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Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2022, 16(9): 122 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-022-1554-3 REVIEW ARTICLE Effects of manufactured nanomaterials on algae: Implications and applications Yuxiong Huang1,#, Manyu Gao1,#, Wenjing Wang1, Ziyi Liu1, Wei Qian1, Ciara Chun Chen1, Xiaoshan Zhu ( )1,2, Zhonghua Cai1 1 Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China 2 Southern Laboratory of Ocean Science and Engineering (Guangdong, Zhuhai), Zhuhai 519000, China H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A B S T R A C T ● Summary of positive and negative effects of MNMs on algae. ● MNMs adversely affect algal gene expression, metabolite, and growth. ● MNMs induce oxidative stress, mechanical damage and light-shielding effects on algae. ● MNMs can promote production of bioactive substances and environmental remediation. A R T I C L E I N F O Article history: Received 8 December 2021 Revised 23 December 2021 Accepted 29 December 2021 Available online 3 March 2022 A B S T R A C T Keywords: The wide application of manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) has resulted in the inevitable release of MNMs into the aquatic environment along their life cycle. As the primary producer in aquatic Manufactured nanomaterials ecosystems, algae play a critical role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems’ energy flow, material Algae circulation and information transmission. Thus, thoroughly understanding the biological effects of Mechanisms MNMs on algae as well as the underlying mechanisms is of vital importance. We conducted a Effects comprehensive review on both positive and negative effects of MNMs on algae and thoroughly Implications discussed the underlying mechanisms. In general, exposure to MNMs may adversely affect algae’s Applications gene expression, metabolites, photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation and growth rate. The major mechanisms of MNMs-induced inhibition are attributed to oxidative stress, mechanical damages, released metal ions and light-shielding effects. Meanwhile, the rational application of MNMs-algae interactions would promote valuable bioactive substances production as well as control biological and chemical pollutants. Our review could provide a better understanding of the biological effects of MNMs on algae and narrow the knowledge gaps on the underlying mechanisms. It would shed light on the investigation of environmental implications and applications of MNMs-algae interactions and meet the increasing demand for sustainable nanotechnology development. The Author(s) 2022. This article is published with open access at link.springer.com and journal.hep.com.cn 1 Introduction ✉ Corresponding author E-mail: zhu.xiaoshan@sz.tsinghua.edu.cn Manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) refer to materials # These authors contributed equally to this work. with a critical dimension of less than 100 nm on at least 2 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2022, 16(9): 122 one geometric surface and high homogeneity, particularly effects may exhibit beneficial applications (e.g., hazard manufactured products for application purposes, which remediation (Guleri et al., 2020; Mohsenpour et al., 2021)), are different from natural nanomaterials (e.g., protein biomass production (Kartik et al., 2021), which has been molecules, viral particles, raw magnetite and ultrafine overlooked in the previous reviews. Therefore, the particles) (Lopez-Alonso et al., 2020). Based on the current review aims to provide a full picture of the composition, MNMs can be divided into carbonaceous biological effects of MNMs on algae, including both MNMs, metal/metal oxide MNMs, quantum dots and negative implications and positive applications, which organic polymers (Haque and Ward, 2018). MNMs would provide a better understanding of mechanisms of display unique physical and chemical properties at the MNMs’ biological effects and help to meet the increasing nanoscale, such as high surface area, nanoscale size demand in the sustainable development of nanotechnology. effects and quantum effects, etc. Given these unique properties, nanomaterials have been widely used in diverse applications, including agriculture, electronics, 2 Effects of MNMs on algae aerogels, aerospace, automotive, medicine, cosmetics and MNMs would induce adverse biological effects onto textiles (Zhang et al., 2020; Jiang et al., 2022). MNMs are algae, affecting algae’s gene expression, metabolism, estimated to be components of more than 2,000 photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, and growth. commercial products, and this number is expected to grow significantly in the forthcoming years (Wang et al., 2.1 MNMs affect algae’s gene expression 2021a). However, during the production, transportation, use and disposal of these products, MNMs are inevitably MNMs induce biological effects onto algae’s gene released into the environment (Keller et al., 2013). expression, particularly, the gene expression related to The aquatic environment is the ultimate destination of antioxidant synthesis, lipid synthesis, cell division and almost