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/lp/springer-journals/effect-of-logging-residue-removal-and-mechanical-site-preparation-on-UAYa8OKqUi
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- Springer Journals
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- Copyright © The Author(s) 2023
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- 1286-4560
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- 1297-966X
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- 10.1186/s13595-023-01175-x
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Abstract
Key message Removal of logging residue negatively affected tree diameter and height, but had no significant effect on the basal area of the subsequent stand (in the mid‑term). On the other hand, different methods of mechanical site preparation (bedding, plowing furrows, and trenching) had no effect on tree growth 1 year after planting, but had a significant effect on tree diameter, tree height, and basal area in the mid‑term. Bedding treatments could have a significant positive impact on the productivity of the subsequent Scots pine stands, even when planted on sandy, free‑ draining soils. Context Increased use of logging residues in forests may address the growing demand for renewable energy. However, concerns have arisen regarding the depletion of the forest soil, resulting in a decrease in the productivity of the next forest generation. Identifying the drivers of forest growth may be the key to understanding the relationship between logging residue removal and stand productivity. Aims Quantifying the effect of three mechanical site preparation methods (bedding, plowing furrows, and trenching) combined with five methods of logging residue management (complete removal, comminution, incineration, leaving whole, comminution with, and without mixing with topsoil) on growth of subsequent Scots pine stands, 1 year and 12 years after planting. Methods The experiment was set up as a randomized complete block design of 45 plots with three replications of combinations of three mechanical site preparation methods and five logging residue treatment methods. Results The effects of the different methods of mechanical site preparation were not significant 1 year after planting but bedding treatment caused increase in DBH, tree height, and basal area after 12 years. Various methods of log‑ ging residue management did not cause any differences in the survival rate nor the basal area of the next ‑ generation stands; however, there was a significant influence on tree sizes. Moreover, the effects changed with time; in plots Handling editor: Shuguang (Leo) Liu *Correspondence: Andrzej Węgiel wegiel@up.poznan.pl Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2023. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/. Węgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 2 of 13 with a complete removal of logging residues, the trees were the highest 1 year after planting, but after 12 years, their height and DBH were the lowest. Conclusions It can be concluded that bedding treatments could have a significant positive impact on the productiv‑ ity of the subsequent Scots pine stands. No effect found of different logging residue treatments on the productivity of Scots pine stands further confirms that the increased removal of biomass from the forest environment does not nec‑ essarily result in its rapid degradation. Observations at longer term are however needed to obtain the full spectrum of responses to logging residue removal. Keywords Whole‑tree harvesting, Soil productivity, Tree growth, Nutrient removal, Seedling survival (Thiffault et al., 2011; Ranius et al., 2018; Morris et al., 1 Introduction 2019; James et al., 2021). The international demand for renewable energy contin - The third research approach has directly meas- ues to increase (Jastad et al., 2020; Cintas et al., 2021), ured productivity, expressed as tree height, diameter, and there is a growing interest in the use of forest bio- or biomass of the subsequent stands. The growth mass as a possible replacement for fossil fuels (Clarke results have been provided by numerous studies from et al., 2021; James et al., 2021). One way to increase the the experiment networks established as the North utilization of biomass in managed forests is the use of American long-term soil productivity study (Pow- logging residues, the tree components that are con- ers et al., 2005; Fleming et al., 2006; Ponder et al., ventionally left in the forest, such as branches, foliage, 2012) and experiment networks in northern Europe tree tops, small diameter trees, and technically dam- (UK and Scandinavia) (Proe et al., 1999; Luiro et al., aged trees (Achat et al., 2015; Ranius et al., 2018). How- 2010; Egnell, 2011; Helmisaari et al., 2011; Tveite and ever, removing more biomass and nutrients has several Hanssen, 2013). Some studies have found evidence of potential environmental impacts (Paré and Thiffault, decreased second rotation productivity resulting from 2016; Ranius et al., 2018). Nutrient concentrations in residue removal during whole-tree harvesting when logging residues are high, which might increase the risk compared with stem-only harvesting (Jacobson et al., of a nutrient imbalance and reduce forest production 2000; Egnell