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A state-of-the-art examination of disaster management in Sierra Leone: the implementation drawbacks, research gaps, advances, and prospects

A state-of-the-art examination of disaster management in Sierra Leone: the implementation... Unfolding events have shown that Sierra Leone is enduring various disasters at a worrying rate. While progress is being made in disaster management, activities that degrade the fragile ecosystem, exacerbated by climate change, poverty, and bad governance, remain growing concerns. Amid these concerns, there is inadequate information to take appropriate actions. The authors wish to provide a solution by examining 35 publications from various scholarly and grey literature and raw data sources, following a critical review process designed to expose the implementation drawbacks, research gaps, advances, and prospects in disaster management in Sierra Leone. The study results show that lapses in data management, fewer professionals, and inefficiencies in communication are the most pressing considerations for improving disaster management in the country. Inadequate funds to implement management plans remain pervasive. Following these findings, we recommend that all first responders be routinely exposed to international tabletop exercises and simulated disaster response training to help them build their capacities and learn from other countries. Students in the relevant disciplines should be encouraged to participate in these exercises to facilitate early learning. Also, management initiatives should consider gender equity, the situations of the disabled, and other vulnerable groups at all levels of planning and implementation of activities. Future studies should assess the influence of social media on disaster management research and practice in the country. Keywords: Disaster management, Government, Sierra Leone, Climate change, Risks, Hazards Introduction Previous literature has pointed out that environmental Sierra Leone has experienced several disasters such as degradation, climate change, poverty, and bad govern- landslides, civil war, Ebola Virus Disease and frequent ance mainly contribute to disasters in the country (Clark- flooding. Most of these were either caused or exacer - ginsberg 2014). These factors ultimately combine to make bated by human influences and have resulted in injuries, Sierra Leone’s disaster management more reactive and deaths, property losses and damages, and the interrup- focused on responding rather than being proactive and tion of daily life support services, all of which have seri- focused on avoiding, preventing and mitigating disaster ously affected the country’s growth and development impacts (Miles et al. 2021). (DMD and ONS 2006). Another obstacle to disaster management is the politi- cisation of national issues. People spread fake news and baseless rumours to gain political advantage during pub- lic catastrophes (Sawaneh 2020). This act, added to the *Correspondence: bashiru.turay@uni-bonn.de; bashiruturay19@gmail.com state officials’ contradictory actions during disasters and Department of Geography, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany emergencies, leaves questions and doubts in the victims’ Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. 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Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 2 of 15 minds about their fate during such circumstances (Sesay resulted in inadequate information for effective risk and Bradley 2022). management in the country, making room for disaster Additional problems that have been identified to hinder mismanagement (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). disaster management are conflicting mandates among Regarding the above and the stride to provide con- institutions with a role in disaster management. For temporary information and implementable recom- instance, state institutions such as the National Protected mendations for improvement, this paper, therefore, Area Authority and the Forestry Department are man- assess the state of disaster management in Sierra Leone dated to preserve Freetown’s hills as natural assets. At the through a critical review of relevant documents about same time, the Ministry of Lands is sometimes interested disaster and their management in the country. in awarding such lands for estate development as part of As such, the objective of this study is to examine its land protection, planning and allocation mandates. disaster management in Sierra Leone with a focus on This conflict in institutional mandate can sometimes exposing the implementation drawbacks, research gaps, affect land conservation and other disaster mitigation advances and prospects. interventions. In all these, individuals and communities “The results and discussion” section of this paper already marginalized bear the brunt of the consequences present the analysis of disasters and their manage- (Sesay and Bradley 2022). ment, implementation drawbacks, research gaps, and A "disaster" in this context implies a significant disrup - the presentation of the advances and prospects. Lastly, tion of the country’s wellbeing, safety, and functioning at presented are the conclusion and recommendations any spatial level brought on by dangerous events inter- that detail measures that, if implemented, will provide acting with insecurity, capacity, and exposure, leading a solution to disaster management problems in the to losses in lives, property, and environmental resources country. that may require external humanitarian assistance. This study adopts the UN description of disaster man - agement, which is the organization, planning, and imple- Methodology mentation of measures for the prevention and mitigation, This study utilized scholarly, grey literature and raw preparedness, response, rehabilitation/reconstruction/ data drawn from various sources, following a systematic recovery from a disaster (UNDRR 2022). review process. Scholarly articles were obtained from The terms "emergency management" and "disas - Scopus and Google Scholar. Raw data were obtained from ter management" are sometimes used interchangeably. the international disasters database website at https:// While there is some overlap, an emergency refers to haz- public. emdat. be/ data, and the Directorate of Health ardous situations that do not cause a significant interrup - Security and Emergencies, Ministry of Health and Sanita- tion in a community’s or society’s functioning (UNDRR tion, Sierra Leone website http:// dhse. gov. sl/. Grey litera- 2022). ture was obtained from the United Nations Framework Researchers and practitioners have made efforts to Convention on Climate Change https:// www4. unfccc. int/ improve disaster management in the country by doing sites/ NAPC/ Pages/ natio nal- adapt ation- plans. aspx; the relevant assessments. For instance, the then Ministry of International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Lands, Country Planning and the Environment and the https:// www. ifrc. org/ docs/ idrl/ 671EN. pdf, https:// disas Freetown City Council evaluated natural disasters and terlaw. ifrc. org/ media/ 3020; World Health Organization risks in Freetown to improve the city’s disaster mitigation https:// www. afro. who. int/ publi catio ns/ sierra- leone- natio (MLCPE and FCC 2014). Likewise, a national risk map nal- action- plan- health- secur ity- 2018- 2022; Reliefweb (Groen and Jacobs 2012), disaster preparedness baseline https:// relie fweb. int/ disas ter/ fr- 2021- 000169- sle; Sierra (Pacific Disaster Center 2020), etc., have been devel - Leone Urban Research Centre https:// www. slurc. org/; oped. Researchers have investigated different risks, haz - Save the children https:// www. savet hechi ldren. org. uk/ ards, and disasters (Kamara et  al. 2022; Morton Hamer blogs/ 2017/ beati ng- pneum onia- sierra- leone; Awoko et al. 2019; Osuteye et al. 2017; Shin et al. 2018)and their www. awoko news. sl and the patriotic vanguard https:// effects on the long-term economic sustainability of the w w w. t he p a tr iot ic v an g u ar d. c om/ on- e pide mic s - and- country (Dumbuya and Nirupama 2017). pande mics- in- sierra- leone. However, there are existing gaps in that most of the The authors had to include the grey literature men - previous research either do not give a detailed national tioned above to adjust for the insufficient relevant schol - view, missed recent happenings, or failed to capture arly literature and to capture recent happenings not yet the updated context of national disaster management found in scholarly articles. The results from different covered in The National Disaster Management Agency sources were complementary and aided in catching a Act of 2020 (2020). The aforementioned issues have holistic view of the subject matter and reducing data bias. T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 3 of 15 Review procedure The retained results from Google Scholar (36) and Criteria for inclusion Scopus (39) were combined and checked for duplica- Criteria for including work in this review is that it should tion. This process left a total of 52 results. The titles be a publication about managing any disaster at any spa- and abstracts of the documents were screened for their tial level in the country. Alternatively, it should be an consistency with the research objective. We retained 30 institutional policy or act for national disaster manage- publications after this process and had their full texts ment. These criteria were set to focus only on national read. Five (5) more results were obtained using a direct disasters and their management. search of the relevant institutional websites referenced in the literature. The purpose was to capture updated, not Raw data search recorded, or missing disasters and impact records. On the international disaster database website, all the The final sample contains thirty-five publications, disaster classifications (Geophysical, Meteorological, which include nineteen journal articles, eight reports, Hydrological, Climatological, Biological, Extra-terres- four government policies and acts, and four news/ trial, Technological, and Complex Disasters) in the plat- blogs. The authors examined them under the following form were checked and applied to Sierra Leone, covering themes: disasters and their management; implementation all the disaster years of records in the database from 1900 drawbacks; authors’ recommendations; research gaps; to 2022. The total number of lab-confirmed cases and advances and prospects. deaths due to the Corona Virus disease in Sierra Leone was taken from the Directorate of Health Security and Results and discussion Emergencies, Ministry of Health and Sanitation website. Disasters and their management The authors examined the disasters, periods of occur - Literature search and screening rence, impacts and their management. A total of 16 dif- The following Scopus database search string "TITLE- ferent disasters were found in the literature. The review ABS-KEY (disaster AND management AND in AND shows that Ebola Virus Disease (n = 4) and Landslide sierra AND leone)" yielded 39 results. The Scopus data - (n = 4) are the disasters most independently researched base search was complemented with a literature search in Sierra Leone, followed by Fire, Wars, COVID-19, in google scholar using the search string "Incident crisis Drought, Tuberculosis, Typhoid Fever, and Lassa Fever emergency catastrophe disaster management in Sierra (See Fig. 1). Leone". The Google Scholar search yielded 18,400 results. Table  1 summarises disasters, periods of occurrence, The authors sorted the result by relevance and had 36 impacts, and sources. publications consistent with the research topic drawn The country has suffered a series of cholera outbreaks from the first 15 web pages. between 1998 and 2013. These outbreaks have caused the Fig. 1 Disasters investigated by studies on this topic as drawn from the sample. Source Authors Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 4 of 15 Table 1 A breakdown of disasters in Sierra Leone, period of incidence, impacts, and sources Disaster Period of incidence Cases-impacts Sources Cholera 1998–2013 Confirmed 31,653 cases and 589 deaths Government of Sierra Leone (2019) Civil war 1991–2002 Estimated 70,000 casualties and 2.6 mil- United Nations Development Programme lion displaced people (2006) COVID-19 2020-Date 7681 confirmed cases and 125 deaths Directorate of Health Security and Emer- gencies (2022) Dysentery 1999–2000 3094 total affected and 132 deaths EM-DAT (2022) Ebola virus disease May 2014–March 2016 8706 infected cases and 3956 deaths Government of Sierra Leone (2019), Miles et al. (2021) Fire 2021 123 seriously injured, and at least 101 IIED (2021, Relief web (2021) people dead. Between 189 and 200 struc- tures destroyed, 7093 people affected Flooding 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2015 and 55,888 total affected and 161 deaths Clark-ginsberg (2014), EM-DAT (2022) Human immuno- 1984—date/ongoing An estimated 80,000 Adults and children National Disaster Management Agency deficiency virus living with HIV Act (2020) (HIV ) Landslide 9th August 2010 and 17th August 2017 16 deaths and 5 affected; 1118 deaths at EM-DAT (2022), Miles et al. (2021) least, 11,821 total affected Lassa fever Since 1970s 782 lab confirmed cases between 2007 Government of Sierra Leone (2019), Shaffer and 2017 et al. (2021) Leprosy N/A 133–140 cases in 2015 and 2016; 446 in Awoko (2018) Malaria N/A 1649,644 confirmed cases; 2257 deaths Government of Sierra Leone (2019) in 2017 Severe pneumonia N/A 114,127 confirmed case and 918 deaths Government of Sierra Leone (2019) in 2016 and 2017 Smallpox 1905; 1915–16, 1933, 1946, 1955–56, Approximately 7800 affected Cummings et al. (1971), The Patriotic 1957, 1962 and 1967–68 Vanguard (2014) Tuberculosis ( TB) Ongoing An estimated incidence of 295 cases Kamara et al. (2022) per 100,000 population. 