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Granite Landform Diversity and Dynamics Underpin Geoheritage Values of Seoraksan Mountains, Republic of Korea

Granite Landform Diversity and Dynamics Underpin Geoheritage Values of Seoraksan Mountains,... Seoraksan Mountains in the Republic of Korea are presented as an area of outstanding geodiversity combining rock-controlled granite landforms, inherited cold-climate landforms and highly active contemporary geomorphological processes. Three gener- ations of granites, ranging in age from Proterozoic to Cretaceous, are present and each of these supports distinctive morphology. Cretaceous granites are associated with most spectacular features such as domes and towers, fins, long rock slopes, and fluvial gorges. The latter host abundant waterfalls of different types, potholes, and bedrock channels. While no clear glacial landforms exist in Seoraksan, widespread blockfields, blockslopes, and blockstreams constitute the cold-climate legacy of potentially important palaeoclimatic significance. Slope steepness and extreme rainfall events are the decisive factors to explain frequent mass movements which leave visible erosional and depositional evidence on slopes and in valley floors. The geodiversity of Seoraksan makes the area highly suitable for outdoor geo-education and it is also argued that the area represents a highly diverse, non-glaciated mountainous geomorphological system that integrates source and sink areas and is of exceptional value and extraordinary scenic beauty. . . . . Keywords Granite landforms Geodiversity Rock control Viewpoint geosites Seoraksan Introduction these settings, ongoing surface geomorphic processes consider- ably modify the physical landscape and as far as the scenery is Within the general concept of geoheritage, the major interest is concerned, rather little testifies to the distant geological past. In implicitly on inherited geological and geomorphological features many specific cases in mid- to high latitudes, glacial landforms which record various events from the history of the Earth dominate the scenery but even these usually date back to the late (Reynard and Brilha 2018). Furthermore, these features are often Pleistocene. In such mountain environments, the contemporary fragile and at risk of irreversible transformation or even complete geodiversity rather than the variety of inherited features is often loss due to either natural processes or, perhaps more often, hu- considered decisive for the geoheritage value (Panizza 2009; man activities. Thus, evaluation of geoheritage values typically Giardino et al. 2017; Coratza and Hobléa 2018). However, some goes hand in hand with conservation initiatives and proposals, mountain ranges, even if they were glaciated in the Pleistocene, aimed at designing best strategies to preserve valuable geological retain their pre-Quaternary geomorphic features at both macro localities as they are (Prosser et al. 2013, 2018; Larwood et al. (e.g., remnants of elevated surfaces of low relief) and medium 2013; Gordon et al. 2018). This past-oriented and conservation- scale (e.g., tors and blockfields), formed under long-term controls driven approach needs to be refined in dynamic mountainous of geological setting and climate change (Slaymaker and environments, especially in the so-called Bhigh mountains.^ In Embleton-Hamann 2009, 2018;Halletal. 2013; Gunnell 2015). Thus, mountain geomorphological landscapes are inher- ently complex and this needs to be reflected in both geoheritage * Piotr Migoń and geodiversity assessment (Thomas 2012;Gordon 2018). piotr.migon@uwr.edu.pl In this paper, our focus is on one of the highest mountain ranges of the Korean Peninsula—Seoraksan Mountains, located in the Institute of Geography and Regional Development, University of north-eastern part of the Republic of Korea. Its biodiversity and Wrocław, pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50-137 Wrocław, Poland esthetic values have long been known and appreciated, including Department of Geology, Kangwon National University, the establishment of a National Park in 1970 and a UNESCO Chuncheon, Republic of Korea 752 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 Fig. 1 The granite landscape of Seoraksan is typified by deeply incised valleys with bedrock channels and steep rock slopes dissected into a network of narrow ridges and ravines (photograph by P. Migoń) Biosphere Reserve in 1982. However, while biological conserva- shores of the East Sea (Sea of Japan) (Fig. 2). It belongs to the tion is clearly a priority, geoheritage values are both under- coastal mountain range of Taebaek which runs along the east- researched and apparently less promoted, despite the outstanding ern side of the Korean Peninsula in a NNW–SSE direction (Jo scenery (Fig. 1). Consequently, there are two main reasons to 2000). The highest peak, Daecheongbong, rises to 1708 m present the Seoraksanstudy. First, rather little is known about the a.s.l. and several others exceed 1500 m a.s.l. No evident topo- geodiversity of the Korean Peninsula in general. While