and Valinger, 2003; Walmsley et al., 2009; over time (Vanguelova et al., 2010; Helmisaari et al., Helmisaari et al., 2011; Achat et al., 2015). However, 2011; Egnell, 2017). other experiments showed that residue removal had The risk of soil depletion and decreased productivity no detectable effect on the productivity of the follow- of the next generation of trees has spurred numerous ing stand (Powers et al., 2005; Sanchez et al., 2006; Tan studies. One research approach has focused on nutri- et al., 2009; Saarsalmi et al., 2010; Roxby and Howard, ent budget calculations. Comparisons of the amounts 2013). Reviews and meta-analyses conducted have of nutrients exported by harvesting with natural inputs concluded that there is no consensus result on the (rainfall and weathering) and outputs (stream water) effects of harvesting forest biomass on soil productiv- have produced no definitive results. Some input-output ity (Thiffault et al., 2011; Wall, 2012; Achat et al., 2015; comparisons have indicated that the nutrient balance Egnell, 2017; Ranius et al., 2018). is negative if whole-tree harvesting (including log- The actual response of forest ecosystems to residue ging residues) is practiced (Carey, 1980; Olsson et al., removal may only be loosely related to the export of 2000; Joki-Heiskala et al., 2003; Akselsson et al., 2007). nutrients caused by the harvesting methods. Forest Others have suggested that the input-output balance productivity appears to be driven by more complex of most nutrients could be positive, especially for N factors and interactions than simple nutrient input- (Helmisaari, 1995; Merino et al., 2005; Brandtberg and output balances (Paré and Thiffault, 2016; Premer Olsson, 2012). et al., 2019). Identifying these factors may be the key The second research approach has focused on evaluat - to understanding the relationship between logging ing the effects of harvest removal on nutrient dynamics. residue removal and stand productivity. For example, Many studies have confirmed that the intensive removal several studies have reported site- and species-specific of forest residues can affect nutrient fluxes in the soil interactions related to whole-tree harvesting (Thiffault (Wall, 2008; Achat et al., 2015; Wan et al., 2018; Clarke et al., 2006; Smolander et al., 2015; Egnell, 2017; Wan et al., 2021). However, recent reviews have indicated lim- et al., 2018). However, because different tree species ited or only short-term impacts of increased biomass are often associated with different habitats, it may not removal on the soil nutrient stocks and concentrations W ęgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 3 of 13 be possible to determine whether the effect depends et al., 2000; Kyle et al., 2005; Prévost and Dumais, 2018). on either the tree species or soil properties (Clarke In contrast, no such effect was identified for Scots pine et al., 2021). in Sweden 18 years after planting (Hansson and Karlman, A critical covariable of site sensitivity to whole- 1997). tree harvesting may also be the location, as there are In the present paper, we report the results of a mid- clear regional differences in factors such as climate, term experiment on the simultaneous effects of two fac - soil type, and nutrient deposition. Some reviews have tors (site preparation and logging residue treatment) on reported disparities in tree growth between Euro- the survival and growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) pean and North American trials (Thiffault et al., 2011; stands. The experiment was conducted in Central Europe Tveite and Hanssen, 2013; Achat et al., 2015). Vari- (Poland), a region where the Scots pine is the most eco- ations have also been found between southern and nomically significant tree species (Węgiel et al., 2018; northern Sweden (Egnell, 2017). Clarke et al. (2021). Sewerniak, 2020). However, one problem is the unbalanced data distri- The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of bution; generally, the USA, Sweden, and Finland are three methods of mechanical site preparation and five over-represented in forest growth experiments (Achat logging residue treatments on the subsequent stands 1 et al., 2015). year and 12 years after planting. Site preparation could be another key driver of soil We tested the following hypotheses: productivity. Different methods of mechanical site preparation may significantly affect the growth and 1) One year after planting, mechanical site preparation survival of seedlings (Örlander et al., 1996; Mäki- has a stronger effect on the survival and growth of talo, 1999; Nilsson et al., 2019; Sikström et al., 2020). trees than logging residue treatment. Site preparation improves site conditions by reduc- 2) Twelve years after planting, logging residue treat- ing the competing ground vegetation (Nilsson and ment has a stronger effect on the stand growth than Örlander, 1999; Archibold et al., 2000), while increas- mechanical site preparation. ing the nutrient mineralization (Schmidt et al., 1996; 3) The removal of logging residue negatively affects Nohrstedt, 2000), water availability (Löf et al., 2012), mid-term stand productivity. and soil temperature (Simard et al., 2003) and improv- ing aeration at wet sites (Kabrick et al., 2005; Nilsson et al., 