all pollutants, including MNMs (Zhang et al., photosynthesis (Fig. 1). Middepogu et al. reported that 2018a). MNMs can enter the aquatic environment nano-TiO disrupted material and energy metabolisms in through industrial wastewater, domestic sewage, and algal photosynthesis at the molecular level (Middepogu coastal recreation actives (e.g., swimming, diving) (Cede- et al., 2018). The expression of genes related to lipid rvall et al., 2012; Yue et al., 2017; Huang et al., 2021). In synthesis (gdat), carbohydrate synthesis (cah2) and cell addition, MNMs are widely used to treat groundwater and division (tdsH) were all down-regulated, indicating that other water bodies, which would be inevitably left in the nano-TiO suppressed the lipid and carbohydrate biosyn- water environment (Zhang and Elliott, 2006; Yang et al., thesis and cell division at the gene expression level. 2021). Taking the global production of about 309000 tons Similar results were reported in the Chlorella pyreno- of MNMs in 2010 as an example, it is estimated that idosa’s gene expression change to oxidized multi-walled 0.4%–7% of the nano-products eventually enter the water carbon nanotubes (o-MWCNTs), as remarkable down- environment (Keller et al., 2013). The risk of MNMs to regulated were observed on the algal carbon fixation and the aquatic ecosystem has been an increasing concern photosynthesis-related genes (e.g., CAH2 and rbcL) (Haque and Ward, 2018). (Zhang et al., 2018b). Algae is the primary producer in aquatic ecosystems, as Furthermore, advances in “omics” technologies (e.g., it could produce oxygen for aquatic organisms via transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) facilitate photosynthesis. In addition, algae are the key fundame- the comprehensive analysis of stressor effects at subce- ntal part of the food chain as they would generate organic llular levels (Lauritano et al., 2019; Balbi et al., 2021). carbon and biomass to supply as food sources for the Particularly, transcriptomics and proteomics could pro- aquatic ecosystems. Thus, the change of algal species vide a better understanding of the stress effects and composition and community structure would directly mechanisms of toxic action by analyzing the expression affect the aquatic ecosystems’ energy flow, material of genes and proteins within an organism. Pillai et al. circulation and information transmission, which plays an investigated the effects of nano-Ag onto Chlamydomonas essential role in maintaining the balance of aquatic reinhardtii at the transcriptome and proteome levels, ecosystems (Rai et al., 2016; Li et al., 2020b; Grigoriev revealing an oxidative stress response at subcellular et al., 2021). Numerous studies have demonstrated that levels, even though no lipid peroxidation was observed at the exposure of MNMs induces adverse biological effects the biochemical level (Pillai et al., 2014). onto algae, which may further affect algae’s gene expression, metabolism, photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, and growth (Chen et al., 2019). Hence, investigations into 2.2 MNMs affect algae’s metabolism the MNMs’ effects on algae as well as the underlying mechanisms are critical in the ecological risk evaluation As shown in Fig. 1, MNMs would affect the metabolic of MNMs. On the other hand, the biological interaction processes of algal cells by causing oxidative stress in between MNMs and algae as well as the consequential algae, affecting the activity of enzymes involved in Yuxiong Huang et al. Effects of manufactured nanomaterials on algae: Implications and applications 3 Fig. 1 MNMs affect algae’s gene expression and metabolism. metabolic processes, or affecting the expression of related can inhibit photosynthesis of algae by reducing chlorophyll genes, which would further induce the changes in levels content or affecting photoelectron transfer (Saison et al., or concentrations of macromolecules and metabolites 2010; Wei et al., 2010a; Sadiq et al., 2011a; Oukarroum (e.g., lipids, fatty acids, carotenoids, amino acids, polysa- et al., 2012; Pillai et al., 2014). Saison et al. investigated ccharides) as well as the ratio of carbon, nitrogen and the change of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii’s PSII after phosphorous in algal cells (Manier et al., 2013; Cherchi exposure to nano-CuO, and reported that both the content of chlorophyll and PSII electron transport rate et al., 2015; Li et al., 2015a; Praveenkumar et al., 2015; significantly decreased, indicating strong inhibition of the Rhiem et al., 2015; Li et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2016b). PSII photochemistry (Saison et al., 2010). Likewise, it Cherchi et al. reported changes in Cyanobacteria Anaba- was reported that contents of chlorophyll decreased in ena’s intracellular C:N, C:P and N:P stoichiometries after Haematococcus pluvialis after the exposure to nano-Cu exposure to nano-TiO at varying dose concentrations (Babazadeh et al., 2021). (0–1 mg/L) and exposure duration (96 h–21 d) (Cherchi Though most studies have demonstrated that MNMs et al., 2015). Notably, the relative ratio of amide II, lipids, could inhibit the photosynthesis of algae, there are nucleic acids and carbohydrates to the