the out- graphic boundaries of Seoraksan exist on either the northern standing geoheritage of Jeju Island, in part inscribed as UNESCO or southern side. The mountainous terrain continues both to- World Heritage and also recognized as UNESCO Man and wards the south and the north, although reaching slightly low- Biosphere Reserve and UNESCO Global Geopark, is well recog- er altitudes of 1000–1500 m a.s.l. In accordance with overall nized internationally (Woo et al. 2013); limited information is tilting of the Taebaek range to the west, Seoraksan shows available about the various mountain ranges within the some topographic asymmetry. Mt. Daecheongbong is located Peninsula, with recognition and appreciation of geomorphology in the eastern part of the mountains and elevation drops sharp- lagging behind an interest in the rock and palaeontological record ly to the east, to the narrow coastal plain (2–3kmwidein the (see Kim 2008). The northern part of the Peninsula is even less south, 5–10 km in the north), whereas to the west, it decreases known, although scattered and dated publications leave no doubt gradually. West-facing drainage basins are therefore larger and that the mountainous environments there are spectacular more complex. (Lautensach 1945). Second, Seoraksan is a textbook example of Seoraksan represents Bclassic^ mountainous topography with granite mountainous scenery, with a combination of structural, narrow, often sharp-crested ridges separated by numerous deeply fluvial, periglacial, and mass movement-related features that rep- incised valleys (Fig. 3). The first-order topographic feature is a c. resent outstanding geodiversity and thus, is claimed to have sig- 30-km-long ridge of west-east extension which forms the mor- nificant geoheritage value. Consequently, the aims of this contri- phological axis of the mountain area and includes all the highest bution include presentation of the extraordinary diversity of geo- peaks which exceed 1600 m a.s.l. It drops steeply to the south, to morphological features through the most representative examples, the WNW–ESE aligned valley system controlled by the strike of discussion of inheritance versus dynamics in the context of the Hangyeryeong Fault, beyond which a slightly lower (maxi- geoheritage, and outlining perspectives for popularization of mum elevation 1518 m a.s.l. at Garibong), southern part of geoheritage, with special focus on viewpoint geosites and manage- Seoraksan extends. The backbone of the northern part of ment of a dynamic landscape. Seoraksan is a sinuous and, in sections, extremely rocky ridge running from Mt. Daecheongbong to the NNW, towards Hwangcheolbong (1381 m). Numerous secondary ridges and Study Area intervening short but steep valleys account for the considerable erosional dissection of the whole range. Gross geomorphic fea- Location and Main Traits of Relief tures of Seoraksan, as well as the predominance of bedrock channels in the range and uneven stream long profiles (see be- Seoraksan is located in the middle of the Korean Peninsula, in low), suggest that the area has experienced geologically recent the northern part of the Republic of Korea, overlooking the Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 753 Fig. 2 Location of Seoraksan within the Korean Peninsula uplift that accounts for its considerable elevation and terrain generation of granites, collectively known as the Daebo steepness. Unfortunately, no independent data are available to Granites, is of Jurassic age. Zircon Pb-U ages for these gran- constrain this process. ites range from 170 to 190 Ma (Kee et al. 2010). These are mainly biotite and two mica granites, equigranular, with me- dium to coarse texture, and locally weakly foliated. The youn- Geology gest granites are of Cretaceous age and date from about 88 Ma. Again, several lithological variants are present, includ- Seoraksan is built of various igneous and metamorphic rocks ing coarser Seoraksan granites, with porphyritic texture and which differ in age and record different stages of geotectonic locally with large (a few cm long) potassium feldspar crystals, evolution of the Korean Peninsula. Three main generations of and finer Gwittaegicheong granites which form localized oc- rock complexes can be distinguished, of Proterozoic/early currences (stocks) within the more widespread Seoraksan Paleozoic, Jurassic and Cretaceous age, respectively, with granites. In the northern part of the National Park, where granites being an important component of each complex blockfields and blockslopes abound, quartz-feldspar porphyry (Kee et al. 2010). Proterozoic rocks are represented by is widespread. Stratigraphically, the Jurassic and Cretaceous gneisses, subordinately by quartzites and amphibolites, intrud- granites are separated by clastic and volcanic rocks of the ed by a few lithological variants of granites. Due to subse- Baekdam Group which occur in the central-north part of quent deformation, the latter have acquired certain features Seoraksan (Kee et al. 2010). of metamorphic rocks such as foliation and banding. The next 754 