2019). However, different methods of mechani- 2 Material and methods cal site preparation can have a positive or negative 2.1 Study area effect on the growth and survival of seedlings. This The study area is located in northern Poland (53° 33’ can be influenced by factors such as site fertility, soil N, 16° 56’ E) in the Okonek Forest District (Fig. 1). The drying, water-logging, vegetation competition, soil dominant tree species is Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), compaction due to the machinery, or threats from the and the stands are managed by the State Forests National pine weevils (Hylobius abietis L.) (Wallertz et al., 2018; Forest Holding according to the forest management plan Celma et al., 2019; Sikström et al., 2020; Ugawa et al., (FMP, 2020). The average annual temperature is 8.2 °C, 2020). For example, in waterlogged soils, trenching total rainfall is 615 mm, and vegetation period is 213 may increase waterlogging even further while bedding days. is likely to decrease it. In dry soils, on the other hand, The area is dominated by Albic Brunic Arenosols trenching will improve water availability and bedding (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015) with a uniform soil will decrease it (Hope, 2007; Löf et al., 2012; Nilsson texture (sand). The thickness of the O horizon is 6 cm et al., 2019). on average, and the thickness of the AE and B horizons Many studies have confirmed the short-term effects are 15 and 43 cm, respectively. Due to sand texture, of different methods of mechanical site preparation on these soils are permeable to water, and no groundwa- seedling height in northern Europe (Örlander et al., ter was found to the depth of 200 cm. Seasonal flooding 2002; Hallsby and Örlander, 2004; Petersson et al., 2005; and waterlogging have not occurred. The site index was Wallertz et al., 2018) and North America (Graham et al., 21.2 m at a base age of 100 years (Socha et al., 2020). 1989; Aust et al., 1998; Xu et al., 2000; Simard et al., The study area of 2.8 ha was covered by a 103-year-old 2003). Similarly, the long-term effects of MSP on tree Scots pine forest, with an average diameter at breast height have also been confirmed in northern Europe height (DBH) of 29.1 cm and an average height of 21.5 (Örlander et al., 1996; Mäkitalo, 1999; Johansson et al., 3 m. During a clear cut in January 2004, 619 m of tim- 2013; Hjelm et al., 2019) and North America (Bedford 3 ber was procured (221 m per ha). The dry biomass and Węgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 4 of 13 Fig. 1 The experimental design and location of sample plot. The letters (A–C) indicate different variants of mechanical site preparation, and the numbers (1–5) indicate different variants of the logging residue treatment Table 1 Dry biomass and macronutrient content of the pre‑harvest 102‑ year‑ old Scots pine stand -1 -1 Dry biomass [Mg ha ] Macronutrient stock [kg ha ] N P K Ca Mg Stem wood 114.1 191.3 19.8 29.7 120.1 20.0 Stem bark 15.4 48.7 3.7 12.2 104.4 6.9 Branches 9.6 27.8 2.1 8.6 27.3 2.8 Foliage 3.9 54.6 9.6 20.6 14.1 2.3 TOTAL 143.0 322.4 35.2 71.1 265.9 32.0 macronutrient stock distributions of the various tree 2.2 Experiment design categories are listed in Table 1. Site preparation took The study area was divided into 45 plots (approximately place in autumn 2004 and stand establishment in spring 400 m each) as a randomized complete block design 2005. Pine seedlings were planted using the hand bar- with three replications of combinations of three mechan- slit method with a density that is traditional for Polish ical site preparation methods and five logging residue conditions of approximately 10 thousand per ha (spac- treatment methods (Fig. 1). ing 70 × 140 cm). Mechanical site preparation methods employed were as follows: W ęgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 5 of 13 Fig. 2 Schematic description of three types of mechanical site preparation: bedding and planting on ridges (SP‑bed), plowing and planting in furrows (SP‑furrow), and disc trenching (SP ‑trench) A – Bedding and planting on ridges (later referred to as 5. Comminution and mixing with topsoil, where the SP-bed), where the soil was plowed twice with an LPz-75 logging residues were crushed using a DVV-96 V-plow (manufactured by the Center for Forest Technol- crusher and mixed with topsoil with a disc harrow ogy in Jarocin, Poland), thus creating a raised bed (Fig. 2, (LR-5). top). B – Plowing and planting in furrows (SP-furrow), One year after planting, the survival rate and average where the soil was plowed once using an LPz-75 V-plow height of the seedlings were recorded (Jakubowski et al. (Fig. 2, middle). 2022). Every fourth row was selected for study, where C – Disc trenching (SP-trench), where the soil was the seedlings were counted, and their height was meas scarified with an active disc plow U-162 (Center for For - ured from the ground level up to the top bud. In 2016, est Technology in Jarocin, Poland) and the trees were the growth and number of trees were measured again. planted in the shallow furrow (Fig. 2, bottom). DBH was measured for all trees, and the height of every Logging residue treatments were as follows: fifth tree was measured (Jakubowski et al. 2022). Based on these data, stand density and basal area were calcu- 1. Complete removal, where all the logging residues lated. No cleaning or thinning was performed, also no were thoroughly lifted and manually carried outside fungicide or insecticide spraying was performed during the (later referred to as LR-1). the study period. 