2164 deaths between 2014 and 2016 Yellow fever 1815–1884 1041 fatalities The Patriotic Vanguard (2014) loss of more than 589 lives. After 2013, cholera has still return and resettlement of displaced people (United been infecting communities but not at an epidemic level. Nations Development Programme 2006). The disease is connected to the poor sanitation condi - The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, a respiratory tions of many communities in the country. The Ministry infectious disease, was first recorded in Sierra Leone on of Health and Sanitation and its partners, assisted victims March 31st, 2020. Through May 31st, 2022, the country during the outbreaks and helped prevent the spread of has recorded 7682 cases and 125 deaths. Results show the disease through treatments and a series of sensitiza- that the implementation of public health measures and the vaccination of people have reduced the fatality of tion campaigns run by local community disaster man- the disease, and people are gradually returning to their agement (CDMCs) and water, hygiene, and sanitation normal livelihoods (Directorate of Health Security and (WASH) committees (Clark-ginsberg 2014; Government Emergencies 2022). of Sierra Leone 2019). An outbreak of dysentery was confirmed in November The civil war, which lasted for 11  years, from 1991 1999 in Sierra Leone from samples obtained from the to 2002, was one of the country’s worst disasters and Western Area. By January 6th, 2000, the outbreak caused humanitarian crises. The government of Sierra Leone, by Shigella flexneri and Shigella dysenteriae type 1 (Sd1) with support from its international partners, ended had reached Moyamba and Koinadugu districts and the civil war in 2002 after an 11  years of brutal killings caused a total of 132 deaths and 3094 cases (EM-DAT and destructions of homes and properties. The United 2022; MLCPE and FCC 2014). Nations is among the key players that helped to end the The Ebola virus disease (EVD), one of the deadliest dis war in the country. The focus of ending the war was on - demobilization, disarmament and reintegration, and asters in the country, struck with a record 3956 deaths. T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 5 of 15 The country reported its first case on May 24, 2014. The but it had fewer consequences than the incident on 17 government of Sierra Leone and its partners utilized August 2017 (EM-DAT 2022; Miles et al. 2021). rapid response teams and strong community involve- Sierra Leone has a significant prevalence of Lassa fever ment to control the disease transmission. The measures, disease, a zoonotic viral hemorrhagic disease, notably in together with the Ebola vaccination, proved active in the its Eastern Province, where 782 lab-confirmed cases were fight against the disease. The EVD ended on November reported between 2007 and 2017. Lassa fever disease is 7th, 2015 (Government of Sierra Leone 2019; Miles et al. transmitted to humans through the contamination of 2021). broken skin or mucous membranes by direct or indirect Fire-related disasters are another disaster that has contact with infected rodent excreta on floors, home sur - been occurring frequently in the country. On the 5th faces, and food or water. The country has an isolation and of November, 2021, a fuel tanker exploded in Welling- treatment centre in Kenema Government Hospital (Gov- ton, Freetown, and resulted in at least 101 deaths and ernment of Sierra Leone 2019; Shaffer et al. 2021). 123 seriously injured people. This fire event led to the Leprosy is an infectious disease that causes disfigur - activation of the public health emergency management ing skin sores and nerve damage in the arms, legs, and and operation centre. Medical practitioners responded other body parts. The disease has been in existence since to provide emergency medical care to the victims at the ancient times. It is generally associated with scary nega- various health centres they were in (IFRC 2021). Another tive perceptions and stories of leprosy victims being fire incident was at Susan’s Bay, which was estimated to shunned as outcasts. Every year, new cases of leprosy have destroyed over 200 houses and made more than emerge in Sierra Leone. In 2015 and 2016, 133–140 1000 residents homeless (IIED 2021). instances were discovered, compared to 446 in 2008 Flooding is a frequent occurrence in Sierra Leone, with (Awoko 2018). potential occurrences in every year’s rainy season, caus- Sierra Leone has one of the world’s highest malaria ing the loss of lives and properties and serious economic burdens. The disease threatens the whole popula - impacts. Flooding causes cannot be unconnected to the tion of Sierra Leone, and it is one of the country’s top dumping of waste in drainages, improper drainage infra- causes of mortality and illness. Between 2010 and 2015, structure, unplanned buildings, etc. The NDMA and its malaria deaths in Sierra Leone decreased dramatically. partners are working on a solution to mitigate the effects This decrease is connected to various efforts, including of flooding to reduce its impacts (Clark-ginsberg 2014; enhanced diagnostic test availability, free treatments, and EM-DAT 2022). the widespread distribution of insecticide-treated nets The country is experiencing a varied and widespread (Clark-ginsberg 2014; Government of Sierra Leone 2019). HIV epidemic. According to the demographic and health The government of Sierra Leone referred to pneumonia survey, HIV prevalence is 1.7% among women and men as the most common cause of under-five mortality. There aged 15–49 in Sierra Leone. HIV prevalence is greater were 114,127 confirmed cases and 918 deaths in 2016 and among women than men (2.2% vs 1.1%). The prevalence 2017. The disease is slowly being put under control with of HIV is higher in cities than in rural areas (2.3% vs the administration of pneumococcal vaccines (PCVs) and 1.2%). To minimize HIV-related morbidity and mortal- antibiotics (Government of Sierra Leone 2019; Save the ity across the country, the government of Sierra Leone Children 2017). and its partners are striving to restrict the transmission Smallpox epidemics appear to have been more com- of HIV and AIDS through public awareness campaigns mon in historical Sierra Leone than any other disease. and the provision of free antiretroviral and other drugs Many people rejected the smallpox vaccine due to having to patients (Government of Sierra Leone 2019; Statistics no experience with it, while others did not take it for fear Sierra Leone 2019). that it was an act of fetish and sorcery. The disease was Significant landslide and mudflow occurrences finally eradicated in Sierra Leone in 1969 (The Patriotic occurred in and around Sierra Leone’s capital city of Vanguard 2014). Freetown on August 14, 2017. Following 3 days of severe Sierra Leone is high-burden tuberculosis (TB) coun- rain, hundreds of structures in the city were damaged or try, ranking among the top 30 countries with the disease. destroyed by mud and debris, killing 1141 people and Sierra Leone’s government and partners are working to displacing over 3000 people. The landslides were caused improve TB diagnosis, surveillance, and treatment in all by the region’s unique geography and climate—with parts of the country, as well as raise awareness of avail- Freetown’s elevation close to sea level—and the region’s able treatments. Treatment for tuberculosis has been generally weak infrastructure, and the loss of protective offered free in 170 locations across the country (Govern - natural drainage systems due to deforestation. Another ment of Sierra Leone 2019; Kamara et al. 2022). landslide struck the western area in August 10 2010, Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 6 of 15 Yellow fever epidemics were common throughout the Under provision 29 of Act Number 6 of the Sierra Leo- nineteenth century. The first case of yellow fever in this nean Constitution of 1991, the President can declare region was discovered in 1764. Since the introduction of a state of emergency for a disaster of national concern. the vaccines in the 2000s, the number of deaths from the The National Platform is in charge of informing the disease has decreased (The Patriotic Vanguard 2014). President about the impending disaster. When the Presi- dent declares a state of emergency in a region, the resi- National disaster management framework dent minister in charge issues or authorizes the issuance The National Disaster Management Agency was estab - of instructions for that region, and the district council lished in Sierra Leone in 2020 to manage disasters and chairmen and paramount chiefs can then take the lead at similar emergencies throughout the country and to their respective administrative levels (National Disaster develop community capacity to respond effectively to Management Agency Act 2020). disasters and emergencies (National Disaster Manage- Figure  2 shows the disaster management structure at ment Agency Act 2020). the national, regional, district, and chiefdom administra- Disasters in Sierra Leone, according to the literature, tive levels. can be referred to, and dealt with based on three levels; The National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction is one, two, and three (DMD and ONS 2006). Minor dis- the governing body in charge of the agency’s manage- asters within the local government’s, community’s, and ment and supervision. During meetings, it reports to the stakeholders’ reaction capabilities and result in only a chairman of the National Security Council. The platform modest requirement for national help are classified as comprises one administrative head from each of the rele- Level One. A disaster that would likely exceed local capa- vant ministries, departments, and agencies of the central bilities and necessitate a wide spectrum of national help government (National Disaster Management Agency Act is classified as Level Two. Level three denotes a major 2020). disaster requiring massive national assistance, includ- The Agency Secretariat is in charge of providing tech - ing military intervention and or international assistance nical and other assistance to the agency and the National (DMD and ONS 2006). Platform. The Director General is the administrative Fig. 2 The national disaster management agency framework. Source Authors’ illustration T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 7 of 15 head of the Agency. The agency’s functions are per - communities in becoming safer, stronger, and more resil- formed in the region, district, or chiefdom as directed ient to catastrophes (DMD and ONS 2006). by the national platform (National Disaster Management Moreover, specialized Agencies of the United Nations Agency Act 2020). in the country such as the UNDP and UNDRR, may Management committees develop plans to prevent and support the central government, local governments mitigate the effects of disasters. At their respective levels, and communities in disaster preparedness, mitigation, they prepare and implement disaster management plans. response and recovery (DMD and ONS 2006). The committee comprises one administrative head from each of the relevant ministries, departments, and agen- Implementation drawbacks cies at that level (National Disaster Management Agency The issues hindering and being a drawback to the effec - Act 2020). tive implementation of disaster management activities in During a disaster, private sector organizations are the country were identified, examined and placed under expected to mobilize various institutional, personnel and human resources, communication, risk reduction, logis- financial resources to implement prompt and tangible tics and stock management, early warning, responders, actions necessary to address the consequences of dis- data management, and coordination categories (Fig.  3). asters on their facilities or for which they are otherwise Financial constraints are not included in the classifica - responsible (DMD and ONS 2006). tion since they are found in the literature as a widespread Local governments may coordinate with the central and underlying problem that affects how well workers government, NGOs/INGOs such as the Sierra Leone Red are hired, trained, and involved in disaster management Cross, Concern SL, and the respective community stake- operations (DMD and ONS 2006; Government of Sierra holders in disaster management in their area of adminis- Leone 2021; Miles et al. 2021). tration only (DMD and ONS 2006; Miles et al. 2021). Community leaders are directly responsible for coordi- Human resources nating community resources to address the full spectrum Most  (17.8%) of the  problems reported in the literature of action to prevent, prepare for, respond to, and recover are related to human resource limitations. These factors from disasters with external support. Civil society is a include concerns such as the lack of professionals needed powerful pillar for transmitting disaster preparedness to meet the demands of the nation’s disaster management information, training, and volunteer activities to assist efforts. Fig. 3 The disaster management drawbacks as drawn from the study. Source Authors Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 8 of 15 According to a study by Miles and others, the NDMA inadequate and ineffective communication tech - has a limited number of employed staff to cover all nologies, as well as expertise in coordinated disaster regions and roles, and only a few staff have specialised communication. disaster management qualifications in the agency. The Previous research showed a lack of strategic disas- agency has a limited ability to manage simultaneous or ter risk reduction communication and poorly prepared cascading emergencies (Miles et al. 2021). important messaging. The absence of robust and depend - Apart from the inadequate staff in the NDMA, the able internet access and an over-reliance on private Sierra Leone Meteorological Agency responsible for mobile phones for disaster coordination are the primary disaster warning has limited capacity in hydrological, causes of disaster communication failures (Miles et  al. marine, and agricultural meteorology. These issues have 2021). called for an urgent need to train people to repair and Furthermore, Sawaneh highlighted the dissemination maintain stations rather than relying solely on interna- of false information about a disaster as a barrier to disas- tional experts (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). ter management in his research and encouraged the gov- Furthermore, the Climate Change