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 Fig. 3 Relief of Seoraksan and adjacent areas. White line shows the boundary of the National Park. Source: USGS (2004), Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, 3 Arc Second scene SRTM Several major faults have been mapped around Seoraksan, juxtaposition of different rock types. While the role of exogenic trending NE–SW, NNE–SSW, and WNW–ESE and partly coin- processes to make the structure visible is obvious and each fluvial cident with morphological boundaries of the mountain range. erosional landform in a rock-cut channel or a periglacial land- They are strike-slip faults and interpreted as multi-phase, active form reflects bedrock control, the focus here is on relationships during the Mesozoic (Kee et al. 2010). However, their late between rocks, granites in this particular case, and denudational Cenozoic reactivation is likely, considering the geomorphologi- landforms. Seoraksan is a most suitable location to examine such cal characteristics of Seoraksan. relationships due to the close occurrence of different variants of granite, good exposure, and wide vistas. Among the four local- ities considered below, Daecheongbong represents Proterozoic Granite Landforms and Key Geosite Localities granites, whereas the remaining three are built of Cretaceous granite. Structural Landforms Daecheongbong Structural (or rock-controlled) landforms are understood as those which owe their morphological characteristics to the properties of The summit part of Daecheongbong is not a classic geosite or the bedrock itself, including its lithological features, discontinu- geomorphosite. It is crowned by a mass of jointed bedrock ities, orientation of strike and dip (if applicable), and outcrops and angular boulders which then give way to Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 755 moderately steep but otherwise rather smooth, regolith- reduces rock mass strength, and easily yield to grain-by-grain covered slopes, but the main value of the peak resides in an breakdown. Therefore, not only the slopes are less inclined but unobstructed panoramic view over the entire Seoraksan. Thus, regolith is produced more efficiently than mass wasting pro- it fits the category of viewpoint geosites (Migoń and Pijet- cesses can evacuate it. Moderately steep slopes with occasion- Migoń 2017). The view to the north is particularly noteworthy al rock cliffs and tors typify the outcrop area of Proterozoic as it presents the contrast between smooth, largely forested granites near water divides. slopes in the Proterozoic granites, and highly dissected ero- sional landscape in the Cretaceous Seoraksan granites, domi- Ulsanbawi nated by bare rock slopes and deep joint-guided ravines (Fig. 4a). The reasons for the different response of two rock com- Ulsanbawi is the most accessible among numerous granite plexes of similar composition to exogenic processes are attrib- monoliths in Seoraksan, reached by a marked trail from the uted to the nature and density of discontinuities. Cretaceous main gateway to the Park in Oeseorak (meaning Bthe outer granites are massive, with joint spacing from a few to > 10 m part of the Seoraksan Mountain^). The trail, equipped with apart, and have tight fabric retarding granular disintegration ladders in the final part, allows visitors to get to the top of and hence, regolith production. Following rock mass strength the mountain. Ulsanbawi is a steep-sided rock ridge built of considerations (Selby 1980), very steep, weathering-limited the Seoraksan granite, c. 2 km long and 200 m wide, elongated slopes can be expected in such settings. The presence of nar- NW–SE, and rising above moderately steep (c. 30°) regolith- row zones of dense fracturing (< 0.5 m apart) accounts for the covered slopes (Fig. 4b). Extension of the ridge follows re- origin of a network of ravines separating massive rock com- gional discontinuities oblique to the main WNW–ESE partments. By contrast, Proterozoic granites have joint density trending faults, whereas perpendicular SW–NE joints divide in the order of 1–2 m and show evidence of foliation, which the ridge into a number of individual compartments. However, Fig. 4 Structural geomorphology of Seoraksan. a Contrast between Granite monolith of Ulsanbawi, with overhangs and ledges testifying to smooth, regolith-covered, and largely forested slopes in Proterozoic rock slope failures. c Dome of Biseondae with curved surface-parallel granites (foreground and background right) and bare rock slopes in fractures. d Rock fins separated by vertical joints along the Cretaceous granites (background left) (view from Daecheongbong). b Gongnyongneungseon ridge (all photographs by P. Migoń) 756 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 none of these joints has yet been hollowed out to form a ridge- vertical walls 50–200 m high, facing two opposite directions, cutting ravine. The rock slopes of Ulsanbawi are c. 150 m and a serrated crest line. high. The massive primary structure of the monolith has allowed curved sheeting joints to develop and these, along Fluvial