2. Incineration, where all the logging residues were lifted and burned on small heaps inside the plot 2.3 Statistical analyses (LR-2). Before the statistical analysis, the data were tested for 3. Leaving whole, where all the logging residues were normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and left spread evenly on the ground, and only the longest homoscedasticity using the Box-Cox transformation. branches were cut into large pieces (LR-3). A two-way ANOVA was conducted to determine 4. Comminution and leaving on the surface, where the influence of the site preparation method and log - the logging residues were crushed using a DVV-96 ging residue treatment on the survival of seedlings, tree crusher (Center for Forest Technology in Jarocin, height, DBH, stand density, and basal area. An ANOVA Poland) (LR-4). with dependent variables was conducted to determine Węgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 6 of 13 the influence of time. When significant differences in the Table 3 Results of ANOVA, presenting the p values for the effects of mechanical site preparation and logging residue response variables were detected, they were identified treatment on seedling survival, DBH (diameter at breast height), using Tukey’s post hoc test for multiple comparisons. tree height, basal area, and stand density of sampled Scots pines Differences were considered statistically significant at р 1 year and 12 years after planting < 0.05. All the analysis procedures were conducted using Statistica 13.1 (StatSoft Polska, Poland). Source of Mechanical site Logging residue variation preparation treatment 1 year 12 years 1 year 12 years 3 Results after after after after planting planting planting planting The mean seedling survival ranged from 85.9 to 89.1%, 1 year after planting (Table 2). No significant differences Survival of seed‑ ns ‑ ns ‑ were found for either the mechanical site preparation lings methods or logging residue treatments. The mean tree Tree height ns *** * ** heights ranged from 9.1 to 9.6 cm. There were slight DBH ‑ *** ‑ *** differences (p = 0.0403) between the different logging Stand density ‑ * ‑ ns residue treatments. The mean tree height was higher for Basal area ‑ *** ‑ ns LR-1 (complete removal) than for LR-3 (leaving whole *Significant at p < 0.05. **Significant at p < 0.01. ***Significant at p < 0.001, ns on surface), whereas no significant differences in tree not significant height were found among the site preparation methods (Tables 2 and 3). Twelve years after planting, significant differences were preparation and logging residue treatment on the tree found among the site preparation methods in the DBH, height, DBH, and basal area, even though each factor tree height, stand density, and basal area (Fig. 3, Table 3). separately affected these variables (Table 4). Tukey’s test DBH and tree height were significantly different among for multiple comparisons showed that variant C1 (SP- all the site preparation methods (p < 0.0001). Both were trench and LR-1) with a mean basal area of 10.8 m was highest for the SP-bed and lowest for the SP-trench. The lower than the other variants, 11.8 to 16.2 m (Fig. 5). stand density was highest for the SP-bed and differed sig - nificantly from the SP-trench (p = 0.0178), but not from 4 Discussion SP-furrow. Basal area was highest for the SP-bed and dif- Twelve years after planting, mechanical site preparation fered significantly from the SP-furrow and SP-trench at p had an impact on seedling survival and growth. Scots < 0.0001. pines planted on ridges (SP-bed) had significantly greater Significant differences among the various treatments of DBH, height, and basal area than those planted on non- logging residues (12 years after planting) were found for elevated spots (SP-furrow and SP-trench). Planting on DBH and tree height (Fig. 4, Table 3). Both were highest raised beds may be beneficial for initial tree growth on for LR-5 and lowest for LR-1 (p < 0.0001 and p = 0.0113 waterlogged soils. Bedding improves the air-water bal- for DBH and tree height, respectively). ance near the seedlings by increasing aeration and by The two-way ANOVA indicated that there was elevating the seedlings higher above the water table (Aust no effect of the interaction between mechanical site et al., 1998; Eisenbies et al., 2004). Many studies have Table 2 Survival and height of Scots pine seedlings 1 year after planting. Different letters indicate significant differences in tree heights among the logging residue treatments (p < 0.05) Mean survival of seedlings ± SD [%] Mean height ± SD [cm] Mechanical site preparation Bedding and planting on ridges (SP‑bed) 89.1 ± 3.6 9.4 ± 2.9 Plowing and planting in furrows (SP‑furrow) 86.1 ± 6.4 9.3 ± 3.3 Disc trenching (SP‑trench) 88.2 ± 3.3 9.2 ± 3.0 Logging residue treatment Complete removal (LR‑1) 89.1 ± 5.4 9.6 ± 3.4 b Incineration (LR‑2) 86.4 ± 6.3 9.4 ± 3.0 ab Leaving whole on surface (LR‑3) 85.9 ± 2.6 9.1 ± 3.1 a Comminution and leaving on surface (LR‑4) 88.1 ± 5.4 9.2 ± 3.1 ab