cellular protein exceptions. Some studies have found that MNMs can content (quantified as amide I stretch) changed signifi- enhance photosynthetic performance of microalgae (Rodea- cantly within the initial 96 h exposure. Palomares et al., 2012; Serag et al., 2013; Giraldo et al., Similar to transcriptome and proteomics, metabolomics 2014; Xu et al., 2018). Rodea-Palomares et al. reported is also helpful to evaluate the effects of nanomaterials on that low concentrations (0.01–0.1 mg/L) of nano-CeO algae at the molecular level, and has been gradually increased the photosynthetic electron transport and applied in the field of ecotoxicology (Huang et al., 2018; chlorophyll a content in the freshwater alga Pseudoki- Huang et al., 2019; Grigoriev et al., 2021). Taylor et al. rchneriella subcapitata (Rodea-Palomares et al., 2012). investigated the potential toxicity of tightly constrained Similarly, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) exhibited high effi- nano-CeO to the unicellular green algae by using the ciency in light energy capture, owing to the broader metabolomics approach (Taylor et al., 2016). According absorption spectrum than the chloroplast antenna pigm- to principal components analysis (PCA) of the mass ents (Hagen and Hertel, 2003). It has been reported that CNTs could promote photosynthetic electron transport spectrometry-based metabolomics data, there was a both ex vivo and in vivo (Lambreva et al., 2015) and incre- significant perturbation of metabolic function within ase photosynthetic activity (Giraldo et al., 2014). The the algal cells when exposed to nano-CeO at supra- underlying mechanisms of MNMs’ positive effects on the environmental concentrations. photosynthetic activity might attribute to their widened spectral region for energy capturing (Lambreva et al., 2.3 MNMs affect algae’s photosynthesis and nitrogen 2015) and higher chlorophyll content under the MNMs- fixation induced stress (Chen and Smith, 2012). However, the presence of MNMs even at low concentrations ( < 0.1 mg/L) Photosynthesis activity is an important indicator for would induce oxidative stress to algal organisms (Rodea- evaluating the MNMs’ effects on algae. Chlorophyll Palomares et al., 2012), which would further cause lipid content, the maximal electron transport rate (ETR ) and peroxidation and cell death. In addition, to long-term max primary light energy conversion efficiency of photosy- effect of algae exposed to MNMs should be thoroughly stem II (PSII) have been widely used as indicators of the studied to maximize the positive contribution of MNMs external stressor’s effects on the algal photosystem (Pillai to algal photosynthetic performance and biomass accu- et al., 2014; Masojidek et al., 2021). Several studies have mulation (Giraldo et al., 2014). shown that a higher concentration of MNMs ( > 10 mg/L) In addition to affecting photosynthesis, MNMs would 4 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2022, 16(9): 122 affect the algal nitrogen fixation ability (Cherchi and Gu, C fullerene, which was only 70.2% when exposed to 40 mg/L C fullerene (Kubatova et al., 2013). 2010; Kumar et al., 2016). After exposure to nano-TiO , On the other hand, the exposure to low concentrations both the occurrence and intracellular levels of the of MNMs may promote the growth of algae (Sohn et al., nitrogen-rich cyanophycin grana proteins (CGPs) in 2015; Tyne et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2019; Vargas-Estrada cyanobacteria Anabaena variabilis increased with the et al., 2020). For instance, Sohn et al. reported that the increasing concentration and time of nano-TiO exposure, biomass of Raphidocelis subcapitata was elevated 1.47 indicating inhabitation in nitrogen fixation activity times after 72-hour exposure of 12 mg/L single-walled (Cherchi and Gu, 2010). Likewise, it was reported that carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), which was attributed to nano-hexaconazole, a nanoscale polymer carrier for hormesis (Sohn et al., 2015). pesticides, caused inhibition in blue-green algae’s activity of nitrogen assimilating enzymes (Kumar et al., 2016). On the other hand, the biological effects of MNMs to algae also vary under different nitrogen conditions. For 3 Mechanisms of MNMs’ effect on algae example, the exposure to nano-TiO under replete nitro- gen conditions would decrease the growth and biomass of MNMs affect algae mainly by inducing mechanical Chlorella vulgaris, while the exposure to nano-TiO damage and light-shielding effects in algae as well as under limited nitrogen would lead to a more severe drop releasing metal ions in water, and which could directly or of the algal growth and biomass (Dauda et al., 2017). indirectly induce oxidative stress in algae. MNMs would induce negative effects on algal nutrient cycling and nitrogen fixation, which deserves more in- 3.1 Mechanical damage depth investigation. Owing to MNMs’ high surface/interface potential, strong 2.4 MNMs affect algae’s growth interaction between MNMs and algal cells (e.g., MNMs being adsorbed on the surface of algal cells, encapsulated As discussed above, the exposure to MNMs would affect algal cells) would induce mechanical damages (e.g., algae’s gene