Secretariat of the ernment to take early action against this issue (Sawaneh Environmental Protection Agency has been highlighted 2020). as lacking the institutional strength to conduct a thor- ough vulnerability assessment, adaptation modelling, and Coordination adaptation planning within the country (Government of Problems in coordinating disaster management activities Sierra Leone 2021). accounted for 11.2% of the total issues in the literature. Furthermore, findings have also revealed that the Sta - According to research, the National Disaster Manage- tistics Sierra Leone office cannot respond to the country’s ment Agency is seen by line ministries as a replacement statistics and information demands in a coordinated and rather than a coordinating partner. This issue, among concerted manner with all stakeholders (Government of others, has resulted in fewer official Disaster Manage - Sierra Leone 2021). ment contact points in ministries (Miles et al. 2021). Poor inter-pillar coordination at meetings, with more interest in reporting back activity rather than planning Data management future aspirations, has also been noted as a barrier to Data management drawbacks in disaster management effective disaster management operations (Miles et  al. accounted for 15.9% of all concerns raised in the litera- 2021). ture. These concerns include issues with disaster-related Moreover, the government of Sierra Leone has recently data acquisition, storage, processing, retrieval, and use. noted that there is lack of effective collaboration among Research has revealed that the improper data collec- the national, regional and international institutions in tion process of affected persons during disasters is a lead - managing disasters within the country (Government of ing cause of inaccuracies in disaster records. The lack of Sierra Leone 2021). clarity surrounding revising data on affected people after initial collection and analysis is also a barrier to effective Risk reduction disaster data management (Miles et al. 2021). This category includes factors that raise individual and Furthermore, the unavailability and inaccessibility of community risks of  various disasters and hinder risk accurate data for disasters remain critical data manage- reduction. Only 9.3% of these concerns were discovered ment drawbacks (Miles et  al. 2021; Osuteye et  al. 2017). in the literature. Osuteye and others found that there are not enough dis- Research has identified illegal and substandard electri - aster databases to indicate the scope of losses in urban cal installations as factors that increase the risk of elec- areas (Osuteye et al. 2017). trically related fires and impede disaster risk reduction Most importantly, current disaster data collection efforts. A notable instance of this was the Susan’s Bay fire is limited, does not cover all sectors, and is incompat- incident in November 2021, as electrical failure was one ible with current meteorological models. Also, the data’s of the reported causes of the disaster (International Insti- integrity and significance are sometimes questioned tute for Environment and Development 2021). (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). The unfocused disaster risk reduction messaging, par - ticularly in educating communities before disasters, Communication added to the poorly attended meetings on matters of dis- Communication issues that impede effective disaster aster risk reduction by stakeholders and aided in increas- management accounted for 14% of all concerns identi- ing the risks and consequences of disasters in the country fied in the literature. The points raised here included (Miles et al. 2021). T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 9 of 15 Another significant flaw identified by the literature in in danger of being sometimes overlooked or ineffectively successful disaster risk reduction is the lack of updated responded to (Clark-ginsberg 2014). hazard maps and risk registers for most districts and Limited and, in many cases, no access to urban com- wards within the country (Miles et al. 2021). munities and informal settlements restricts responders’ Problems in maintaining quarantine integrity were movement (Miles et  al. 2021), This concern, combined identified during the Ebola Virus Disease outbreak. The with the inadequate know-how in first-aid and public desire to continue with traditional practices of caring for hygiene for first responders, adds to the hindrance of the sick increased the risk of transmission of the Ebola effective disaster response (Shin et al. 2018). virus disease (Nally et al. 2022). Critical infrastructures Early warning The inadequate infrastructure, such as hospitals, emer - From the literature sample, early warning drawbacks gency evacuation centres and others, accounted for 5.6% constitute 9.3% of the problems affecting successful dis - of the total disaster management issues in the literature. aster management plans and activities. Miles and others pointed out that road networks have The country has been identified to have only basic early been receiving more investment in the country recently, warning systems (Clark-ginsberg 2014). In addition, the but there remains a lack of coherent urban and strategic staff ’s ability to quickly disseminate and interpret data to planning of road networks (Miles et  al. 2021). Further- key policymakers is limited. As a consequence, there are more, the country lacks the medical facilities to supple- problems for policymakers to fully comprehending early ment the surge capacity needed to avoid epidemics. Also, warning terminologies and interpretation (Government due to a lack of water supply, most healthcare facilities in of Sierra Leone 2021; Miles et al. 2021). Sierra Leone cannot manage their sewage systems prop- erly (Shin et al. 2018). Logistics and stock management Inadequate logistic and stock management made up 8.4% Authors’ recommendations of all disaster management problems in the literature. We analyze the authors’ recommendations in the litera- Among these concerns are the availability, accessibility, ture to comprehend their position as to what should be and sufficiency in good operating order of vehicles and done in addressing disaster management concerns in other equipment required to respond to or avert a pos- the country. Eighty-two (82) recommendations were sible disaster. recorded from the sample. The recommendations were The literature agrees that there is a limited stockpile categorized following the disaster management phases: of essential equipment required for disaster manage- prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recov- ment.There are also challenges to maintaining up-to-date ery/rehabilitation/reconstruction (See Fig. 4). inventories of the available equipment at national and local levels (Government of Sierra Leone 2021; Miles Prevention and mitigation et al. 2021). Also, overreliance on donor logistical capaci- Recommendations about preventing and mitigating dis- ties quickly overstretches them and may lead to donor asters were seen the most in the literature (37%). This fatigue (Miles et al. 2021). finding shows the emphasis placed on the activities related to ensuring disaster does not happen or to lessen Responders its impacts in case it does. As found in the literature, this category accounted for For instance, Auden and others recommended that 8.4% of the disaster management problems in the coun- signposts be placed in areas at risk of landslides in try. It covers issues hindering emergency responders dur- Freetown and that the Freetown City Council and the ing operations, such as poor road networks, which delay Ministry of Lands should increase transparency and response time, and a weak response system, which can- accountability in giving the rights or prohibition to build not coordinate adequate disaster responses on time. to minimize building in areas prone to danger (Auden The literature revealed a lack of maintenance budgets et al. 2017). for first responders’ equipment. There is a notable defi - The Ministry of Lands Country Planning and the ciency in the quality and quantity of operational equip- Environment (MLCPE) and the Freetown City Council ment for the National Fire Force and the Sierra Leone (FCC) recommended that Gabions and traps be located Police, which are primary responders to disasters in and installed properly to restrict sediment transport, aid Sierra Leone (Miles et al. 2021). plant and soil stability, and, as a result, reduce run-off. Moreover, the response system is mainly active in They further stated that the existing urban planning and large-scale emergencies, leaving small-scale emergencies environmental protection rules be adequately enforced Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 10 of 15 Fig. 4 Authors’ recommendations for disaster management. Source Authors to prevent future encroachment and degradation of preparing for disaster. These cover a variety of tasks, the urban and natural environments in and around the including early warning, education, and raising public creeks (MLCPE and FCC 2014). awareness of disasters. The City Council of Freetown and other responsible Previous work suggests that to prepare for water- government institutions are further encouraged to relo- related calamities, all government institutions concerned cate the King Tom, Granville Brook, and other informal should provide education and training on the acquisition disposal sites to more environmentally safe locations per and use of life jackets, lifeboats, and life buoys for search modern standards (MLCPE and FCC 2014). and rescue, evacuation, and relief operations. The deploy - Runoffs have been caused by unlawful and indiscrimi - ment of security forces in water catchment areas to pre- nate trash dumping in streets and drainage systems. To vent deforestation should also be strengthened (DMD curb these, taxes, fines, and other forms of punishment and ONS 2006). have been suggested (MLCPE and FCC 2014). These It has been advised that the National Disaster Man- measures should be backed up by adequate storm drain, agement Agency lead a multi-agency communication sewer management, and regular clearing (Miles et  al. policy and guidance to develop a culture of generating 2021). pre-disaster media messages and social media interaction A new Memorandum of Understanding and strat- formats across the NDM Agency, ministries, and local egy for the National Disaster Management Agency that actors (Miles et al. 2021). focuses on fostering greater cooperation with the coun- Miles and his colleagues suggested that a multi-agency try’s electricity suppliers should be a top goal. This plan and local community leader Early Warning System (EWS) should concentrate on novel implementation measures technical dissemination training exercise be developed, to improve system robustness, resilience, and firefighting emphasising establishing focal expert contact points with capabilities (Miles et al. 2021). experience in analysing EWS-generated information and interpretations (Miles et  al. 2021). They Furthermore Preparedness stated that local stockpiling, physically secure storage, A total of 26% of the literature’s recommendations are and warehouse management solutions must be priori- plans and actions that science suggests to be taken in tised locally (Miles et al. 2021). T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 11 of 15 Along with the above, Musoke and colleagues recom- The restoration of jobs and adequate housing to replace mended that national health authorities do pre-disas- that which has been destroyed, as well as the restora- ter mapping of all partners participating in emergency tion of the disaster area(s)’ economic base through the response (Musoke et al. 2020). National Commission for Social Action in collaboration Sawaneh and Turay further suggested that the govern- with other stakeholders, are all recommendations to help ment invest in science, engineering, and disaster research rebuild better after a disaster (DMD and ONS 2006). at universities to help them uncover innovations in dis- When residents in landslide-prone areas are forced to aster risk management and information technology relocate, effective government response is essential to (Sawaneh 2020; Turay 2022). ensure that new destinations with adequate infrastruc- There is an agreement in the literature that to be ade - ture and sound connections to the city are accessible quately prepared for climate change uncertainties, all (Auden et al. 2017). institutions’ climate databases should be strengthened and kept up to date, including the provision of computer Mixed equipment and expert training in the entry and storage of General recommendations about solving different disas - climate-related data (Government of Sierra Leone 2021; ter issues that cannot be ideally placed in any of the dis- Miles et al. 2021). aster management phases fall under this category; they account for 17% of the overall recommendations in the literature. Response For instance, Clark-ginsberg recommended developing Disaster response is the phase following the occurrence a disaster risk reduction program that focuses on govern- of an incident. 