Comminution and mixing with topsoil (LR‑5) 89.0 ± 4.3 9.3 ± 3.1 ab W ęgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 7 of 13 Fig. 3 Mean (±95% confidence interval) DBH (A), tree height (B), number of trees (C), and basal area (D) for three methods of site preparation: bedding and planting on ridges (SP‑bed), plowing and planting in furrows (SP ‑furrow), and disc trenching (SP ‑trench), 12 years after planting. The results of the ANOVA are presented. Different letters indicate significant differences ( Tukey’s honestly significant difference test) among methods of site preparation (p < 0.05) confirmed that bedding creates better growth conditions greatest impact on the differences found in the compared for seedlings on wet soils than other treatments (Graham mechanical site preparation. SP-bed had created elevated et al., 1989; Hansson and Karlman, 1997; Bedford et al., planting spots of mixed organic and mineral soil, where 2000; Boateng et al., 2006; Heiskanen et al., 2013). How- a much higher nutrient content was expected than for ever, our experiment was conducted on free draining SP-furrow and SP-trench. In Canada, Bedford and Sut- sandy soils, where bedding treatment was not expected ton (2000) also found that lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta to be beneficial because there was no waterlogging con - Dougl. ex Loud.) 10 years after planting on low fertility ditions to alleviate. Furthermore, elevating planting spots and low water-holding soil achieved the greatest height could create poorer growth conditions for seedlings due increment on bedding and mounding compared to other to possible water scarcity (Löf et al., 2012; Sikström et al., treatments. In Latvia, Celma et al. (2019) reported that 2020). Nonetheless, other advantages of bedding, not Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and Scots pine, only on waterlogged soils, include increased soil temper- 1–3 years after planting on soils of varying fertility and ature, increased nutrient availability and uptake, reduced varying soil moisture, are forming deeper root systems soil bulk density, improved soil aeration, and reduction when planted on mounds. in vegetation competition (Aust et al., 1998; Bedford Our results demonstrate that the effect of site prepara - and Sutton, 2000; Eisenbies et al., 2004; Löf et al., 2012; tion on seedling survival and growth varied 1 year after Neaves et al., 2017). As our study was conducted on poor planting from that in the longer term. Mechanical site sandy soils, nutrient availability was likely to have the preparation significantly affected both tree growth (DBH, Węgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 8 of 13 Fig. 4 Mean (±95% confidence interval) DBH for five logging residue treatments (at 12 years of age): complete removal (LR‑1), incineration (LR‑2), leaving whole on surface (LR‑3), comminution and leaving on surface (LR‑4), and comminution and mixing with topsoil (LR‑5). Results of the ANOVA are presented. Different letters indicate significant differences ( Tukey’s honestly significant difference test) among methods of site preparation (p < 0.05) Table 4 Results of two‑ way ANOVA, presenting the effects of mechanical site preparation (MSP), logging residue treatment (LR), and their interactions on tree height, DBH, and basal area of sampled Scots pines 12 years after planting Source of variation Tree height DBH Basal area Df MS F p Df MS F p Df MS F p MSP 2 34.5 50.0 <0.0001 2 193.3 89.6 <0.0001 2 40.1 18.3 <0.0001 LR 4 0.6 0.8 0.4979 4 11.0 5.1 0.0004 4 1.4 0.6 0.6425 MSP x LR 8 0.4 0.5 0.8466 8 2.4 1.1 0.3466 8 1.3 0.6 0.7898 Error 2.7 0.7 11.0 2.2 29 2.2 height, and basal area) and stand density 12 years after height and survival of seedlings growing in furrows was planting, whereas 1 year after planting no such effect was observed, but, in the following years, the situation was observed. We expected that site preparation would have reversed, with greater height and survival rates for trees a strong effect on seedlings in the short term, with little growing on ridges. or no effect in the mid-term. Our results do not support The short-term effect of mechanical site preparation Hypotheses 1 or 2. (mounding, scarifying, trenching, subsoiling) on seed- An explanation for the differences between the short- ling survival (1–3 years after planting) has been reported and mid-term effects of mechanical site preparation on for Norway spruce and Scots pine in Sweden under dry trees could be the alteration of soil processes affecting to moist soil moisture (Örlander et al., 2002; Hallsby and nutrient availability in free draining soils. At first, the Örlander, 2004; Wallertz et al., 2018; Nilsson et al., 2019), bedding treatment caused mixing of the organic mat- Norway spruce in Russia under mesic moisture condi- ter and it caused temporary immobilization of nutrient tions (Novichonok et al., 2020), and lodgepole pine and mineralization, but later on (when the C to N ratio sta- white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) in Canada bilized), enhanced nutrient mineralization. Confirmation under submesic to mesic moisture regime (Simard et al., can be found in a study by Andrzejczyk and Drozdowski 2003; Boateng et al., 2006). In contrast, 3 years after (2003), who compared