expression, metabolism, photosynthesis, and MNMs penetrate algal cells with a sharp edge and corner) nitrogen fixation, which would eventually affect the (Chen et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2016a; Zhao et al., 2017; growth of algal cells (Wang et al., 2011; Hazani et al., Middepogu et al., 2018). Two-dimension MNMs, for 2013; Nogueira et al., 2015; Sohn et al., 2015). We have example, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and multi-layer summarized the adverse effects and mechanisms of graphene (MG) were reported to destroy membrane MNMs on algae in Table 1. Generally, the inhibition of integrity of Chlorella pyrenoidosa, due to the direct algae growth by MNMs is usually evaluated by the median effective concentration (EC ), which may vary contact of the edges of rGO and MG with algal cells significantly with the MNMs type, exposure time or (Zhao et al., 2017). concentration, testing organisms, and algae age. For Moreover, MNMs were reported to enter the algal cells instance, the EC of metal quantum dots (QDs) was and destroy the subcellular structure (Dalai et al., 2013; significantly higher than that of carbon QDs on Chlorella Manier et al., 2013; Li et al., 2015a; Zhang et al., 2016a; pyrenoidosa (Xiao et al., 2016). Besides, EC of MNMs Wang et al., 2021b). Iswarya et al. assessed the damage on “mid-age” algae is usually lower than that of “young” of anatase and rutile nano-TiO to the membrane and and “old” algae (Metzler et al., 2011). Metzler et al. subcellular structures of Chlorella vulgaris, and sugge- studied the effect of nano-TiO on Pseudokirchneriella sted that anatase nano-TiO would damage algal cells’ subcapitata and reported that as the algal age increased, there was an increase in EC from that in 3–5 d algae to nucleus and cell membrane while rutile nano-TiO would 8-d algae, but a decrease of EC in 12–14 d algae cause chloroplast and internal organelle damages (Iswarya (Metzler et al., 2011). Moreover, EC usually increases et al., 2015). However, it is not always the case that with exposure time. For example, EC of nano-TiO MNMs would enter the algal cells, for instance, QDs 50 2 inhibiting Chlamydomonas reinhardtii growth was 10 and were observed adsorbed on the surface of Phaeodactylum 100 mg/L for 3-d and 10-d exposure, respectively tricornutum and Dunaliella salinaonly, while no QDs (Gunawan et al., 2013). were observed inside the algal cells (Morelli et al., 2013). In general, the higher exposure concentration of MNMs would induce stronger inhibition of algae growth (Schwab 3.2 MNMs induced light-shielding effect et al., 2011; Sohn et al., 2015). Wei (Wei et al., 2014) et al. reported that the growth inhibition of Scenedesmus The interactions between MNMs and algal cells (e.g., obliquus were 6.27%, 11.2%, and 20.7% after 96-h heteroaggregation) may result in the attachment to the exposure of 50, 100, 200 mg/L nano-SiO . Meanwhile, surface of the algal cells to absorb or block part of the low-dosage MNMs exposure may also suppress algae light, inducing a light-shielding effect. The light-shielding growth, for example, the growth of Chlorella kessleri was hindered by up to 91.9% after the exposure to 26.7 mg/L effect of MNMs would further affect the photosynthesis Yuxiong Huang et al. Effects of manufactured nanomaterials on algae: Implications and applications 5 Table 1 Adverse effects and mechanisms of MNMs on algae EC MNMs type MNMs Particle size Dosage Algae species Effects Mechanisms References Carbonaceous Graphene oxide N/A 0.5, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, Raphidocelis subcapitata Growth inhibition Oxidative 96 h – EC = 20 mg/L Nogueira et al., MNMs (GO) 70, 100 mg/L damage; shading 2015 effects; mechanical damage GO 3.5 nm 0.5, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, Raphidocelis subcapitata Growth inhibition Oxidative N/A Nogueira et al., 70, 100 mg/L damage; shading 2015 effects; mechanical damage GO 5 nm N/A Chlorella vulgaris Cell division N/A N/A Wahid et al., inhibition 2013 Graphene N/A 50 mg/L Chlorella pyrenoidosa Growth inhibition Shading effects; 96 h – EC = 37.3 mg/L Zhao et al., mechanical damage (GO)/34.0 mg/L (rGO)/ 2017 62.2 mg/L(MG) Carbon nanotubes N/A 1–50 mg/L Chlorella vulgaris Growth inhibition; Shading effects; the 96 h – EC = 1.8 mg/L Schwab et al., (CNTs) normal agglomeration of (well dispersed suspensions)/ 2011 photosynthetic algal cells 24 mg/L activity (agglomerated suspensions) CNTs N/A 1–50 mg/L Pseudokirchneriella Growth Shading effects; the 96 h – EC = 20 mg/L Schwab et al., subcapitata inhibition; normal agglomeration of (well dispersed suspensions)/ 2011 photosynthetic algal cells 36 mg/L activity (agglomerated suspensions) CNTs 4 nm inner 0.85±0.12 mg CNTs/g Pseudokirchneriella Biochemical Mechanical damage N/A Glomstad et al., and 5–20 nm algae dry weight subcapitata composition and internalization 2016 outer diameter alteration Single-walled Length: ~20μm, 12–46.1 mg/L Chlorella vulgaris Growth inhibition N/A 72 h – EC = 30.96 mg/L Sohn et al., carbon nanotubes diameter:1– 2015 (SWCNTs) Length: ~20 μm, 15–42.8 mg/L Raphidocelis subcapitata Growth inhibition N/A 72 h – EC = 29.99 mg/L Sohn et al., diameter:1–1.2 nm 2015 Multi-walled 