14% of all recommendations in the litera- ance, physical mitigation, readiness, and recovery, with ture are for actions to take at this phase. community disaster management emergency response There is a consistency in researchers’ emphasis on the teams serving as specific partners (Clark-ginsberg 2014). need to strengthen operational response centres to match Miles suggested revising the "Criteria for Declarations modern standards capable of handling rapid cases in situ- of Emergencies and Thresholds for NDMA Interven - ations like epidemics and mudslides (Musoke et al. 2020; tions." He further advised launching a new planning pro- Shin et al. 2018). ject focused on funding smoother transitions between For instance, Musoke and his colleagues proposed that response and recovery. Those moves will assist in driving the National Public Health Emergency Operation Cen- future contingency financing arrangements and priorities tre’s activities be strengthened by ensuring that emer- (Miles et al. 2021). gency response protocols are in place, are routinely Musoke proposed that District Disaster Management updated, and that the duties of various sectors are well Committees be described and duties assigned to coor- defined. They also recommended that government agen - dinate district emergency response operations to better cies in charge of the response keep a running list of sur- prepare and respond at the district level (Musoke et  al. vivors and their injuries for better documentation of the 2020). affected people (Musoke et al. 2020). Incorrect information during a catastrophe can sabo- Research gaps tage and complicate disaster response. To address this The following are ideas or concepts that have not been concern, Sawaneh proposed that those who spread fake investigated at all. They include problems not solved or news and misinformation be punished for setting a prec- questions not answered by the existing research in this edent (Sawaneh 2020). field. As a result, the situation demands immediate action Contentions between responders and the commu- for the country to manage disasters effectively. nity often arise due to misunderstanding. In this regard, Nally and others call for the examination of methods Shinn and others recommended that responders priori- that involve all stakeholders at the start of any disaster tise understanding the local communities’ cultural norms response in the country (Nally et  al. 2022). The study of and values to avoid conflicts of interest and attract col - barriers to early warning system information is required laborative efforts (Shin et al. 2018). (Clark-ginsberg 2014). To improve knowledge in this field, a meta-analysis is Recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction needed to compare the effectiveness of international non- Recommendations about the appropriate actions to governmental organisations’ (INGOs) response activities undertake during the recovery, rehabilitation, and recon- in different contexts and response periods for different struction phase of a disaster in the country are the least types of diseases (Shin et al. 2018). Also, a meta-analysis (6%) in the literature. of studies to understand extreme poverty in Freetown Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 12 of 15 slum areas and the impacts of small-scale emergencies is that clearly states the aims, objectives, strategies, roles required (Clark-ginsberg 2014). and responsibilities of coordinating institutions and More research on community-based solutions during implementing agencies (Sierra Leone Disaster Manage- an emergency response is required (Nally et  al. 2022). It ment Policy 2006). is also necessary to further assess the capacity of com- The 2007 National Adaptation Program of Action, munity disaster management and emergency response based on the goals and objectives of the Poverty Reduc- teams to improve their abilities (Clark-ginsberg 2014). tion Strategy Paper and the Millennium Development Clark-Ginsberg has further requested the assessment Goals, linked adaptation to national development plan- of slums and micro-slums, focusing on changing vulner- ning and international development goals (Government ability profiles. He also pointed out that a review of the of Sierra Leone 2021). causes of corruption in Sierra Leone is necessary, as cor- Thereafter, in response to the World Climate Confer - ruption has been identified as one of the disaster man - ence in 2009, the National Framework for Climate Ser- agement obstacles (Clark-ginsberg 2014). vices was established, with the goal of strengthening the A comprehensive assessment of droughts is required, design, delivery, and implementation of climate services which includes a realistic representation of the water across sectors and localities (Government of Sierra Leone available in soils, drought propagation, feedback from 2021). vegetation cover, and human influence during these In 2010, the strategy for the Development of a Climate events (Henchiri et al. 2021). Change Abatement Economy was developed, focusing on Additional geotechnical drilling and investigation are opportunities for earning forest carbon credits through required to provide deep-seated structural information, implementing the REDD/REDD + program (Government knowledge of secondary minerals present in joints, and of Sierra Leone 2021). characterisation of soil material in the hills (Lahai et  al. A participatory and iterative process was used to 2021). develop the National Climate Change Policy Frame- Moreover, more must be done to integrate health and work in 2012 to improve the national capacity to adapt disaster research and sectors to address risks better to climate change. In 2015, the National Climate Change (Osuteye et al. 2017). Strategy and Action Plan were developed, advancing the To analyse and identify training, technical, and finan - country’s climate policy to include adaptation actions in cial support, a thorough assessment of climate service agriculture, adaptation to sea-level rise, tourism, fisher - capacities, including all climate-sensitive institutions, is ies, forestry, health, and water resources (Government of required (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). Sierra Leone 2021). There is a scarcity of data on local and national vulner - Furthermore, the Environment Protection Agency abilities, impacts, and risks. A comprehensive exposure developed the Integrated Coastal Zone Management and risk assessment of all sectors and regions must be Plan 2016–2020 in 2015 for effective coastal management conducted and publicised (Government of Sierra Leone (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). 2021). Establishing the Sierra Leone Meteorological Agency To detect emerging outbreaks, studies characterised by in 2017 with the mandate to manage the early warning the epidemiological profiles of Lassa Fever should remain system is a huge benefit to the country’s effective disas - a priority at the local level. Also important in the fight ter management (National Disaster Management Agency against Lassa fever are monitoring, evaluation, diagnos- Act 2020). tic testing strategies, and facilitating Lassa Fever vaccine The national adaptation planning process in 2018, and studies (Shaffer et al. 2021). the framework development in 2019, demonstrated the country’s intention to reduce vulnerability through adap- The advances and prospects tation mechanisms (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). The following is the presentation of the advances and Through the 2018 National Land Degradation Neu - prospects for disaster management in Sierra Leone trality target-setting process, Sierra Leone’s Technical according to the literature. Working Group identified and established hotspots of The establishment of the Disater Management Depart - degraded lands. The National Drought Management Plan ment in 2004 was a step in the right direction for a for Sierra Leone was created the same year as a contin- country that did not have an institution dedicated to gency plan for Sierra Leone (Government of Sierra Leone coordinating and managing disasters (DMD and ONS 2021). 2006). Sierra Leone has completed three national communica- Following that, the government of Sierra Leone (2006) tions to the UNFCCC to meet its global commitments. developed a comprehensive disaster management policy The first national communication was completed in 2007, T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 13 of 15 followed by the second in 2012 and the third in 2018 communication at the community and institutional levels (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). in Sierra Leone. The transition from the Disaster Management Depart - Simulating and modelling studies for landslides, mud- ment to a dedicated National Disaster Management flows, rockfalls, flooding, and outbreaks comparable to Agency in 2020 represents a significant step forward in Ebola and Corona Virus diseases at the local level are the country’s disaster management (National Disaster encouraged to provide knowledge for mitigation and pre- Management Agency Act 2020; Miles et al. 2021). paredness for probable future occurrences. Since 2020, local disaster management capacity has The role of volunteers in times of disasters and emer - been improved, allowing the Freetown City Council to gencies often goes unnoticed, unrecognized, or unre- respond to 14 fire incidents in 2021, among other things. warded. This concern may lead to low morale and The Sierra Leone Meteorological Agency was said to be motivation. Considering this, the authors agree with reinforced by UN Development Programs with software previous researchers and emphasize the importance of packages in 2021; if used appropriately, this support will the Sierra Leone government incorporating community- improve the agency’s capacity (Miles et al. 2021). based disaster volunteers into the national disaster man- The implementation of After-Action Reviews (AARs), agement structure of the agency. and the coordination of recovery planning between the This paper recommends that the National Disaster central and regional ministries, departments, and agen- Management Agency work with the local communities cies, as well as the formation of a Technical Working and other partners to develop an updated national disas- Group (TWG) for disaster management are steps for- ter risk and vulnerability profile using primary data and ward, and a road map for effective disaster management GIS techniques. Communities should be demarcated into (Miles et al. 2021). zones based on the magnitude of risk and vulnerability to The National Determined Contribution was updated in the particular types of hazards to which they are exposed. 2021 to increase adaptive capacity, strengthen resilience, Following these activities, there should be mass sensitiza- and cut vulnerability in half by 2030 (Government of tion at the individual community levels to inform them Sierra Leone 2021). about their exposure and vulnerability to the relevant hazards. Prevention, mitigation, and preparedness received Conclusion and recommendations the most attention, while recovery, rehabilitation, and This paper has provided essential information necessary reconstruction received the least attention in the disas- to understand the contemporary context of disasters, ter management phases of Sierra Leone. This revelation is their management, implementation drawbacks, research understood because effective prevention, mitigation, and gaps, the advances made so far, and the prospects for preparedness will leave little room for a disaster to strike disaster management in Sierra Leone. The findings con - and the need to heal from it. However, in light of current tained in this paper, if taken into consideration, will pro- climate change uncertainty, the authors recommend that vide ways to improve the country’s disaster management. contingency plans for economic recovery and the reloca- A critical review of the literature revealed that newer tion of individuals in at-risk areas be strengthened. The studies do not provide adequate follow-up on the gaps contingency plans should be flexible to adapt to climate and limitations of previous related works on this subject, change uncertainties and be subjected to a periodical resulting in some disconnections in the literature. review by the relevant ministries, departments, agencies Financial constraints have been a primary cause and and their partner institutions. underlying hindrance to disaster management. Apart The paper further recommended that the responsible from that, the inadequate specialised and ineffective institutions of the government of Sierra Leone launch an disaster management staff, lapses in data management investigation to comprehensively understand the welfare and inefficiencies in communication among the relevant and adaptation of relocated people in the country over institutions and communities, as well as within the insti- time. Such an investigation will reveal essential infor- tutions themselves, are the most pressing considerations mation to learn from and improve existing resettlement for improving disaster management in the country. homes and plans. Fewer disaster events were published compared to Disaster response requires adequate vehicles and other those observed being posted on Twitter, Facebook, and response equipment. As such, the prompt repair of vehi- WhatsApp. Future research is required to assess the rel- cles, motorcycles, and fire response equipment must be evance and influence of the named social media tools in given premium consideration to reduce the use of the informing the science and practice of disaster manage- limited available funds to purchase new ones or wait for ment in Sierra Leone and how they can influence disaster donors to support such purchases. Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 14 of 15 Declarations Additionally, the agency should strengthen the disaster reporting channels at the community level and, where Competing interests necessary, provide training for all community members The authors have no conflict of interest. to enhance their emergency preparedness and response Author details actions. Moreover, an effective community feedback 1 2 Department of Geography, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany. I nstitute mechanism must be created to share experiences, for Environment and Human Security, United Nations University (UNU- EHS), Bonn, Germany. Institute of Geography and Development Studies, effects, strategies, practices, and lessons learnt among School of Environmental Sciences, Njala University, Moyamba, Sierra Leone. communities. Department of Spatial Planning, Technical University Dortmund, Dortmund, The agency and its partners should embark on adequate Germany. nationwide sensitization, starting at the community level, Received: 7 July 2022 Accepted: 18 October 2022 on the appropriate use of emergency numbers (such as the health and fire emergency hotlines 117, 999, and police 019). Following this process, the agency should strengthen its intelligence systems to track and differenti - References ate false alarms or prank calls and levy appropriate pen- Auden L, Cáceres P, Jennings T, Laforge G, Muesen C, Tavernier L, Yang SY alties where necessary. These measures will improve the (2017) Understanding urban risk traps in Freetown Awoko (2018) Sierra Leone news: leprosy is a curable disease. Awoko reporting of incidents, reduce the misuse of emergency Publications hotlines and facilitate prompt response. Clark-ginsberg A (2014). 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United Nations Development Programme Evaluation Office, 1–39 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- lished maps and institutional affiliations. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Geoenvironmental Disasters Springer Journals