the quality of natural regenera- planting, mechanical site preparation had no effect on tion of Scots pine on furrows and ridges conducted on the survival of Norway spruce in Sweden under mesic the same soil type in Poland. In the first year, greater soil moisture (Petersson et al., 2005) or of Douglas-fir W ęgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 9 of 13 Fig. 5 Mean (±95% confidence interval) basal area (at 12 years of age) for five logging residue treatments: complete removal (LR‑1), incineration (LR‑2), leaving whole on surface (LR‑3), comminution and leaving on surface (LR‑4), and comminution and mixing with topsoil (LR‑5), and three methods of site preparation: bedding and planting on ridges (SP‑bed), plowing and planting in furrows (SP ‑furrow), and disc trenching (SP ‑trench) (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) in the USA (Gra- other studies (Achat et al., 2015; Egnell, 2017). We also ham et al., 1989). Long-term effects (more than 10 years found that the effect of logging residue treatment on tree after planting) of mechanical site preparation on seedling growth was different 1 year after planting from that in the survival under different soil moisture conditions have longer term. Surprisingly, the tree-height results exhib- been reported (Hansson and Karlman, 1997; Örlander ited the opposite trend. One year after planting, the tree et al., 1998; Mäkitalo, 1999; Bedford et al., 2000; Johans- height in plots where the logging residues were removed son et al., 2013), and mechanical site preparation affected (LR-1) was the highest and 12 years after planting it was the stand density even 30 years after planting on sites of the lowest. The observed effect may be because the influ - varying fertility and soil moisture in Sweden (Örlander ence of logging residue management on tree productivity et al., 1996; Hjelm et al., 2019). In contrast, Kyle et al. in the first years following harvest is mostly related to the (2005) found no such effect for loblolly pine (Pinus physical effects of the residues on the soil environment taeda L.) 33 years after planting on wet sandy soils in the and not to nutritional changes (Paré and Thiffault, 2016). Coastal Plain of Virginia (USA). At a very early stage of stand development, the presence It should be noted that our short- and medium-term of residues onsite may increase the light and water avail- results are of limited applicability, as the tree growth ability for the tree seedlings (Harrington et al., 2013). Soil responses to mechanical site preparation may be tempo- water availability may also be affected by the sheltering rary. Some studies indicate that the effect of site prepa - effect of residues that limit evaporation but intercepts ration treatments on tree growth diminishes with time precipitation (Roberts et al., 2005). Furthermore, the (Kyle et al., 2005; Zhao et al., 2009; Ramirez et al., 2022). presence of logging residues can decrease soil tempera- It has been reported that growth responses to mechani- ture (Trottier-Picard et al., 2014). In our experiment, 1 cal site preparation are significant during the first 10–15 year after planting, the significant differences between years after planting (Hansson and Karlman, 1997; Johans- LR-1 (completely removed LR) and LR-3 (left LR whole son et al., 2013). After that, the height differences proba - on surface) may confirm that, during this time, seedling bly persist, but without further increases (Sikström et al., growth is more affected by the soil environment than by 2020). In the longest experiment conducted on coarse- nutrient availability. textured soils in Sweden, Örlander et al. (1996) found Similar to our results, some previous studies have no long-term effects of site preparation 70 years after reported differences in short- and long-term effects. For establishment. example, logging residue removal significantly affected We found no effect of different logging residue treat - Norway spruce 10–31 years after planting (Egnell, 2011) ments on seedling survival, which is consistent with many and Scots pine 15–25 year after planting (Egnell and Węgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 10 of 13 Valinger, 2003). Both of these studies found no short- removes topsoil and may limit nutrient mineralisation, term effects (less than 10 years after planting). In a review and when coupled to LR-1 (residue removal), it may of Nordic studies summarizing data from 72 experimen- affect trees even more severely. tal sites, Egnell (2017) analyzed the effects of biomass A similar experiment on the same two factors was con- harvest intensity on the subsequent forest production. ducted in southern Sweden for Norway spruce, Scots He determined that most of the studies that demon- pine, and lodgepole pine on sites of varying fertility and strated significant effects on the site and stand produc - soil moisture (Hjelm et al., 2019). The researchers had tivity following a slash harvest used observation periods aimed to investigate the effects of site preparation treat - longer than 10 years. ments and slash removal on long-term productivity. They In contrast, Achat et al. (2015) quantified the conse - found that slash removal had no significant negative quences of removing harvesting residues from forest