20–30 μm 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5, 10 mg/L Dunaliella tertiolecta Growth inhibition N/A 96 h – EC = Wei et al., carbon nanotubes (0.82±0.02) mg/L 2010 (MWCNTs) CNT (DWCNTs 1–100 μm 0.1, 1, 10 and 50 mg/L Nitzchia palea Proteins/carbohydrat N/A 48 h – EC = 7.5 mg/L Verneuil et al., 80%, SWCNTs es ratio 2015 15%, and MWCNTs increase; growth 5%) inhibition 6 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2022, 16(9): 122 (Continued) EC MNMs type MNMs Particle size Dosage Algae species Effects Mechanisms References Metal/Metal Nano-Au 633 nm 0.005125, 0.01025, Desmodesmus subspicatus Growth inhibition N/A 72 h – EC = 0.028 mg/L DĚDkovÁ et al., Oxide MNMs 0.0205,0.041, 2014 0.082 mg/L Nano-Au 633 nm 0.005125, 0.01025, Selenastrum bibraianum Growth inhibition N/A 72 h – EC = 0.014 mg/L DĚDkovÁ et al., 0.0205,0.041, 2014 0.082 mg/L Nano-Ag 50 nm 10, 50, 100, 200 mg/L Chlorella vulgaris Cell stability Oxidative damage N/A Hazani et al., decreased 2013 Nano-Au 10, 20,40, 60 5–8 mg/L Pseudokirchneriella Growth inhibition N/A 72 h – EC = 0.72 mg/L Angela et al., and 80 nm subcapitata (average) 2014 Nano-Au N/A 10, 100, 200, 500 nM Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ATP and Oxidative damage N/A Pillai et al., photosynthesis 2014 plummeting Nano-Au 50 nm 0–10 mg/L Chlorella vulgaris Chlorophyll content Oxidative damage N/A Oukarroum et al., decrease; growth 2012 inhibition (viable algal cells decrease)lipids peroxidation Nano-Au 20, 40, 100 nm 0.05–20 μM. Thalassiosira pseudonana Growth inhibition Releasing metal ions N/A Burchardt et al., Nano-Au 20, 40, 100 nm 0.05–20 μM. Synechococcus sp. Growth inhibition Releasing metal ions N/A Burchardt et al., Nano-CuO N/A 0.1, 0.5, 0.8, Microcystis aeruginosa DNA damage Mechanical damage 72 h – EC = 0.47 mg/L Angela et al., 1, 2 mg/L and internalization; 2014 oxidative damage Nano-TiO 935±33 (s) nm 0, 0.2, 2, 10, 50, Pseudokirchneriella Growth inhibition N/A 96 h – EC = 8.7 mg/L Wang et al., 2 50 and 250 mg/L subcapitata (with a UV filter)/ 2011 6.3 mg/L (with 3 h pre-exposure to UV) Nano-TiO 10 nm (primary size) 0–500 mg/L Anabaena variabilis Growth N/A 96 h – EC = 0.62 mg/L Cherchi and Gu, 2 50 /192±0.8 nm inhibition; nitrogen 2010 (NM aggregates) fixation activity inhibition Nano-TiO 4–30nm 0, 10, 30, 100, 250,500, Pseudokirchneriella Growth inhibition Surface coverage; 96 h – EC = 113±18 mg/L Metzler et al., 2 50 600, and 1000 mg/L subcapitata oxidative damage 2011 Nano-TiO 5–10 nm 0, 5, 10, 20, and 30 mg/L Karenia brevis Growth Oxidative 72 h – EC = 10.69 mg/L Li et al., 2015 2 50 inhibition; cell damage; mechanical membrane destroyed damage Nano-TiO 5–10 nm 0, 5, 10, 20, and 30 mg/L Skeletonema costatum Growth Oxidative damage 72 h – EC = 7.37 mg/L Li et al., 2015 2 50 inhibition; MDA contents increase Yuxiong Huang et al. Effects of manufactured nanomaterials on algae: Implications and applications 7 (Continued) EC MNMs type MNMs Particle size Dosage Algae species Effects Mechanisms References Quantum Dots Carbon QDs <10 nm 0, 5, 10, 50, 100, Microcystis aeruginosa Growth inhibition N/A N/A Yan, 2015 (QDs) (PEG -CQDs, and500 mg/L CA-CQDs, and Gly- CQDs) CdSe QDs 3.2 nm Short-term exposure Phaeodactylum tricornutum Growth Oxidative damage N/A Morelli et al., experiments: 20–320 inhibition; SOD and 2012 nM.Long-term exposure CAT activities were experiments: 0.04–1.0 nM increased; ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and glutathione reductase (GR) activities were not significantly affected CdTe-QDs <10 nm 0, 5, 10, 50, 100, Microcystis aeruginosa Growth inhibition; N/A N/A Yan, 2015 and 500 mg/L chlorophyll-a accumulation inhibition CQDs (N, S doped – 0, 1, 5, 10, 50, Chlorellapyrenoidosa Growth Oxidative damage 96 h – EC = 38.56, Xiao et al., 2016 CQDs, N doped 100 mg/L,0, 5, 10, inhibition; Chla 185.83, 232.47 mg/L, CQDs, no doped 50, 100, 500 mg/L, contents and protein respectively CQDs) 0, 5, 10, 50, 100, contents were 500 mg/L, respectively decreased; SOD activity and MDA contents were increased Metal QDs (CdTe – 0, 0.01, 0.02, 0.1, Chlorellapyrenoidosa Growth Oxidative damage 96 h – EC = 0.015, Xiao et al., 2016 QDs, CdS QDs, 0.2, 1 mg/L, 0, 0.75, 1.5, inhibition; Chla 4.88, 459.5 mg/L, CuInS /ZnS QDs) 7.5, contents and protein respectively 15, 75mg/L, 0, 10, contents were 20, 100, 200, 1000 mg/L, decreased; SOD respectively activity and MDA contents were increased Note: N/A refers to data not provided in the original report. 8 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2022, 16(9): 122 of algae, which directly or indirectly affects the growth may contribute to the algal growth inhibition (Ji et al., 2011). Thus, the MNMs released metal ions should not be and reproduction of algae (Schwab et al., 2011; Hazeem considered as the sole reason for MNMs’ negative effects et al., 2020; Thiagarajan et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021b). to algae, while the “nano-effect” of MNMs (e.g., light- Sadiq et al. reported that the existence of nano-Al O had 2 3 shielding effect, mechanical damage) might be dominant a certain light-shielding effect on Scenedesmus sp. and contributors ( Chen et al., 2019). Chlorella sp., inhibiting the synthesis of photosynthetic pigments and thus suppressing algae growth (Sadiq et al., 3.4 MNMs induced ROS generation 2011b). Similarly, graphene oxide (GO) was reported to exhibit a light-shielding effect onto Chlorella vulgaris Oxidative stress has been widely considered as one of the (Zhao et al., 2016), while CNT was also demonstrated to dominant mechanisms in the toxic effect of MNMs on inhibit the growth of Chlorella vulgaris due to the light- algae (Xiao et al., 2016; Santschi et al., 2017; Chen et al., shielding effect (Schwab et al., 2011). 