A state-of-the-art examination of disaster management in Sierra Leone: the implementation drawbacks, research gaps, advances, and prospects

Turay, Bashiru; Gbetuwa, Sheku
Geoenvironmental Disasters , Volume 9 (1) – Nov 3, 2022
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Abstract

Unfolding events have shown that Sierra Leone is enduring various disasters at a worrying rate. While progress is being made in disaster management, activities that degrade the fragile ecosystem, exacerbated by climate change, poverty, and bad governance, remain growing concerns. Amid these concerns, there is inadequate information to take appropriate actions. The authors wish to provide a solution by examining 35 publications from various scholarly and grey literature and raw data sources, following a critical review process designed to expose the implementation drawbacks, research gaps, advances, and prospects in disaster management in Sierra Leone. The study results show that lapses in data management, fewer professionals, and inefficiencies in communication are the most pressing considerations for improving disaster management in the country. Inadequate funds to implement management plans remain pervasive. Following these findings, we recommend that all first responders be routinely exposed to international tabletop exercises and simulated disaster response training to help them build their capacities and learn from other countries. Students in the relevant disciplines should be encouraged to participate in these exercises to facilitate early learning. Also, management initiatives should consider gender equity, the situations of the disabled, and other vulnerable groups at all levels of planning and implementation of activities. Future studies should assess the influence of social media on disaster management research and practice in the country. Keywords: Disaster management, Government, Sierra Leone, Climate change, Risks, Hazards Introduction Previous literature has pointed out that environmental Sierra Leone has experienced several disasters such as degradation, climate change, poverty, and bad govern- landslides, civil war, Ebola Virus Disease and frequent ance mainly contribute to disasters in the country (Clark- flooding. Most of these were either caused or exacer - ginsberg 2014). These factors ultimately combine to make bated by human influences and have resulted in injuries, Sierra Leone’s disaster management more reactive and deaths, property losses and damages, and the interrup- focused on responding rather than being proactive and tion of daily life support services, all of which have seri- focused on avoiding, preventing and mitigating disaster ously affected the country’s growth and development impacts (Miles et al. 2021). (DMD and ONS 2006). Another obstacle to disaster management is the politi- cisation of national issues. People spread fake news and baseless rumours to gain political advantage during pub- lic catastrophes (Sawaneh 2020). This act, added to the *Correspondence: bashiru.turay@uni-bonn.de; bashiruturay19@gmail.com state officials’ contradictory actions during disasters and Department of Geography, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany emergencies, leaves questions and doubts in the victims’ Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/. Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 2 of 15 minds about their fate during such circumstances (Sesay resulted in inadequate information for effective risk and Bradley 2022). management in the country, making room for disaster Additional problems that have been identified to hinder mismanagement (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). disaster management are conflicting mandates among Regarding the above and the stride to provide con- institutions with a role in disaster management. For temporary information and implementable recom- instance, state institutions such as the National Protected mendations for improvement, this paper, therefore, Area Authority and the Forestry Department are man- assess the state of disaster management in Sierra Leone dated to preserve Freetown’s hills as natural assets. At the through a critical review of relevant documents about same time, the Ministry of Lands is sometimes interested disaster and their management in the country. in awarding such lands for estate development as part of As such, the objective of this study is to examine its land protection, planning and allocation mandates. disaster management in Sierra Leone with a focus on This conflict in institutional mandate can sometimes exposing the implementation drawbacks, research gaps, affect land conservation and other disaster mitigation advances and prospects. interventions. In all these, individuals and communities “The results and discussion” section of this paper already marginalized bear the brunt of the consequences present the analysis of disasters and their manage- (Sesay and Bradley 2022). ment, implementation drawbacks, research gaps, and A "disaster" in this context implies a significant disrup - the presentation of the advances and prospects. Lastly, tion of the country’s wellbeing, safety, and functioning at presented are the conclusion and recommendations any spatial level brought on by dangerous events inter- that detail measures that, if implemented, will provide acting with insecurity, capacity, and exposure, leading a solution to disaster management problems in the to losses in lives, property, and environmental resources country. that may require external humanitarian assistance. This study adopts the UN description of disaster man - agement, which is the organization, planning, and imple- Methodology mentation of measures for the prevention and mitigation, This study utilized scholarly, grey literature and raw preparedness, response, rehabilitation/reconstruction/ data drawn from various sources, following a systematic recovery from a disaster (UNDRR 2022). review process. Scholarly articles were obtained from The terms "emergency management" and "disas - Scopus and Google Scholar. Raw data were obtained from ter management" are sometimes used interchangeably. the international disasters database website at https:// While there is some overlap, an emergency refers to haz- public. emdat. be/ data, and the Directorate of Health ardous situations that do not cause a significant interrup - Security and Emergencies, Ministry of Health and Sanita- tion in a community’s or society’s functioning (UNDRR tion, Sierra Leone website http:// dhse. gov. sl/. Grey litera- 2022). ture was obtained from the United Nations Framework Researchers and practitioners have made efforts to Convention on Climate Change https:// www4. unfccc. int/ improve disaster management in the country by doing sites/ NAPC/ Pages/ natio nal- adapt ation- plans. aspx; the relevant assessments. For instance, the then Ministry of International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Lands, Country Planning and the Environment and the https:// www. ifrc. org/ docs/ idrl/ 671EN. pdf, https:// disas Freetown City Council evaluated natural disasters and terlaw. ifrc. org/ media/ 3020; World Health Organization risks in Freetown to improve the city’s disaster mitigation https:// www. afro. who. int/ publi catio ns/ sierra- leone- natio (MLCPE and FCC 2014). Likewise, a national risk map nal- action- plan- health- secur ity- 2018- 2022; Reliefweb (Groen and Jacobs 2012), disaster preparedness baseline https:// relie fweb. int/ disas ter/ fr- 2021- 000169- sle; Sierra (Pacific Disaster Center 2020), etc., have been devel - Leone Urban Research Centre https:// www. slurc. org/; oped. Researchers have investigated different risks, haz - Save the children https:// www. savet hechi ldren. org. uk/ ards, and disasters (Kamara et  al. 2022; Morton Hamer blogs/ 2017/ beati ng- pneum onia- sierra- leone; Awoko et al. 2019; Osuteye et al. 2017; Shin et al. 2018)and their www. awoko news. sl and the patriotic vanguard https:// effects on the long-term economic sustainability of the w w w. t he p a tr iot ic v an g u ar d. c om/ on- e pide mic s - and- country (Dumbuya and Nirupama 2017). pande mics- in- sierra- leone. However, there are existing gaps in that most of the The authors had to include the grey literature men - previous research either do not give a detailed national tioned above to adjust for the insufficient relevant schol - view, missed recent happenings, or failed to capture arly literature and to capture recent happenings not yet the updated context of national disaster management found in scholarly articles. The results from different covered in The National Disaster Management Agency sources were complementary and aided in catching a Act of 2020 (2020). The aforementioned issues have holistic view of the subject matter and reducing data bias. T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 3 of 15 Review procedure The retained results from Google Scholar (36) and Criteria for inclusion Scopus (39) were combined and checked for duplica- Criteria for including work in this review is that it should tion. This process left a total of 52 results. The titles be a publication about managing any disaster at any spa- and abstracts of the documents were screened for their tial level in the country. Alternatively, it should be an consistency with the research objective. We retained 30 institutional policy or act for national disaster manage- publications after this process and had their full texts ment. These criteria were set to focus only on national read. Five (5) more results were obtained using a direct disasters and their management. search of the relevant institutional websites referenced in the literature. The purpose was to capture updated, not Raw data search recorded, or missing disasters and impact records. On the international disaster database website, all the The final sample contains thirty-five publications, disaster classifications (Geophysical, Meteorological, which include nineteen journal articles, eight reports, Hydrological, Climatological, Biological, Extra-terres- four government policies and acts, and four news/ trial, Technological, and Complex Disasters) in the plat- blogs. The authors examined them under the following form were checked and applied to Sierra Leone, covering themes: disasters and their management; implementation all the disaster years of records in the database from 1900 drawbacks; authors’ recommendations; research gaps; to 2022. The total number of lab-confirmed cases and advances and prospects. deaths due to the Corona Virus disease in Sierra Leone was taken from the Directorate of Health Security and Results and discussion Emergencies, Ministry of Health and Sanitation website. Disasters and their management The authors examined the disasters, periods of occur - Literature search and screening rence, impacts and their management. A total of 16 dif- The following Scopus database search string "TITLE- ferent disasters were found in the literature. The review ABS-KEY (disaster AND management AND in AND shows that Ebola Virus Disease (n = 4) and Landslide sierra AND leone)" yielded 39 results. The Scopus data - (n = 4) are the disasters most independently researched base search was complemented with a literature search in Sierra Leone, followed by Fire, Wars, COVID-19, in google scholar using the search string "Incident crisis Drought, Tuberculosis, Typhoid Fever, and Lassa Fever emergency catastrophe disaster management in Sierra (See Fig. 1). Leone". The Google Scholar search yielded 18,400 results. Table  1 summarises disasters, periods of occurrence, The authors sorted the result by relevance and had 36 impacts, and sources. publications consistent with the research topic drawn The country has suffered a series of cholera outbreaks from the first 15 web pages. between 1998 and 2013. These outbreaks have caused the Fig. 1 Disasters investigated by studies on this topic as drawn from the sample. Source Authors Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 4 of 15 Table 1 A breakdown of disasters in Sierra Leone, period of incidence, impacts, and sources Disaster Period of incidence Cases-impacts Sources Cholera 1998–2013 Confirmed 31,653 cases and 589 deaths Government of Sierra Leone (2019) Civil war 1991–2002 Estimated 70,000 casualties and 2.6 mil- United Nations Development Programme lion displaced people (2006) COVID-19 2020-Date 7681 confirmed cases and 125 deaths Directorate of Health Security and Emer- gencies (2022) Dysentery 1999–2000 3094 total affected and 132 deaths EM-DAT (2022) Ebola virus disease May 2014–March 2016 8706 infected cases and 3956 deaths Government of Sierra Leone (2019), Miles et al. (2021) Fire 2021 123 seriously injured, and at least 101 IIED (2021, Relief web (2021) people dead. Between 189 and 200 struc- tures destroyed, 7093 people affected Flooding 2005, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2015 and 55,888 total affected and 161 deaths Clark-ginsberg (2014), EM-DAT (2022) Human immuno- 1984—date/ongoing An estimated 80,000 Adults and children National Disaster Management Agency deficiency virus living with HIV Act (2020) (HIV ) Landslide 9th August 2010 and 17th August 2017 16 deaths and 5 affected; 1118 deaths at EM-DAT (2022), Miles et al. (2021) least, 11,821 total affected Lassa fever Since 1970s 782 lab confirmed cases between 2007 Government of Sierra Leone (2019), Shaffer and 2017 et al. (2021) Leprosy N/A 133–140 cases in 2015 and 2016; 446 in Awoko (2018) Malaria N/A 1649,644 confirmed cases; 2257 deaths Government of Sierra Leone (2019) in 2017 Severe pneumonia N/A 114,127 confirmed case and 918 deaths Government of Sierra Leone (2019) in 2016 and 2017 Smallpox 1905; 1915–16, 1933, 1946, 1955–56, Approximately 7800 affected Cummings et al. (1971), The Patriotic 1957, 1962 and 1967–68 Vanguard (2014) Tuberculosis ( TB) Ongoing An estimated incidence of 295 cases Kamara et al. (2022) per 100,000 population. 