effects on the long-term productivity, but mechanical site soils and tree growth in meta-analyses of published data preparation increased both the survival and early growth representing 749 case studies worldwide and determined of the planted seedlings, as well as increased produc- that there was no significant effect after an elapsed time tion in terms of standing volume approximately 30 years (two classes studied: 0–10 years and >10 years), but the after planting. There was a tendency in the experiment data suggested stronger positive or negative impacts dur- towards higher production with increasing site prepara- ing the first years after harvesting. Ranius et al. (2018) tion intensity, with disc trenching seen as the least inten- reviewed 279 scientific papers that compared logging sive method and ploughing as the most intensive method residues extraction with non-extraction. The studies were regarding soil disturbance (Hjelm et al., 2019). split into those presenting data <10 years or >10 years Most European experiments on the effects of logging after treatment, and this split did not change the overall residue removal on the subsequent stand growth have result, with the majority of experiments observing no been conducted in Nordic countries (Achat et al., 2015; effects of logging residue extraction on ecosystem ser - Sikström et al., 2020; Clarke et al., 2021), where nitro- vices and biodiversity. gen deposition is limited (Paré and Thiffault, 2016; Lim Existing experiments have presented only short- to mid- et al., 2020). The results of these experiments cannot be term effects of harvest residue removals on site productiv - directly extrapolated to other parts of Europe, where ity. Additional long-term studies are desirable, to detect the levels of N deposition vary considerably (Schwede possible effects on subsequent stands (covering one com - et al., 2018; Schmitz et al., 2019). The simulations deter - plete rotation) and cumulative impacts from experiments mined that the critical N load (an exposure to pollutants where residues have been harvested multiple times (Kaar- below which significant harmful effects do not occur) akka et al., 2014; Egnell, 2017; Clarke et al., 2021). Although was exceeded in 84% of the European forested areas (Im there are some evidence suggesting that the effect of har - et al., 2013). In areas with high levels of anthropogenic N vest residues on site productivity were generally reduced deposition, nutrient export from harvested biomass can with time but were likely to last for several decades (Egnell, have positive effects on the forest environment (Börjes - 2011; Achat et al., 2015; Clarke et al., 2021). son, 2000; Hedwall et al., 2013). Therefore, it is necessary Notably, in our experiment, the significant effect of dif - to conduct additional studies in different parts of Europe. ferent logging residue treatments was only on the tree size (tree diameter and height). However, the logging 5 Conclusions residue treatments had no effect on the basal area. In a Based on our results, we can draw the following stand, many small trees or a few large trees result in the conclusions: same basal area, volume, and biomass, indicating that the basal area is a more valuable factor than tree size in deter- 1. Bedding treatments could have a significant positive mining the effect on stand productivity. Thus, we have impact on the productivity of the subsequent Scots not confirmed Hypothesis 3 that the removal of logging pine stands, even when planted on sandy, free-drain- residue negatively affects mid-term stand productivity. ing soils, many years after planting. This is worth The two-way ANOVA indicated no effect of the inter - considering when establishing new plantations. action between logging residue treatment and mechani- 2. We found no effect of different logging residue treat - cal site preparation in our experiment, even though each ments on the productivity of Scots pine stands. This factor separately affected the tree height, diameter and further confirms that the increased removal of bio - basal area. However, it is worth noting that the combi- mass from the forest environment does not neces- nation of SP-trench and LR-1 with the smallest average sarily result in its degradation. Greater use of logging basal area differed significantly from the other cases. This residues in forests should also be considered outside may have implications for forest management, trenching the Nordic countries where this is already common. W ęgiel et al. Annals of Forest Science (2023) 80:5 Page 11 of 13 soils and tree growth ‑ a meta‑analysis. Forest Ecol Manag 348:124–141. However, one should be careful, as some combinations https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. foreco. 2015. 03. 042 of site preparation and logging residue treatment (such Akselsson C, Westling O, Sverdrup H, Gundersen P (2007) Nutrient and carbon as trenching and residue removal) may mutually rein- budgets in forest soils as decision support in sustainable forest manage‑ ment. Forest Ecol Manag 238:167–174. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. foreco. force negative impacts on the soil productivity. 2006. 10. 