2019). MNMs have unique physicochemical properties However, there have been debates on the role of the (e.g., photocatalytic, oxidative capability), which may light-shielding effect in MNMs induced toxicity (Saison trigger reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation in algal et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2011). Aruoja et al. found no cells via direct and indirect chemical reactions (Ouabadi significant growth inhibition when using nano-TiO to et al., 2013; von Moos and Slaveykova, 2014). block the light source (Aruoja et al., 2009). Likewise, the Generally, the intracellular ROS could be generated via light-shielding effect was not observed in the toxicity directly contact-mediated approach, or indirectly through study of nano-TiO on Scenedesmus obliquus (Li et al., dissolved ions. The direct MNMs-mitochondria contacts 2020a). The MNMs induced shading effects may depend could compromise the organelle membrane integrity, on the properties of MNMs, for example, the black flake- which would release of Ca2+ ions from interior stores and like MNMs (e.g., GO) may have a stronger light-shielding further activate the ROS-generating Ca2+/calmodulin- effect. dependent enzymes (Santschi et al., 2017). Additional dir- ect pathways may associate with the interactions between 3.3 MNMs released metal ions MNMs and membrane-bound enzymes to trigger ROS formation (Navarro et al., 2008). Meanwhile, the indirect Metal-containing MNMs, especially nano-Ag, nano-ZnO, pathways are involved in the interactions between algae nano-PbS, nano-Cu O, etc., would gradually release and leached MNM constituents such as metals and metal ions along the environmental process (Gunasekaran organics, which further engage in redox cycling that yield et al., 2020; Ahmed et al., 2021; Kong et al., 2021; Xiong ROS (e.g., H O , O2−·, OH·) production (Ouabadi et al., 2 2 et al., 2021b), which may also induce biological effects to 2013). Studies have revealed that the amount of MNMs algae. Particularly, some researchers suggested that the generated ROS exhibited linear correlations with their toxicity to biological organisms (Li et al., 2012). For toxicity of MNMs to algae is dominated by MNMs- example, the exposure of nano-Ag had increased the ROS induce dissolved metal ions (Franklin et al., 2007; Wong generation in Chlorella vulgaris, and resulted in stronger et al., 2010). Franklin et al. reported that the toxicity of toxic effects (Hazeem et al., 2019). The exceeded intrace- nano-ZnO to Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata was stati- llular ROS would engage in unrestricted oxidation of stically similar to that of ZnCl , suggesting Zn2+ released biological molecules and cellular components (e.g., lipid by the dissolution of nano-ZnO lead to the major toxic peroxidation), and eventually result in losing cell function effect (Franklin et al., 2007). Likewise, Li et al. reported and apoptosis (Rocha et al., 2015; Glomstad et al., 2016; less toxicity on alga Euglena gracilis exposed to nano- Liu et al., 2018 ). Ag, compared to AgNO (Li et al., 2015b). The prote- inaceous pellicle of algae could effectively inhibit the uptake of MNMs, while the dissolved ions could mitigate 4 Implications and applications of MNMs’ into algal cells and induce biological effects (e.g., on algae suppress the photosynthetic yield). On the contrary, compared to the released metal ions, The effects of MNMs on algae could be either positive or some researchers considered the role of MNMs is more negative, as posing ecological risks (e.g., intracellular critical in causing the biological effects onto algae biochemical composition change, metabolism alteration, (Navarro et al., 2008; Manzo et al., 2013). Manzo et al. nitrogen-fixation inhibition, photosynthesis suppression, reported that nano-ZnO induced significantly higher than growth reduction) and potential applications (e.g., enha- that of bulk ZnO, though similar amount of Zn2+ was nced production of valuable bioactive substances, control detected in both exposures, demonstrating the critical role of biological and chemical pollutants). of MNMs in the toxicity effect on algae (Manzo et al., 2013). Similarly, it’s reported that nano-ZnO exhibited 4.1 Implications of MNMs on algae higher toxicity to green algae Chlorella sp compared to the bulk-ZnO and Zn2+, which was attributed to the fact that nano-ZnO entrapped and wrapped the algal cells and As discussed above, MNMs would induce manifold Yuxiong Huang et al. Effects of manufactured nanomaterials on algae: Implications and applications 9 biological effects on algae, including intracellular bioche- acids, halogenated compounds) through