Landforms with vertical discontinuities, govern the pattern of rock slope failures. Numerous scars and overhangs testify to the detach- The fluvial morphology of Seoraksan is dominated by bed- ment of large volumes of rock, the complementary evidence rock channels and high-energy, boulder-rich, braided chan- being big boulders (as much as > 10 m long) scattered on nels. The former are particularly abundant in the headwater slopes. In turn, degradation of the summit parts is controlled sections of valleys, although at many places, bedrock is by the vertical joints and includes the development of clefts, concealed under recent debris flow deposits. Longitudinal separation of fins, and their eventual fall. Thus, Ulsanbawi is a stream profiles are very irregular, with multiple steps and very good example of both the geomorphic expression of a more evident knickpoint zones. At the local scale, this fluvial massive granite compartment amidst more jointed bedrock, assemblage certainly reflects the resistance of bedrock but it is the geomorphic role of joints, and the diverse patterns of rock also tempting to use it as an indicator of ongoing uplift of the slope degradation. area and incision in response. The most characteristic land- forms testifying to ongoing incision are slot canyons and wa- Biseondae terfalls. The latter are abundant and occur on streams of all sizes, in a variety of shapes, ranging from free falls for more The triple dome of Biseondae is perhaps the best in Seoraksan, than 50 m to steep chutes, and cascading staircases. Waterfalls and certainly the most accessible type of a granite landform are associated with potholes and other minor forms of bedrock identified worldwide as the most characteristic for granites erosion. (Twidale 1982;Migoń 2006). It rises above the Cheonbuldong valley floor, with rock slopes reaching down Sibiseonnyeotang to the bedrock channel (Fig. 4c). The total height of the dome is c. 250 m, with the western part being both the highest and The name, which translates into BTwelve Fairy Bathing most regularly shaped. The tripartite structure of Biseondae Springs,^ refers to the middle section of a valley in the west- results from the presence of two zones of bedrock shattering, ernmost part of Seoraksan, known for a string of potholes whereas the nearly perfect shape of the western dome is due to separated by chutes and waterfalls (Fig. 5a). The entire sec- the paucity of vertical and horizontal joints. Instead, curved tion, easily accessible via a hiking trail, is c. 300 m long, sheeting joints are prominent. Halfway up the rock slope, an whereas the drop in elevation is c. 100 m. Potholes are of artificially enlarged cavity of Geumganggul hosts a Buddhist variable size and shape, from circular features a few meters shrine. The little observation deck at the entrance offers views across to elongated troughs more than 20 m long. Close to the over the Cheonbuldong Valley and towards Mt. downstream end of the reach, a double-step waterfall occurs, Daecheongbong, complementing the view from the latter with a big pothole halfway down the drop. Above some pot- and showing the remarkable morphological contrast between holes located in the thalweg, there are smaller landforms of two types of granites. this kind, probably activated during torrential flows generated by the summer monsoon rains and typhoons. The entire Gongnyongneungseon bedrock-cut reach has developed in an area where the resistant Cretaceous granite upstream contacts with apparently less re- This place name refers to the section of the ridge in the central sistant Jurassic granite downstream and, hence, waterfalls are part of Seoraksan which connects Mt. Daecheongbong in the lithology-controlled. south and Mt. Madeungnyeong in the north (Fig. 2). The ridge is accessible for hikers along a technically difficult trail which Cheonbuldong climbs or skirts consecutive granite peaks. While different shapes of granite residual peaks may be seen along the path, The Cheonbuldong valley in the north-eastern part of including domes, half-domes, conical peaks, and angular Seoraksan is widely acclaimed as one of the highlights of towers, the most characteristic are narrow fins (Fig. 4d). the National Park for its impressive scenery, particularly in Fins, present mainly in the eastern part of the ridge, may be autumn. However, it also offers a spectacular collection of considered as equivalents of domes which have developed in fluvial landforms which includes slot gorges, waterfalls, sin- places where vertical joints of one predominant direction are gular and strings of potholes, inclined rock slabs, and shallow more closely spaced, whereas the perpendicular direction is rock-cut troughs. Among them, the slot canyon in the upper under-represented. In such cases, there is little scope for part of the valley deserves particular attention as the most curved unloading joints. Fins are characterized by high, nearly accessible landform of this kind in Seoraksan. It is c. 100 m Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 757 Fig. 5 Bedrock fluvial landforms