015 3. The significant differences between the short-term Andrzejczyk T, Drozdowski S (2003) Rozwój naturalnego odnowienia sosny and mid-term results for both the different mechani - zwyczajnej na powierzchni przygotowanej pługiem dwuodkładnicowym. Sylwan 147:28–35. https:// doi. org/ 10. 26202/ sylwan. 20039 52 cal site preparation methods and the logging residue Archibold OW, Acton C, Ripley EA (2000) Eec ff t of site preparation on soil treatments indicates that conclusions of short-term properties and vegetation cover, and the growth and survival of white forest experiments should be made carefully. It is spruce (Picea glauca) seedlings, in Saskatchewan. Forest Ecol Manag 131:127–141. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0378‑ 1127(99) 00205‑4 critical to continue existing experiments and estab- Aust WM, Burger JA, McKee WH Jr, Scheerer GA, Tippett MD (1998) Bedding lish additional long-term forest experiments for vari- and fertilization ameliorate effects of designated wet ‑ weather skid trails ous tree species in different regions. after four years for loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations. Southern J Appl Forestry 22:222–226. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1093/ sjaf/ 22.4. 222 Bedford L, Sutton RF (2000) Site preparation for establishing lodgepole pine in the sub‑boreal spruce zone of interior British Columbia: the Bednesti trial, Acknowledgements 10‑ year results. Forest Ecol Manag 126:227–238. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/ Our thanks to all those involved in research: Marian Bartniak, Andrzej Bławat, S0378‑ 1127(99) 00090‑0 Rafał Dorszyński, Łukasz Kaniecki, Beata Ludwikowska, Paweł Narloch, Artur Bedford L, Sutton RF, Stordeur L, Grismer M (2000) Establishing white spruce Weber, and Magdalena Żmuda‑ Trzebiatowska. We also thank the employees in the Boreal White and Black Spruce Zone. New Forests 20:213–233. of the Forest District Okonek who helped in organizing field work. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1023/A: 10067 74518 199 Boateng JO, Heineman JL, McClarnon J, Bedford L (2006) Twenty year Code availability (software application or custom code) responses of white spruce to mechanical site preparation and early Not applicable chemical release in the boreal region of northeastern British Columbia. Can J Forest Res 36:2386–2399. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1139/ x06‑ 197 Authors’ contributions Börjesson P (2000) Economic valuation of the environmental impact of log‑ Conceptualization: Roman Gornowicz; Methodology: Roman Gornowicz ging residue recovery and nutrient compensation. Biomass Bioenergy and Andrzej Węgiel; Formal analysis and investigation: Andrzej Węgiel, Marta 19:137–152. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0961‑ 9534(00) 00028‑3 Molińska‑ Glura, Krzysztof Polowy, Jolanta Węgiel, and Roman Gornowicz; Writ‑ Brandtberg PO, Olsson BA (2012) Changes in the effects of whole ‑tree harvest ‑ ing—original draft preparation: Andrzej Węgiel; Writing—review and editing: ing on soil chemistry during 10 years of stand development. Forest Ecol Andrzej Węgiel, Marta Molińska‑ Glura, and Krzysztof Polowy; Funding acquisi‑ Manag 277:150–162. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. foreco. 2012. 04. 019 tion: Jakub Jakubowski; Supervision: Roman Gornowicz. The authors read and Carey ML (1980) Whole‑tree harvesting in Sitka spruce. Possibilities and impli‑ approved the final manuscript. cations. Irish Forestry 37:48–63 Celma S, Blate K, Lazdiņa D, Dūmiņš K, Neimane S, Štāls TA, Štikāne K (2019) Funding Eec ff t of soil preparation method on root development of P. sylvestris and The publication is co‑financed within the framework of the Ministry of Science P. abies saplings in commercial forest stands. New Forests 50:283–290. and Higher Education program “Regional Initiative Excellence” in the years https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s11056‑ 018‑ 9654‑4 2019–2022, project number 005/RID/2018/19. Cintas O, Berndes G, Englund O, Johnsson F (2021) Geospatial supply‑ demand modeling of lignocellulosic biomass for electricity and biofuels in the Availability of data and materials European Union. Biomass Bioenergy 144:105870. https:// doi. org/ 10. The datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are available in the 1016/j. biomb ioe. 2020. 105870 figshare repository, https:// doi. org/ 10. 6084/ m9. figsh are. 19646 586. v2. Clarke N, Kiær LP, Janne Kjønaas O, Bárcena TG, Vesterdal L, Stupak I, Finér L, Jacobson S, Armolaitis K, Lazdina D, Stefánsdóttir HM, Sigurdsson BD Declarations (2021) Eec ff ts of intensive biomass harvesting on forest soils in the Nordic countries and the UK: a meta‑analysis. Forest Ecol Manag 482:118877. Ethics approval and consent to participate https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. foreco. 2020. 118877 Not applicable Egnell G (2011) Is the productivity decline in Norway spruce following whole‑tree harvesting in the final felling in boreal Sweden permanent Consent for publication or temporary? Forest Ecol Manag 261:148–153. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. 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Journal
Annals of Forest Science – Springer Journals
Published: Jan 27, 2023
Keywords: Whole-tree harvesting; Soil productivity; Tree growth; Nutrient removal; Seedling survival