2164 deaths between 2014 and 2016 Yellow fever 1815–1884 1041 fatalities The Patriotic Vanguard (2014) loss of more than 589 lives. After 2013, cholera has still return and resettlement of displaced people (United been infecting communities but not at an epidemic level. Nations Development Programme 2006). The disease is connected to the poor sanitation condi - The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, a respiratory tions of many communities in the country. The Ministry infectious disease, was first recorded in Sierra Leone on of Health and Sanitation and its partners, assisted victims March 31st, 2020. Through May 31st, 2022, the country during the outbreaks and helped prevent the spread of has recorded 7682 cases and 125 deaths. Results show the disease through treatments and a series of sensitiza- that the implementation of public health measures and the vaccination of people have reduced the fatality of tion campaigns run by local community disaster man- the disease, and people are gradually returning to their agement (CDMCs) and water, hygiene, and sanitation normal livelihoods (Directorate of Health Security and (WASH) committees (Clark-ginsberg 2014; Government Emergencies 2022). of Sierra Leone 2019). An outbreak of dysentery was confirmed in November The civil war, which lasted for 11  years, from 1991 1999 in Sierra Leone from samples obtained from the to 2002, was one of the country’s worst disasters and Western Area. By January 6th, 2000, the outbreak caused humanitarian crises. The government of Sierra Leone, by Shigella flexneri and Shigella dysenteriae type 1 (Sd1) with support from its international partners, ended had reached Moyamba and Koinadugu districts and the civil war in 2002 after an 11  years of brutal killings caused a total of 132 deaths and 3094 cases (EM-DAT and destructions of homes and properties. The United 2022; MLCPE and FCC 2014). Nations is among the key players that helped to end the The Ebola virus disease (EVD), one of the deadliest dis war in the country. The focus of ending the war was on - demobilization, disarmament and reintegration, and asters in the country, struck with a record 3956 deaths. T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 5 of 15 The country reported its first case on May 24, 2014. The but it had fewer consequences than the incident on 17 government of Sierra Leone and its partners utilized August 2017 (EM-DAT 2022; Miles et al. 2021). rapid response teams and strong community involve- Sierra Leone has a significant prevalence of Lassa fever ment to control the disease transmission. The measures, disease, a zoonotic viral hemorrhagic disease, notably in together with the Ebola vaccination, proved active in the its Eastern Province, where 782 lab-confirmed cases were fight against the disease. The EVD ended on November reported between 2007 and 2017. Lassa fever disease is 7th, 2015 (Government of Sierra Leone 2019; Miles et al. transmitted to humans through the contamination of 2021). broken skin or mucous membranes by direct or indirect Fire-related disasters are another disaster that has contact with infected rodent excreta on floors, home sur - been occurring frequently in the country. On the 5th faces, and food or water. The country has an isolation and of November, 2021, a fuel tanker exploded in Welling- treatment centre in Kenema Government Hospital (Gov- ton, Freetown, and resulted in at least 101 deaths and ernment of Sierra Leone 2019; Shaffer et al. 2021). 123 seriously injured people. This fire event led to the Leprosy is an infectious disease that causes disfigur - activation of the public health emergency management ing skin sores and nerve damage in the arms, legs, and and operation centre. Medical practitioners responded other body parts. The disease has been in existence since to provide emergency medical care to the victims at the ancient times. It is generally associated with scary nega- various health centres they were in (IFRC 2021). Another tive perceptions and stories of leprosy victims being fire incident was at Susan’s Bay, which was estimated to shunned as outcasts. Every year, new cases of leprosy have destroyed over 200 houses and made more than emerge in Sierra Leone. In 2015 and 2016, 133–140 1000 residents homeless (IIED 2021). instances were discovered, compared to 446 in 2008 Flooding is a frequent occurrence in Sierra Leone, with (Awoko 2018). potential occurrences in every year’s rainy season, caus- Sierra Leone has one of the world’s highest malaria ing the loss of lives and properties and serious economic burdens. The disease threatens the whole popula - impacts. Flooding causes cannot be unconnected to the tion of Sierra Leone, and it is one of the country’s top dumping of waste in drainages, improper drainage infra- causes of mortality and illness. Between 2010 and 2015, structure, unplanned buildings, etc. The NDMA and its malaria deaths in Sierra Leone decreased dramatically. partners are working on a solution to mitigate the effects This decrease is connected to various efforts, including of flooding to reduce its impacts (Clark-ginsberg 2014; enhanced diagnostic test availability, free treatments, and EM-DAT 2022). the widespread distribution of insecticide-treated nets The country is experiencing a varied and widespread (Clark-ginsberg 2014; Government of Sierra Leone 2019). HIV epidemic. According to the demographic and health The government of Sierra Leone referred to pneumonia survey, HIV prevalence is 1.7% among women and men as the most common cause of under-five mortality. There aged 15–49 in Sierra Leone. HIV prevalence is greater were 114,127 confirmed cases and 918 deaths in 2016 and among women than men (2.2% vs 1.1%). The prevalence 2017. The disease is slowly being put under control with of HIV is higher in cities than in rural areas (2.3% vs the administration of pneumococcal vaccines (PCVs) and 1.2%). To minimize HIV-related morbidity and mortal- antibiotics (Government of Sierra Leone 2019; Save the ity across the country, the government of Sierra Leone Children 2017). and its partners are striving to restrict the transmission Smallpox epidemics appear to have been more com- of HIV and AIDS through public awareness campaigns mon in historical Sierra Leone than any other disease. and the provision of free antiretroviral and other drugs Many people rejected the smallpox vaccine due to having to patients (Government of Sierra Leone 2019; Statistics no experience with it, while others did not take it for fear Sierra Leone 2019). that it was an act of fetish and sorcery. The disease was Significant landslide and mudflow occurrences finally eradicated in Sierra Leone in 1969 (The Patriotic occurred in and around Sierra Leone’s capital city of Vanguard 2014). Freetown on August 14, 2017. Following 3 days of severe Sierra Leone is high-burden tuberculosis (TB) coun- rain, hundreds of structures in the city were damaged or try, ranking among the top 30 countries with the disease. destroyed by mud and debris, killing 1141 people and Sierra Leone’s government and partners are working to displacing over 3000 people. The landslides were caused improve TB diagnosis, surveillance, and treatment in all by the region’s unique geography and climate—with parts of the country, as well as raise awareness of avail- Freetown’s elevation close to sea level—and the region’s able treatments. Treatment for tuberculosis has been generally weak infrastructure, and the loss of protective offered free in 170 locations across the country (Govern - natural drainage systems due to deforestation. Another ment of Sierra Leone 2019; Kamara et al. 2022). landslide struck the western area in August 10 2010, Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 6 of 15 Yellow fever epidemics were common throughout the Under provision 29 of Act Number 6 of the Sierra Leo- nineteenth century. The first case of yellow fever in this nean Constitution of 1991, the President can declare region was discovered in 1764. Since the introduction of a state of emergency for a disaster of national concern. the vaccines in the 2000s, the number of deaths from the The National Platform is in charge of informing the disease has decreased (The Patriotic Vanguard 2014). President about the impending disaster. When the Presi- dent declares a state of emergency in a region, the resi- National disaster management framework dent minister in charge issues or authorizes the issuance The National Disaster Management Agency was estab - of instructions for that region, and the district council lished in Sierra Leone in 2020 to manage disasters and chairmen and paramount chiefs can then take the lead at similar emergencies throughout the country and to their respective administrative levels (National Disaster develop community capacity to respond effectively to Management Agency Act 2020). disasters and emergencies (National Disaster Manage- Figure  2 shows the disaster management structure at ment Agency Act 2020). the national, regional, district, and chiefdom administra- Disasters in Sierra Leone, according to the literature, tive levels. can be referred to, and dealt with based on three levels; The National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction is one, two, and three (DMD and ONS 2006). Minor dis- the governing body in charge of the agency’s manage- asters within the local government’s, community’s, and ment and supervision. During meetings, it reports to the stakeholders’ reaction capabilities and result in only a chairman of the National Security Council. The platform modest requirement for national help are classified as comprises one administrative head from each of the rele- Level One. A disaster that would likely exceed local capa- vant ministries, departments, and agencies of the central bilities and necessitate a wide spectrum of national help government (National Disaster Management Agency Act is classified as Level Two. Level three denotes a major 2020). disaster requiring massive national assistance, includ- The Agency Secretariat is in charge of providing tech - ing military intervention and or international assistance nical and other assistance to the agency and the National (DMD and ONS 2006). Platform. The Director General is the administrative Fig. 2 The national disaster management agency framework. Source Authors’ illustration T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 7 of 15 head of the Agency. The agency’s functions are per - communities in becoming safer, stronger, and more resil- formed in the region, district, or chiefdom as directed ient to catastrophes (DMD and ONS 2006). by the national platform (National Disaster Management Moreover, specialized Agencies of the United Nations Agency Act 2020). in the country such as the UNDP and UNDRR, may Management committees develop plans to prevent and support the central government, local governments mitigate the effects of disasters. At their respective levels, and communities in disaster preparedness, mitigation, they prepare and implement disaster management plans. response and recovery (DMD and ONS 2006). The committee comprises one administrative head from each of the relevant ministries, departments, and agen- Implementation drawbacks cies at that level (National Disaster Management Agency The issues hindering and being a drawback to the effec - Act 2020). tive implementation of disaster management activities in During a disaster, private sector organizations are the country were identified, examined and placed under expected to mobilize various institutional, personnel and human resources, communication, risk reduction, logis- financial resources to implement prompt and tangible tics and stock management, early warning, responders, actions necessary to address the consequences of dis- data management, and coordination categories (Fig.  3). asters on their facilities or for which they are otherwise Financial constraints are not included in the classifica - responsible (DMD and ONS 2006). tion since they are found in the literature as a widespread Local governments may coordinate with the central and underlying problem that affects how well workers government, NGOs/INGOs such as the Sierra Leone Red are hired, trained, and involved in disaster management Cross, Concern SL, and the respective community stake- operations (DMD and ONS 2006; Government of Sierra holders in disaster management in their area of adminis- Leone 2021; Miles et al. 2021). tration only (DMD and ONS 2006; Miles et al. 2021). Community leaders are directly responsible for coordi- Human resources nating community resources to address the full spectrum Most  (17.8%) of the  problems reported in the literature of action to prevent, prepare for, respond to, and recover are related to human resource limitations. These factors from disasters with external support. Civil society is a include concerns such as the lack of professionals needed powerful pillar for transmitting disaster preparedness to meet the demands of the nation’s disaster management information, training, and volunteer activities to assist efforts. Fig. 3 The disaster management drawbacks as drawn from the study. Source Authors Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 8 of 15 According to a study by Miles and others, the NDMA inadequate and ineffective communication tech - has a limited number of employed staff to cover all nologies, as well as expertise in coordinated disaster regions and roles, and only a few staff have specialised communication. disaster management qualifications in the agency. The Previous research showed a lack of strategic disas- agency has a limited ability to manage simultaneous or ter risk reduction communication and poorly prepared cascading emergencies (Miles et al. 2021). important messaging. The absence of robust and depend - Apart from the inadequate staff in the NDMA, the able internet access and an over-reliance on private Sierra Leone Meteorological Agency responsible for mobile phones for disaster coordination are the primary disaster warning has limited capacity in hydrological, causes of disaster communication failures (Miles et  