing the risk of osteoporosis and •• Aquatic foods are a rich and diverse source of macro and other degenerative bone diseases [23 ]. Understanding such nutrient interdependencies and considering them in micronutrients, highlighting the potential role that fisheries and aquaculture sectors may serve in preventing malnutri- nutrient selection (e.g., which nutrients to combine together to maximize absorption) may be crucial when focusing on tion. To understand the role of aquatic foods for nutrition security, researchers must first identify the set of nutrients aquatic foods, and their combined benefit to nutrition. to target for analysis or optimization. Our review proposes a framework to select nutrients based on physiological Accounting for Aquatic Foods as a Whole importance, needs of the study population, and relevance of aquatic foods relative to other foods accessible in the food Foods provide a combination of nutrients simultaneously. system. We show that there are at least 41 essential nutrients obtained from the diet and that the best pathways to target Sometimes, narrowing the picture to individual nutrients instead of the overall pool of nutrients that foods may pro- malnutrition with aquatic foods will depend on how each of these nutrients is deficient in the study population, as vide (as is the case in current nutrient supply analyses) can misrepresent the combined nutritional value of aquatic foods well as their total availability in the food system. Obtaining spatio-temporal nutrient composition and deficiency data on and/or other foods and thus the contribution of aquatic foods to healthy diets relative to other food sources. Several com- these 41 nutrients, as well as increasing our understating of their bioavailability and interactions, will further contribute bined metrics are being explored that include several nutrients or several nutrients relative to nutrient reference intakes (e.g., towards an understanding of the nutritive role of aquatic • foods, informing fisheries management and aquaculture ini- [11 , 53]). However, as nutrient selection can inu fl ence study outcomes, “which” nutrients are combined, “how” and “why” tiatives aimed at decreasing the burden of malnutrition and improving public health. requires further research attention. Testing metrics that combine nutrients based on physiological relevance (e.g., to prevent non- communicable diseases), consider nutrients that must be con- sumed simultaneously (e.g., to improve absorption; [63]), and/ Methodology or also take into consideration the nutrition qualities of other foods that are ingested together with aquatic foods (e.g., account Identifying Nutrients Important for Public Health for dietary patterns) will help provide a better picture of the importance of aquatic foods for nutrition security as a whole. We conducted targeted searches on the Web of Science using keywords nutrient*, public health, essential, micronutrient, Expanding the Scope of Aquatic Food Attributes vitamin, and minerals to identify studies for a literature review. Our initial screening on the Web of Science using to Include Public Health Risks and Environmental Footprint keywords nutrient*, public health, and essential returned 469 studies, from which we selected 26 sources of peer- Considering aquatic foods as a beneficial nutrient pool, while reviewed literature and scientific reports that summarized or provided a review of data from clinical trials and lab-based important, could mask potential risks (e.g., contaminants 1 3 Current Environmental Health Reports studies. Additional searches were conducted using keywords viscera, bones, head, tail, etc.). To compare across different micronutrient, vitamin, and minerals and specific nutrient food groups, we used the median value of each food group names. We summarized the literature to create a compre- relative to the maximum median nutrient value across all hensive list of nutrients important for public health through groups. To compare nutrient content across different aquatic dietary consumption. From these nutrients, we created a food species groups (ray-finned fish, sharks and rays, mol- list of essential nutrients based on the most recent scientific luscs, crustaceans, and seaweed) we used the median value evidence of nutrient deficiencies, nutrients with severe con- of each taxonomic group relative to the median value across sequences when under-consumed, and nutrients of public all aquatic food groups. health importance (Table S1). Note that we also performed the analyses using only the USDA data instead of AFCD, which has less diversification Global Inadequate Intake of aquatic food groups, yet trends in concentrations relative to other food groups were consistent for all nutrients except To determine global inadequate intakes as an example of for those without information (Fig. S2). nutritional needs of populations, we used four global stud- ies that had estimated inadequate intake: Beal et al. 2017; Nutrient Apparent Consumption Passarelli et al. 2022; Zhou and Liang 2021; Golden et al 2021 [i.e., 33, 37, 38, 4 ]. We averaged the deficiency value To provide an empirical example of the importance of from different sources to determine the final deficiency by accounting for quantity of aquatic foods relative to other nutrient and country. food sources, we estimated the contribution of aquatic foods to nutrients in terms of quantity using an updated version Nutrient Concentration from Aquatic Foods (year 2017) of apparent consumption estimates from the and Other Food Groups •• Global Nutrient Database (GND)[49 ]. GND contains information on per capita daily apparent