of Seoraksan. a Waterfalls and potholes in Sibiseonnyeotang. b Fracture-guided slot canyon in Cheonbuldong valley. c Daeseungpokpo Falls, the highest in Seoraksan. d Biryongpokpo Falls (all photographs by P. Migoń) long and has a tight V-shaped cross-section (Fig. 5b). It is a trail that connects the ranger station at Jangsudae in the main bounded by 60–80° inclined rock walls with densely spaced valley and Mt. Daeseungyeong in the main ridge. unloading joints. Two > 10-m-high waterfalls are present at either end of the slot. Controls on the occurrence of the canyon Biryongpokpo Falls and Yukdampokpo Falls are structural. It follows a N–S zone of highly fractured rock. These two easily accessible waterfalls close to the main tourist Daeseungpokpo Falls service area in Oeseorak offer contrasting examples of con- trols on waterfall origin. Biryongpokpo Falls is located further This is the highest waterfall in Seoraksan, with a single drop of upstream and represents a single drop of 16 m into a large pool 88 m (Fig. 5c), exposed for viewing from the observation plat- deepened by erosion. The origin of the falls is related to var- form in front of it, roughly at the height of the threshold. It is iable structural conditions along the stream length. The water- located within a minor tributary valley to the Jayangcheon trunk fall occurs at a spot where the stream leaves one heavily joint- valley, the former beginning (upstream of the falls) only less than ed and hence more erodible linear zone, makes a 90° turn and 2 km longupstream ofthefalls.Therefore,theamount of water is enters another jointed zone, parallel to the former. The fall is limited (which to some extent reduces the visual impact) and the over the more massive threshold separating the two zones threshold shows little evidence of dissection. However, (Fig. 5d). Yukdampokpo Falls occur within a relatively Daeseungpokpo Falls is an excellent example of a knickpoint straight reach, similarly over a more massive rock compart- that separates a deeply incised, rejuvenated reach downstream, ment. It consists of two parts: the upper one is a steep chute; and a wide upstream section filled by thick boulder-dominated the lower one is a free fall into a large erosional basin. Immediately upstream, two potholes separated by a series of debrisflow deposits.Bothsectionsofthe valley canbeseenfrom 758 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 rock slabs and a rock-cut trough indicate the presence of the currently inaccessible, as the trail has been closed since 1991 same, less erodible zone across the valley. for nature restoration. Nevertheless, the northeast-facing blockslope can be seen from a panoramic viewpoint on top Periglacial Landforms of Ulsanbawi. Disregarding some forest patches within the blockslope, its entire exposed part occupies an area of 650 × During the Pleistocene, Seoraksan was not glaciated, or at 350 m (Fig. 6b). Bedrock cliffs, 2–3 m high, are present close least there is no unequivocal evidence for local glaciation. to and across the ridge, accounting for its stepped profile. The No evident cirques occur and none of the major valleys shows blockslope itself is composed of angular fragments of variable clear morphological features of glacial erosion (U-shaped size, up to 3 m long. Several topographic features suggest past cross-section, ice-molded hills). However, similar to some cementation by ground ice and permafrost creep. These are other Korean mountains (e.g., Rhee et al. 2017), a clear testa- closed elongated and linear hollows, lobate ramparts pointing ment of cold-climate conditions is provided by extensive downslope, and individual blocks in emerging position. Next blockfields (products of in situ mechanical breakdown, with to the main blockslope and east of it, block accumulations are little subsequent movement) and blockslopes (some gravity- confined to valleys and are distinctly elongated (= driven movement may have occurred) (Park 2000, 2003). blockstreams), forming a branched pattern. These spatial rela- Their occurrence is lithology-controlled. Practically, no tionships suggest the removal of fine material by throughflow blocky accumulations occur within coarse Seoraksan granites and residual character of blocky accumulations which in turn where the upper slopes are too steep to host blockfields any- points to a complex origin of blockfields in Seoraksan. way, whereas they are abundant in finer-grained and more jointed granite variants such as the Cretaceous Sites Evidencing Contemporary Dynamics Gwittaegicheong granite and in quartz-feldspar porphyry. Some metamorphic rocks support blocky accumulations too Seoraksan is a very dynamic mountain environment. High (e.g., along the main ridge west of Mt. Kkeutcheong), al- rates of geomorphic processes result from the combined ef- though these are almost entirely forested. Being located at fects of high relative relief and abundant precipitation. The rather low latitude and altitude, the blockfields of Seoraksan, height difference between crest lines and valley floors is con- although probably less