al. marine, and agricultural meteorology. These issues have 2021). called for an urgent need to train people to repair and Furthermore, Sawaneh highlighted the dissemination maintain stations rather than relying solely on interna- of false information about a disaster as a barrier to disas- tional experts (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). ter management in his research and encouraged the gov- Furthermore, the Climate Change Secretariat of the ernment to take early action against this issue (Sawaneh Environmental Protection Agency has been highlighted 2020). as lacking the institutional strength to conduct a thor- ough vulnerability assessment, adaptation modelling, and Coordination adaptation planning within the country (Government of Problems in coordinating disaster management activities Sierra Leone 2021). accounted for 11.2% of the total issues in the literature. Furthermore, findings have also revealed that the Sta - According to research, the National Disaster Manage- tistics Sierra Leone office cannot respond to the country’s ment Agency is seen by line ministries as a replacement statistics and information demands in a coordinated and rather than a coordinating partner. This issue, among concerted manner with all stakeholders (Government of others, has resulted in fewer official Disaster Manage - Sierra Leone 2021). ment contact points in ministries (Miles et al. 2021). Poor inter-pillar coordination at meetings, with more interest in reporting back activity rather than planning Data management future aspirations, has also been noted as a barrier to Data management drawbacks in disaster management effective disaster management operations (Miles et  al. accounted for 15.9% of all concerns raised in the litera- 2021). ture. These concerns include issues with disaster-related Moreover, the government of Sierra Leone has recently data acquisition, storage, processing, retrieval, and use. noted that there is lack of effective collaboration among Research has revealed that the improper data collec- the national, regional and international institutions in tion process of affected persons during disasters is a lead - managing disasters within the country (Government of ing cause of inaccuracies in disaster records. The lack of Sierra Leone 2021). clarity surrounding revising data on affected people after initial collection and analysis is also a barrier to effective Risk reduction disaster data management (Miles et al. 2021). This category includes factors that raise individual and Furthermore, the unavailability and inaccessibility of community risks of  various disasters and hinder risk accurate data for disasters remain critical data manage- reduction. Only 9.3% of these concerns were discovered ment drawbacks (Miles et  al. 2021; Osuteye et  al. 2017). in the literature. Osuteye and others found that there are not enough dis- Research has identified illegal and substandard electri - aster databases to indicate the scope of losses in urban cal installations as factors that increase the risk of elec- areas (Osuteye et al. 2017). trically related fires and impede disaster risk reduction Most importantly, current disaster data collection efforts. A notable instance of this was the Susan’s Bay fire is limited, does not cover all sectors, and is incompat- incident in November 2021, as electrical failure was one ible with current meteorological models. Also, the data’s of the reported causes of the disaster (International Insti- integrity and significance are sometimes questioned tute for Environment and Development 2021). (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). The unfocused disaster risk reduction messaging, par - ticularly in educating communities before disasters, Communication added to the poorly attended meetings on matters of dis- Communication issues that impede effective disaster aster risk reduction by stakeholders and aided in increas- management accounted for 14% of all concerns identi- ing the risks and consequences of disasters in the country fied in the literature. The points raised here included (Miles et al. 2021). T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 9 of 15 Another significant flaw identified by the literature in in danger of being sometimes overlooked or ineffectively successful disaster risk reduction is the lack of updated responded to (Clark-ginsberg 2014). hazard maps and risk registers for most districts and Limited and, in many cases, no access to urban com- wards within the country (Miles et al. 2021). munities and informal settlements restricts responders’ Problems in maintaining quarantine integrity were movement (Miles et  al. 2021), This concern, combined identified during the Ebola Virus Disease outbreak. The with the inadequate know-how in first-aid and public desire to continue with traditional practices of caring for hygiene for first responders, adds to the hindrance of the sick increased the risk of transmission of the Ebola effective disaster response (Shin et al. 2018). virus disease (Nally et al. 2022). Critical infrastructures Early warning The inadequate infrastructure, such as hospitals, emer - From the literature sample, early warning drawbacks gency evacuation centres and others, accounted for 5.6% constitute 9.3% of the problems affecting successful dis - of the total disaster management issues in the literature. aster management plans and activities. Miles and others pointed out that road networks have The country has been identified to have only basic early been receiving more investment in the country recently, warning systems (Clark-ginsberg 2014). In addition, the but there remains a lack of coherent urban and strategic staff ’s ability to quickly disseminate and interpret data to planning of road networks (Miles et  al. 2021). Further- key policymakers is limited. As a consequence, there are more, the country lacks the medical facilities to supple- problems for policymakers to fully comprehending early ment the surge capacity needed to avoid epidemics. Also, warning terminologies and interpretation (Government due to a lack of water supply, most healthcare facilities in of Sierra Leone 2021; Miles et al. 2021). Sierra Leone cannot manage their sewage systems prop- erly (Shin et al. 2018). Logistics and stock management Inadequate logistic and stock management made up 8.4% Authors’ recommendations of all disaster management problems in the literature. We analyze the authors’ recommendations in the litera- Among these concerns are the availability, accessibility, ture to comprehend their position as to what should be and sufficiency in good operating order of vehicles and done in addressing disaster management concerns in other equipment required to respond to or avert a pos- the country. Eighty-two (82) recommendations were sible disaster. recorded from the sample. The recommendations were The literature agrees that there is a limited stockpile categorized following the disaster management phases: of essential equipment required for disaster manage- prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recov- ment.There are also challenges to maintaining up-to-date ery/rehabilitation/reconstruction (See Fig. 4). inventories of the available equipment at national and local levels (Government of Sierra Leone 2021; Miles Prevention and mitigation et al. 2021). Also, overreliance on donor logistical capaci- Recommendations about preventing and mitigating dis- ties quickly overstretches them and may lead to donor asters were seen the most in the literature (37%). This fatigue (Miles et al. 2021). finding shows the emphasis placed on the activities related to ensuring disaster does not happen or to lessen Responders its impacts in case it does. As found in the literature, this category accounted for For instance, Auden and others recommended that 8.4% of the disaster management problems in the coun- signposts be placed in areas at risk of landslides in try. It covers issues hindering emergency responders dur- Freetown and that the Freetown City Council and the ing operations, such as poor road networks, which delay Ministry of Lands should increase transparency and response time, and a weak response system, which can- accountability in giving the rights or prohibition to build not coordinate adequate disaster responses on time. to minimize building in areas prone to danger (Auden The literature revealed a lack of maintenance budgets et al. 2017). for first responders’ equipment. There is a notable defi - The Ministry of Lands Country Planning and the ciency in the quality and quantity of operational equip- Environment (MLCPE) and the Freetown City Council ment for the National Fire Force and the Sierra Leone (FCC) recommended that Gabions and traps be located Police, which are primary responders to disasters in and installed properly to restrict sediment transport, aid Sierra Leone (Miles et al. 2021). plant and soil stability, and, as a result, reduce run-off. Moreover, the response system is mainly active in They further stated that the existing urban planning and large-scale emergencies, leaving small-scale emergencies environmental protection rules be adequately enforced Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 10 of 15 Fig. 4 Authors’ recommendations for disaster management. Source Authors to prevent future encroachment and degradation of preparing for disaster. These cover a variety of tasks, the urban and natural environments in and around the including early warning, education, and raising public creeks (MLCPE and FCC 2014). awareness of disasters. The City Council of Freetown and other responsible Previous work suggests that to prepare for water- government institutions are further encouraged to relo- related calamities, all government institutions concerned cate the King Tom, Granville Brook, and other informal should provide education and training on the acquisition disposal sites to more environmentally safe locations per and use of life jackets, lifeboats, and life buoys for search modern standards (MLCPE and FCC 2014). and rescue, evacuation, and relief operations. The deploy - Runoffs have been caused by unlawful and indiscrimi - ment of security forces in water catchment areas to pre- nate trash dumping in streets and drainage systems. To vent deforestation should also be strengthened (DMD curb these, taxes, fines, and other forms of punishment and ONS 2006). have been suggested (MLCPE and FCC 2014). These It has been advised that the National Disaster Man- measures should be backed up by adequate storm drain, agement Agency lead a multi-agency communication sewer management, and regular clearing (Miles et  al. policy and guidance to develop a culture of generating 2021). pre-disaster media messages and social media interaction A new Memorandum of Understanding and strat- formats across the NDM Agency, ministries, and local egy for the National Disaster Management Agency that actors (Miles et al. 2021). focuses on fostering greater cooperation with the coun- Miles and his colleagues suggested that a multi-agency try’s electricity suppliers should be a top goal. This plan and local community leader Early Warning System (EWS) should concentrate on novel implementation measures technical dissemination training exercise be developed, to improve system robustness, resilience, and firefighting emphasising establishing focal expert contact points with capabilities (Miles et al. 2021). experience in analysing EWS-generated information and interpretations (Miles et  al. 2021). They Furthermore Preparedness stated that local stockpiling, physically secure storage, A total of 26% of the literature’s recommendations are and warehouse management solutions must be priori- plans and actions that science suggests to be taken in tised locally (Miles et al. 2021). T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 11 of 15 Along with the above, Musoke and colleagues recom- The restoration of jobs and adequate housing to replace mended that national health authorities do pre-disas- that which has been destroyed, as well as the restora- ter mapping of all partners participating in emergency tion of the disaster area(s)’ economic base through the response (Musoke et al. 2020). National Commission for Social Action in collaboration Sawaneh and Turay further suggested that the govern- with other stakeholders, are all recommendations to help ment invest in science, engineering, and disaster research rebuild better after a disaster (DMD and ONS 2006). at universities to help them uncover innovations in dis- When residents in landslide-prone areas are forced to aster risk management and information technology relocate, effective government response is essential to (Sawaneh 2020; Turay 2022). ensure that new destinations with adequate infrastruc- There is an agreement in the literature that to be ade - ture and sound connections to the city are accessible quately prepared for climate change uncertainties, all (Auden et al. 2017). institutions’ climate databases should be strengthened and kept up to date, including the provision of computer Mixed equipment and expert training in the entry and storage of General recommendations about solving different disas - climate-related data (Government of Sierra Leone 2021; ter issues that cannot be ideally placed in any of the dis- Miles et al. 2021). aster management phases fall under this category; they account for 17% of the overall recommendations in the literature. Response For instance, Clark-ginsberg recommended developing Disaster response is the phase following the occurrence a disaster risk reduction program that focuses on govern- of an incident. 