different meta- mical composition change, metabolism alteration, nitro- bolic pathways (Almendinger et al., 2021), which also gen-fixation inhibition, photosynthesis suppression, and serves as the adaption to the environmental change. As growth reduction. Due to the long-term exposure of discussed above, the exposure of MNMs would alter the MNMs at environmentally relevant concentrations, the metabolism of algae, which may tune certain metabolic alteration of algae’s photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation and pathways to enhance the production of valuable bioactive the ratio of C, N, P may further influence the general substances. As a high-value antioxidant, astaxanthin (AXT) biogeochemical processes (e.g., carbon and nitrogen has been widely used in cosmetics, health care products, cycling) (Cherchi and Gu, 2010; Cherchi et al., 2015). medical and other industries (Du et al., 2021). AXT could Furthermore, MNMs-engaged biomass change of algae be produced by Haematococcus pluvialis, however, the would break the balance of interspecies equilibriums and yield is very limited. Recently, nano-Au was innovatively community dynamics in aquatic ecosystems (Oukarroum used to stimulate Haematococcus pluvialis to produce et al., 2012; Cherchi et al., 2015). AXT at a single cell level, providing a successful MNMs- On the other hand, as the major primary producers in enhanced biorefinery process (Praveenkumar et al., 2015). aquatic ecosystems, algae may promote the bioaccumu- On the other hand, algae is considered as a unique lation of MNMs via the food chain due to the algae- feedstock to produce biofuel (Saber et al., 2016; Yap MNMs interaction (e.g., adsorption, internalization) (Rhiem et al., 2015; Xin et al., 2021). It has been proved et al., 2021), while the efficiency and cost-reduction of that MNMs can be transferred from low to high trophic the cultivation and harvesting steps remain key obstacles levels along the food chain, and further accumulated in (Jones and Mayfieldt, 2012; Kim et al., 2013; Fazal et al., high trophic organisms (Zhao and Wang, 2010; Campos 2021). Due to the MNMs-algae interactions, the biofuel et al., 2013; Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2018). For example, production could be promoted via the induction of Bouldin et al. fed Ceriodaphnia dubia with CdSe QDs intracellular lipid accumulation by nutrient competition exposed Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, and found the and/or stress environments (Farooq et al., 2016; Kim existence of CdSe QDs in the Ceriodaphnia dubia et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2016; He et al., 2017), enhance- (Bouldin et al., 2008). In addition, studies have shown that the bio-enrichment of MNMs via the food web is ment of cell growth and/or pigment by light scattering significantly greater than that through water (Zhao and (Torkamani et al., 2010; Pattarkine and Pattarkine, 2012; Wang, 2010; Campos et al., 2013). It’s reported that more Eroglu et al., 2013), increased cell separation efficiency than 70% of nano-Ag accumulated in the Daphnia magna and processing time in culture media (Borlido et al., was through ingestion of algae (Zhao and Wang, 2010). 2013; Hu et al., 2013), and integrated one-pot harvest/cell The trophic transfer, bioaccumulation and bio-enrichment division ( Lee et al., 2014). of MNMs via the food web would eventually pose a great threat to the ecosystem and public health. 4.2.2 Control of biological pollutants 4.2 Applications of MNMs’ effect on algae Though algae are an important part of the ecosystem, however, they would also generate biological pollutants 4.2.1 Enhance the production of valuable bioactive (e.g., eutrophication and biofouling). Since MNMs could substances inhibit the growth of algal cells, which would be beneficial to control eutrophication or inhibit biofouling As shown in Fig. 2, algae could produce a variety of (Fig. 2). bioactive substances (e.g., fatty acids, steroids, carote- noids, polysaccharides, lectins, mycoplasma-like amino Due to the excellent aggregation and sedimentation Fig. 2 Potential applications of MNMs’ effect on algae. 10 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 2022, 16(9): 122 properties in aqueous suspension (Hartmann et al., 2010; (chlorophylls, carboxylate acids) could be served as Campos et al., 2013; Chowdhury et al., 2013) as well as photosensitizers to improve the generation of ROS, which photocatalytic potential (Metzler et al., 2012), MNMs enhanced the photoreduction of Cr(VI) in the system. have been increasingly used to eliminate the bloom algae Likewise, algae could act as carriers to have MNMs via surface-mediated reactions and adsorption (Wang fixed onto the algae biological templates (Tu et al., 2012). et al., 2015; da Silva et al., 2016). Particularly, nano-TiO Cai et al. immobilized nano-TiO on Chlorella vulgaris 2 2 and iron-containing MNMs are considered the most cells via the hydrothermal method, and sensitization of effective MNMs for the control of red tide algae (Wang the photosynthesis pigment boosted nano-TiO ’s photode- et al., 2015; da Silva et al., 2016; Fan et al., 2018; Song gradation efficiency under the visible light (Cai et al., et