scenic than other granite landforms, siderable, reaching the order of 1000 m or more over very are equally valuable part of the regional geoheritage, possibly short distances of 2–3 km, resulting in extremely steep slopes, quite significant for palaeoclimatic research in East Asia. where inclinations > 30° are the norm and sections > 50°, including nearly vertical rock slopes, are common. Annual Gwittaegicheongbong precipitation is around 1200–1400 mm but a significant part of it comes as heavy summer rains with daily totals of the The main ridge around Mt. Gwittaegicheongbong is exten- order of several hundred millimeters, and occasionally, sively covered by blockfields which give way to blockslopes, Seoraksan is hit by a typhoon, with hourly intensities above especially on southwest-facing slopes (Fig. 6a). Individual 100 mm. In these circumstances, mass movements and torren- blocks are up to 3 m long and the thickness of the cover is at tial flows in channels are generated, capable of significant least 2 m. Bedrock cliffs locally protrude through the remodeling of the landscape. blockfield. Many blocks stand in upright position and there The two most common mass movement processes are rock are large, up to 1 m long, voids in between them. falls and debris flows, the latter transforming into Nevertheless, blocks are generally stable which is consistent hyperconcentrated flows within the channels and valley with fairly big weathering pits and pans developed on their floors. These flows, given sudden generation by extreme rain- upper surfaces. Some of these hollows are > 1 m long and 10– fall, may be considered as flash floods in hydrological terms. 15 cm deep. Sections of bare blockslopes extend for up to Although both types are favored by geological conditions and 600 m and reach the bottoms of first-order valleys. Satellite rock properties, their triggers and geomorphic impact are dif- images indicate minor relief within certain parts of ferent. Rock falls occur on very steep rock slopes which are blockslopes (stripes, furrows) but these cannot be seen from subject to high tensile stresses, resulting in primary joint open- a trail that crosses the upper part of the blockfield. ing and the development of secondary unloading sheeting joints. Along these intersecting joint planes, large rock com- Hwangcheolbong partments are detached and move downslope. In this way, huge granite blocks fall, roll, or slide down, eventually North- and south-facing slopes of Hwangcheolbong in the reaching the footslopes or the valley floors. Debris flows, in northern part of Seoraksan host the most impressive and the turn, are distinctly weather-controlled phenomena and are ini- most extensive blocky accumulations. Among the potential tiated during typhoons on regolith-covered slopes. Movement geomorphosites presented here, this is the only locality typically starts with slow sliding of water-laden regolith over a Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 759 Fig. 6 Cold-climate heritage of Seoraksan. a Blockslopes below Mt. Gwittaegicheongbong. b Extensive blockfields and blockslopes at Mt. Hwangcheolbong. The irregular topography of the blockfields suggests modifications by permafrost creep (all photographs by P. Migoń) steeply inclined sheeting plane and transforms into a flow after However, if trails or other infrastructure were affected, reaching a ravine or headwater valley. These debris-laden engineering work erases most geomorphic effects. Here, flows in Seoraksan may travel for many kilometers, complete- three representative localities in the southern part of the ly transforming the pre-existing morphology of valley floors. Park are characterized in more detail. The visible evidence of mass movements and valley floor remodeling is ubiquitous in Seoraksan. The legacy of rock falls comprises scars and overhangs within rock Osaek slopes and chaotic blocky accumulations at the foot of rock slopes, including valley floors if there is direct Upstream from the hot spring resort of Osaek, the stream slope-channel coupling. Debris slides leave exposed bed- winds between granite towers and spurs built of massive rock slabs within otherwise forested slopes, whereas sub- Cretaceous Seorak granites. Vertical slopes connect the sequent flows produce big boulders scattered in the valley tops and rock benches with the valley floor and have been floors, lateral ridges (levees), and debris fans at the junc- affected by frequent rockfalls. Their effects can be ob- tion with a main valley. Exposed sequences of flow- served in the channel, in the form of numerous angular related deposits may reach 10 m. Depending on the length boulders, some up to 10 m, piled one upon another. of time that has elapsed since an event, these features are Corresponding scars within rock slopes can be seen as well (Fig. 7a). still bare or colonized by re-established vegetation. 