14% of all recommendations in the litera- ance, physical mitigation, readiness, and recovery, with ture are for actions to take at this phase. community disaster management emergency response There is a consistency in researchers’ emphasis on the teams serving as specific partners (Clark-ginsberg 2014). need to strengthen operational response centres to match Miles suggested revising the "Criteria for Declarations modern standards capable of handling rapid cases in situ- of Emergencies and Thresholds for NDMA Interven - ations like epidemics and mudslides (Musoke et al. 2020; tions." He further advised launching a new planning pro- Shin et al. 2018). ject focused on funding smoother transitions between For instance, Musoke and his colleagues proposed that response and recovery. Those moves will assist in driving the National Public Health Emergency Operation Cen- future contingency financing arrangements and priorities tre’s activities be strengthened by ensuring that emer- (Miles et al. 2021). gency response protocols are in place, are routinely Musoke proposed that District Disaster Management updated, and that the duties of various sectors are well Committees be described and duties assigned to coor- defined. They also recommended that government agen - dinate district emergency response operations to better cies in charge of the response keep a running list of sur- prepare and respond at the district level (Musoke et  al. vivors and their injuries for better documentation of the 2020). affected people (Musoke et al. 2020). Incorrect information during a catastrophe can sabo- Research gaps tage and complicate disaster response. To address this The following are ideas or concepts that have not been concern, Sawaneh proposed that those who spread fake investigated at all. They include problems not solved or news and misinformation be punished for setting a prec- questions not answered by the existing research in this edent (Sawaneh 2020). field. As a result, the situation demands immediate action Contentions between responders and the commu- for the country to manage disasters effectively. nity often arise due to misunderstanding. In this regard, Nally and others call for the examination of methods Shinn and others recommended that responders priori- that involve all stakeholders at the start of any disaster tise understanding the local communities’ cultural norms response in the country (Nally et  al. 2022). The study of and values to avoid conflicts of interest and attract col - barriers to early warning system information is required laborative efforts (Shin et al. 2018). (Clark-ginsberg 2014). To improve knowledge in this field, a meta-analysis is Recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction needed to compare the effectiveness of international non- Recommendations about the appropriate actions to governmental organisations’ (INGOs) response activities undertake during the recovery, rehabilitation, and recon- in different contexts and response periods for different struction phase of a disaster in the country are the least types of diseases (Shin et al. 2018). Also, a meta-analysis (6%) in the literature. of studies to understand extreme poverty in Freetown Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 12 of 15 slum areas and the impacts of small-scale emergencies is that clearly states the aims, objectives, strategies, roles required (Clark-ginsberg 2014). and responsibilities of coordinating institutions and More research on community-based solutions during implementing agencies (Sierra Leone Disaster Manage- an emergency response is required (Nally et  al. 2022). It ment Policy 2006). is also necessary to further assess the capacity of com- The 2007 National Adaptation Program of Action, munity disaster management and emergency response based on the goals and objectives of the Poverty Reduc- teams to improve their abilities (Clark-ginsberg 2014). tion Strategy Paper and the Millennium Development Clark-Ginsberg has further requested the assessment Goals, linked adaptation to national development plan- of slums and micro-slums, focusing on changing vulner- ning and international development goals (Government ability profiles. He also pointed out that a review of the of Sierra Leone 2021). causes of corruption in Sierra Leone is necessary, as cor- Thereafter, in response to the World Climate Confer - ruption has been identified as one of the disaster man - ence in 2009, the National Framework for Climate Ser- agement obstacles (Clark-ginsberg 2014). vices was established, with the goal of strengthening the A comprehensive assessment of droughts is required, design, delivery, and implementation of climate services which includes a realistic representation of the water across sectors and localities (Government of Sierra Leone available in soils, drought propagation, feedback from 2021). vegetation cover, and human influence during these In 2010, the strategy for the Development of a Climate events (Henchiri et al. 2021). Change Abatement Economy was developed, focusing on Additional geotechnical drilling and investigation are opportunities for earning forest carbon credits through required to provide deep-seated structural information, implementing the REDD/REDD + program (Government knowledge of secondary minerals present in joints, and of Sierra Leone 2021). characterisation of soil material in the hills (Lahai et  al. A participatory and iterative process was used to 2021). develop the National Climate Change Policy Frame- Moreover, more must be done to integrate health and work in 2012 to improve the national capacity to adapt disaster research and sectors to address risks better to climate change. In 2015, the National Climate Change (Osuteye et al. 2017). Strategy and Action Plan were developed, advancing the To analyse and identify training, technical, and finan - country’s climate policy to include adaptation actions in cial support, a thorough assessment of climate service agriculture, adaptation to sea-level rise, tourism, fisher - capacities, including all climate-sensitive institutions, is ies, forestry, health, and water resources (Government of required (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). Sierra Leone 2021). There is a scarcity of data on local and national vulner - Furthermore, the Environment Protection Agency abilities, impacts, and risks. A comprehensive exposure developed the Integrated Coastal Zone Management and risk assessment of all sectors and regions must be Plan 2016–2020 in 2015 for effective coastal management conducted and publicised (Government of Sierra Leone (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). 2021). Establishing the Sierra Leone Meteorological Agency To detect emerging outbreaks, studies characterised by in 2017 with the mandate to manage the early warning the epidemiological profiles of Lassa Fever should remain system is a huge benefit to the country’s effective disas - a priority at the local level. Also important in the fight ter management (National Disaster Management Agency against Lassa fever are monitoring, evaluation, diagnos- Act 2020). tic testing strategies, and facilitating Lassa Fever vaccine The national adaptation planning process in 2018, and studies (Shaffer et al. 2021). the framework development in 2019, demonstrated the country’s intention to reduce vulnerability through adap- The advances and prospects tation mechanisms (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). The following is the presentation of the advances and Through the 2018 National Land Degradation Neu - prospects for disaster management in Sierra Leone trality target-setting process, Sierra Leone’s Technical according to the literature. Working Group identified and established hotspots of The establishment of the Disater Management Depart - degraded lands. The National Drought Management Plan ment in 2004 was a step in the right direction for a for Sierra Leone was created the same year as a contin- country that did not have an institution dedicated to gency plan for Sierra Leone (Government of Sierra Leone coordinating and managing disasters (DMD and ONS 2021). 2006). Sierra Leone has completed three national communica- Following that, the government of Sierra Leone (2006) tions to the UNFCCC to meet its global commitments. developed a comprehensive disaster management policy The first national communication was completed in 2007, T uray and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 13 of 15 followed by the second in 2012 and the third in 2018 communication at the community and institutional levels (Government of Sierra Leone 2021). in Sierra Leone. The transition from the Disaster Management Depart - Simulating and modelling studies for landslides, mud- ment to a dedicated National Disaster Management flows, rockfalls, flooding, and outbreaks comparable to Agency in 2020 represents a significant step forward in Ebola and Corona Virus diseases at the local level are the country’s disaster management (National Disaster encouraged to provide knowledge for mitigation and pre- Management Agency Act 2020; Miles et al. 2021). paredness for probable future occurrences. Since 2020, local disaster management capacity has The role of volunteers in times of disasters and emer - been improved, allowing the Freetown City Council to gencies often goes unnoticed, unrecognized, or unre- respond to 14 fire incidents in 2021, among other things. warded. This concern may lead to low morale and The Sierra Leone Meteorological Agency was said to be motivation. Considering this, the authors agree with reinforced by UN Development Programs with software previous researchers and emphasize the importance of packages in 2021; if used appropriately, this support will the Sierra Leone government incorporating community- improve the agency’s capacity (Miles et al. 2021). based disaster volunteers into the national disaster man- The implementation of After-Action Reviews (AARs), agement structure of the agency. and the coordination of recovery planning between the This paper recommends that the National Disaster central and regional ministries, departments, and agen- Management Agency work with the local communities cies, as well as the formation of a Technical Working and other partners to develop an updated national disas- Group (TWG) for disaster management are steps for- ter risk and vulnerability profile using primary data and ward, and a road map for effective disaster management GIS techniques. Communities should be demarcated into (Miles et al. 2021). zones based on the magnitude of risk and vulnerability to The National Determined Contribution was updated in the particular types of hazards to which they are exposed. 2021 to increase adaptive capacity, strengthen resilience, Following these activities, there should be mass sensitiza- and cut vulnerability in half by 2030 (Government of tion at the individual community levels to inform them Sierra Leone 2021). about their exposure and vulnerability to the relevant hazards. Prevention, mitigation, and preparedness received Conclusion and recommendations the most attention, while recovery, rehabilitation, and This paper has provided essential information necessary reconstruction received the least attention in the disas- to understand the contemporary context of disasters, ter management phases of Sierra Leone. This revelation is their management, implementation drawbacks, research understood because effective prevention, mitigation, and gaps, the advances made so far, and the prospects for preparedness will leave little room for a disaster to strike disaster management in Sierra Leone. The findings con - and the need to heal from it. However, in light of current tained in this paper, if taken into consideration, will pro- climate change uncertainty, the authors recommend that vide ways to improve the country’s disaster management. contingency plans for economic recovery and the reloca- A critical review of the literature revealed that newer tion of individuals in at-risk areas be strengthened. The studies do not provide adequate follow-up on the gaps contingency plans should be flexible to adapt to climate and limitations of previous related works on this subject, change uncertainties and be subjected to a periodical resulting in some disconnections in the literature. review by the relevant ministries, departments, agencies Financial constraints have been a primary cause and and their partner institutions. underlying hindrance to disaster management. Apart The paper further recommended that the responsible from that, the inadequate specialised and ineffective institutions of the government of Sierra Leone launch an disaster management staff, lapses in data management investigation to comprehensively understand the welfare and inefficiencies in communication among the relevant and adaptation of relocated people in the country over institutions and communities, as well as within the insti- time. Such an investigation will reveal essential infor- tutions themselves, are the most pressing considerations mation to learn from and improve existing resettlement for improving disaster management in the country. homes and plans. Fewer disaster events were published compared to Disaster response requires adequate vehicles and other those observed being posted on Twitter, Facebook, and response equipment. As such, the prompt repair of vehi- WhatsApp. Future research is required to assess the rel- cles, motorcycles, and fire response equipment must be evance and influence of the named social media tools in given premium consideration to reduce the use of the informing the science and practice of disaster manage- limited available funds to purchase new ones or wait for ment in Sierra Leone and how they can influence disaster donors to support such purchases. Turay and Gbetuwa Geoenvironmental Disasters (2022) 9:22 Page 14 of 15 Declarations Additionally, the agency should strengthen the disaster reporting channels at the community level and, where Competing interests necessary, provide training for all community members The authors have no conflict of interest. to enhance their emergency preparedness and response Author details actions. Moreover, an effective community feedback 1 2 Department of Geography, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany. I nstitute mechanism must be created to share experiences, for Environment and Human Security, United Nations University (UNU- EHS), Bonn, Germany. Institute of Geography and Development Studies, effects, strategies, practices, and lessons learnt among School of Environmental Sciences, Njala University, Moyamba, Sierra Leone. communities. 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Journal

Geoenvironmental Disasters – Springer Journals

Published: Nov 3, 2022

Keywords: Disaster management; Government; Sierra Leone; Climate change; Risks; Hazards

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