al., 2021). However, MNMs may also adversely affect 2017 ). other species in the ecosystem when treating algae bloom. Da Silva et al. investigated the performance of nano-TiO on remediating eutrophic waters under a microcosm 5 Conclusion and perspectives experiment, and had eliminated the algal blooms (da Silva Being widely applied in multiple fields, MNMs could be et al., 2016). Meanwhile, Silva et al. also reported that released into the aquatic environments along the life Daphnia magna, Lemna minor and Chironomus riparius cycle, inducing critical effects on algae. We conducted a exhibited significant inhibition, suggesting more attention comprehensive review on both positive and negative im- should be paid to assessing the potential impact of MNMs pacts of MNMs on algae and thoroughly discussed the on the entire ecosystem. underlying mechanisms. In general, exposure to MNMs Moreover, studies have revealed that the engagement of may adversely affect algae’s gene expression, metabolism, MNMs (e.g., nano-TiO , nano-CuO, nano-Ag) could photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation and growth rate. The effectively control the biofouling induced by algae major mechanisms of MNMs-induced inhibition are (Fonseca et al., 2010; Graziani et al., 2013; Verma et al., attributed to oxidative stress, mechanical damages, relea- 2014). Biofilms would form along with the algal sed metal ions and light-shielding effects. colonization, causing the biofouling on the surface of On the other hand, rational utilization of the MNMs- marine vessels and infrastructure (e.g., bridge), which induced effects would promote the production of valuable may further induce decay and damage to materials bioactive substances as well as control biological and ( Scheerer et al., 2009). chemical pollutants. MNMs could be used to stimulate algae to produce useful bioactive substances (e.g., antio- 4.2.3 Enhanced remediation of chemical pollutants xidants, biofuel), while the MNMs-algae interaction could effectively enhance the efficiency of environmental Algal photolysis has been proved as a promising alter- remediation process (e.g., degradation of contaminants, native way to remove aquatic environmental contami- control of eutrophication and biofouling. nants (Wang et al., 2017; Samara Sanchez-Sandoval et al., However, there are still knowledge gaps that need to be 2021; Xiong et al., 2021a), which can produce photoge- addressed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the nerated reactive radicals to accelerate the degradation of effect of MNMs on algae as well as the associated impli- pollutants (Sun et al., 2020; Premnath et al., 2021; Wei cations and applications. The risks of MNMs on algae in et al., 2021). Similarly, photocatalytic MNMs have been the natural ecosystem should be thoroughly assessed prior widely applied for environmental remediation (Tan et al., to the applications. Particularly, MNMs would be invo- 2020; Chen et al., 2021; Ding et al., 2021). Thus, the lved in environmental processes, which may induce remediation efficiency could be significantly enhanced weathering and aging effects on MNMs, further changing via the synergistic effect by combining MNMs and algae the physicochemical properties and effective concentra- (Cai et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2018; tion of MNMs. More in-depth investigations should be Jing et al., 2018; Chang and Wu, 2019). conducted to address the migration, transformation, and Researchers have fixed the MNMs together with algal aging of MNMs under realistic environmental conditions. cells on engineered templates (e.g., fibers mat) to promote It also poses huge demand on the quantitative information the degradation of pollutants. For example, algae-TiO /Ag of the environmental background concentration of MNMs bio-nano hybrid material was developed by loading algal in aquatic ecosystems, which is still missing. It is an cells on the ultrafine TiO /Ag chitosan hybrid nanofiber mat, which has significantly improved the photo-removal urgent need to advance analytical instruments and proto- of Cr(VI) under visible light irradiation (Wang et al., cols to quantitatively analyze the actual environmental 2017). The organic substances released by algae concentrations and size distributions of MNMs. could consume photo-excited holes and ·OH efficiently, Meanwhile, the toxicity assessment of MNMs on algae which attenuated the electron-hole recombination and should be evaluated under environmentally relevant condi- enhanced the photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) on TiO . tions, which should fully consider the heterogeneous joint Meanwhile, the release of intracellular substances toxicity effect of MNMs and other environmental factors, Yuxiong Huang et al. Effects of manufactured nanomaterials on algae: Implications and applications 11 and Cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. 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Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering – Springer Journals
Published: Sep 1, 2022
Keywords: Manufactured nanomaterials; Algae; Mechanisms; Effects; Implications; Applications
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