760 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 Hangyeryeong Pass chute, with big blocks of local rocks used to stabilize the floor and the banks (Fig. 7d). However, a panel at the road bridge The trail from Hangyeryeong Pass to the main ridge climbs contains photographs indicating the scale of transformation steeply through dense forest but from a few places upper sec- due to debris flow and damage. tions of debris flow tracks may be seen (Fig. 7b). They provide a good illustration of the general mechanism, showing ex- Dual Significance of Granite Landforms—Inherited posed, steeply dipping sheeting surfaces as the detachment Features and Ongoing Dynamics area c. 25 m wide and a boulder-filled ravine below. Further up, the trail crosses the track of another debris flow, this time Seoraksan provides an example of an area where inherited and initiated within a low-angle, regolith-covered slope. Broken contemporary geomorphological features combine into high- and transported tree logs can be still observed (Fig. 7c). value geodiversity, additionally coupled with outstanding sce- nic attributes which directly bear on the area’s popularity Heulimgol among tourists. It is not the only area for which such a com- bination was comprehensively documented and one might The tributary valley of Heulimgol was completely re-shaped argue that each mountainous area is typified by a comparable by a flood in 2009 and rehabilitated after 2012. The value of association of values. However, in most examples, inheritance this locality, easily accessible due to its roadside setting, is is linked with Pleistocene glacial legacy whose temporal con- thus not to see the effects of ongoing processes, as these have text can be reasonably constrained by dating techniques. been erased, but the amount of work required to restore safety. Examples include the Dolomites in Italy (Panizza 2009; The valley floor has been transformed into a box-shaped Soldati 2010) and various other parts of the Alps (Bollati Fig. 7 Evidence of contemporary geomorphological dynamics. a Huge boulders in the foreground are products of rock fall from precipitous valley sides directly into the channel (Osaek district of Seoraksan). b Scar left by regolith slide, transformed downslope into debris flow (above Hangyeryeong Pass). c Source zone of a debris flow (above Hangyeryeong Pass). d Channel rehabilitation after damage caused by a recent flood (Oeseorak district) (all photographs by P. Migoń) Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 761 et al. 2017;Giardino etal. 2017). In much fewer examples, would considerably alter the scenery. Thus, in terms of current both pre-Quaternary erosional history and Quaternary glacial recognition and potential significance, Seoraksan can be con- inheritance are highlighted, such as in the Cairngorms, sidered as a benchmark terrain to demonstrate intertwining of Scotland (Kirkbride and Gordon 2010;Hall etal. 2013). inherited landforms and contemporary processes to shape Non-glacial long-term evolution, much more problematic to granite scenery of outstanding scenic value which has never date, is highlighted less frequently. Furthermore, contempo- been shaped by glaciers. rary dynamics is rarely addressed and its contribution to re- gional geoheritage, clearly focused on conservation, is either Perspectives and Issues in Geoscience Outreach given a secondary role or, perhaps unintentionally, neglected. and Geo-education Against this background, one can better evaluate the sig- nificance of Seoraksan’s geomorphological heritage. Here, Despite outstanding values, the geo-educational potential of geomorphological inheritance is manifest not only in evident- Seoraksan is so far poorly exploited. Current outdoor interpre- ly Bfossilized^ features such as blockfields (although they tative facilities are almost entirely focused on biological probably should not be considered entirely relict—see Park values, ecosystem complexity, rare plant, and animal species. 2000, 2003), but also in bedrock-controlled major A few geomorphic localities, including several presented in denudational landforms such as domes, fins, and towers, this paper, have information panels focused on individual which are products of long-term operation of exogenous pro- landforms such as waterfalls or peculiar boulders, but the cesses, apparently in relation to ongoing, although poorly un- stories told are local legends and tales rather than targeted derstood and constrained surface uplift. Likewise, minor ero- attempts to enhance visitors’ understanding. In other places sional features such as waterfall steps and bedrock channels (e.g., at Gwongeumseong and Gongyeongneungseon), large have their roots in the geomorphic history of the area. panels were erected but their information content is limited to However, contemporary processes continue to shape these naming peaks visible from these localities, nothing else. landforms, particularly through extreme geomorphic phenom- Another aspect is that many trails, accessible in the past, were ena of rock and debris slides, debris flows, boulder falls, and closed due to long-term nature restoration projects and it is floods. Separating inheritance from ongoing dynamics is nei- uncertain whether they will ever re-open. Among them, per- ther