consumption of To exemplify the importance of accounting for aquatic 156 nutrients across 195 countries and territories separated foods relative to other foods accessible in the food system by food and agricultural commodity groups. We filtered in terms of nutrient concentration, we used the Aquatic the database for the nutrients highlighted in Fig. 2, and for Food Composition Database [47] for nutrient composition each nutrient with available information, we calculated the of aquatic foods, and USDA National Nutrient Database median per capita daily apparent consumption (across all (USDA) [48] for nutrient composition of all other foods. countries) obtained from all foods and obtained only from The Aquatic Food Composition Database synthesizes aquatic foods. Next, for each nutrient, we calculated the pro- nutrient information from 26 national and international portion of per capita daily apparent consumption obtained food composition tables and over 950 peer review studies from aquatic foods by dividing the quantity obtained from into a single database containing over 2500 taxa and 300 aquatic foods by the quantity obtained from all foods. nutrients along with data on samples, including sample ori- gin, sample preparation, and part of aquatic food analyzed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- All units were standardized to FAO INFOODs guidelines. tary material available at https://doi. or g/10. 1007/ s40572- 023- 00397-5 . Aquaculture feeding trials were excluded from the data- Acknowledgements The authors thank Professors Walter Willet and set. A quality check was conducted to identify outliers and Eric Rim for reviewing and providing constructive comments on the make sure units and values were correct. All taxonomic manuscript. information was standardized according to FishBase [18] Data Availability Data used for this paper are available from the fol- and SeaLifeBase [67] taxonomic tables. The US Depart- lowing references: [4 , 33, 37, 38, 47, 48]. Apparent consumption esti- ment of Agriculture (USDA) National Nutrient Database for mates [49] related to this paper may be requested from the author [JS] Standard Reference is the major source of food composition upon reasonable request. data in the United States and provides the foundation for most food composition databases in the public and private Declarations sectors in the US. Conflict of Interest Jessica Zamborain Mason, Daniel Viana, Khristo- To compare nutrient composition of different food groups, pher Nicholas, Erin D. Jackson, J. Zachary Koehn, Simone Passarelli, we first standardized all units for accessed nutrients across Seo-Hyun Yoo, Angela W. Zhang, and Hannah C. Davin declare that AFCD and USDA databases. For USDA, we used the food they have no conflict of interest. Christopher Golden is on the Science Advisory Board for Oceana, an organization interested in developing categories from the database to calculate the median nutri- food security solutions through aquatic foods and ocean conservation. ent values of each food group. We used only raw products Josef Schmidhuber works for the Food and Agricultural Organization. for all databases (excluding cooked products) and for AFCD Christopher Duggan has received funds from Takeda, Uptodate, and we used only the muscle tissue of aquatic species (excluding Jones and Bartlett learning. 1 3 Current Environmental Health Reports Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent This article does not 9. Gephart JA, Golden CD, Asche F, et al. Scenarios for global contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any aquaculture and its role in human nutrition. Rev Fish Sci Aquac. of the authors. 2021;29(1):122–38. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1080/ 23308 249. 2020. 17823 42. Disclaimer The views expressed in this article by Dr. Passarelli are 10. Shepon A, Gephart JA, Henriksson PJG, et al. Reorientation solely the personal views of this author. of aquaculture production systems can reduce environmental impacts and improve nutrition security in Bangladesh. Nat Food. 2020;1(10):640–7. https://doi. or g/10. 1038/ s43016- 020- 00156-x . Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- 11.• Robinson JPW, Nash KL, Blanchard JL, et al. Managing fisher - bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- ies for maximum nutrient yield. Fish Fish. 2022;23(4):800–11. tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1111/ faf. 12649. (First study to estimate as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, nutrition-sensitive reference points for marine capture provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes fisheries.) were made. The images or other third party material in this article are 12. Nash KL, MacNeil MA, Blanchard JL, et al. Trade and foreign included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated fishing mediate global marine nutrient supply. Proc Natl Acad otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in Sci. 2022;119(22):e2120817119. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1073/ pnas. the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not 21208 17119. permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will 13. Tigchelaar M, Leape J, Micheli F, et al. The vital roles of need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a blue foods in the global food system. 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Journal
Current Environmental Health Reports – Springer Journals
Published: Jun 1, 2023
Keywords: Macronutrients; Micronutrients; Public health; Planetary health; Blue foods; Fisheries; Aquaculture; Food and nutrition security