feasible nor helpful in understanding and appreciating manent closure of the Hwangcheolbong trail would be a par- Seoraksan’s geoheritage and the same is probably true for ticular loss since it shows the most impressive and varied other non-glaciated mountain ranges which show consider- examples of periglacial blockfields and blockslopes. able surface dynamics. Commenting upon the deficit of interpretation of Seoraksan’s Seoraksan is an example of a predominantly granite geo- geoheritage and geodiversity, it needs to be noted that erection of morphological landscape and outstanding values of granite panels in the field is not necessarily the best option given tech- scenery in general have been emphasized many times. nical difficulties in very steep terrain, paucity of suitable places, Leaving aside spectacular granite mountainous terrains glaci- and negative impact on landscape esthetics. This applies to both ated in the past or at present, such as those of Yosemite (USA), exposed and valley-bottom settings. Mountain and ridge tops— Torres del Paine (Chile), Los Glaciares National Park viewpoint geosites sensu Migoń and Pijet-Migoń (2017)—are (Argentina), or Serra da Estrela (Portugal), numerous non- excellent locations to interpret the scenery, to highlight and ex- glaciated granite mountains have long been appreciated for plain rock control on landscape appearance, and to discuss spatial their physical landscape, even making their way into the patterns of mass movements, since scars of depletion zones are UNESCO World Heritage List in recognition of their scenery, often clearly visible and pathways of movement can be tracked following the World Heritage criterion no. (vii). These include down the valleys. Comprehensive interpretation, however, re- granite mountains of east China—Huangshan and quires space and can hardly be reduced to a limited number of Sanqingshan (Thomas 2010), prominent inselbergs massifs words, recommended in some theoretical considerations of the Namib Desert (Migoń 2010;Goudieand Viles 2015), (Hughes and Ballantyne 2010; Macadam 2018). Large interpre- or granite-gneiss domes in Rio de Janeiro (Fernandes et al. tation panels in open terrain would be very intrusive but also 2010). However, none of these examples highlights ongoing difficult to keep in good shape during harsh winter conditions. landforming processes as significant contributing agents. Likewise, too many panels cramped along a particular section of Other examples of granite landscapes of considerable value a valley are unlikely to make good impression. Therefore, down- for geosciences such as those of south-west England loadable mobile resources and information leaflets to be distrib- (Dartmoor, Bodmin Moor – Campbell et al. 1998;Gunnell uted at the beginning of trails and in National Park information et al. 2013), Sardinia (Melis et al. 2017), Lower Austria centers would better suit the purpose and can be more tailored (Huber 1999,Migoń et al. 2018), or the Mojave Desert, towards various categories of visitors with different levels of USA (Oberlander 1974), are more subdued and lack high- interest. Among various localities, the following are best suited magnitude but short-duration geomorphic events which to act as viewpoint geosites, developed towards interpretation of 762 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 the whole scenery (Fig. 8): (1) the top of Ulsanbawi, (2) flash flood flows, and tree uprooting. In the last decade, sev- Gwong eu mseon g, ( 3 ) Geu m gan ggu l, (4 ) eral important trails had to be temporarily closed due to dam- Gongnyeongneungseon, and (5) Daecheongbong (Fig. 4). age from geomorphic activity and some are closed for this However, at each of these sites, erection of large panels is not reason at the moment. Critical sites are monitored, while in recommended for esthetic reasons, and at some, is not even other spots, steep and potentially unstable rock walls have physically possible (Geumganggul). Thematic geo-trails may fo- been artificially strengthened. However, the constant threat cus on periglacial inheritance (Hangyeryeong to from surface processes may be also seen as an opportunity Gwittagicheongbong), fluvial bedrock erosion to increase knowledge about landscape dynamics, impact of (Sibiseonnyeontang), and transformation of debris flows into natural events, their triggers, remedies, and countermeasures. Bregular^ river flow (Cheonbuldong valley to Oeseorak). In fact, in a few places, information panels recall specific All initiatives towards popularization of geoheritage and events of this kind such as the collapse of an elevated board- geodiversity of Seoraksan may have one significant con- walk in Cheonbuldong Valley in 2007. straint, related to a theme argued to be significant for geoscientific value of the territory, i.e., contemporary geomor- phic dynamics. Long sections of trails cross the terrain which Conclusions is not only technically difficult but geomorphologically active, with impact on trail infrastructure. Processes affecting paths, Seoraksan provides an excellent example of a mountainous boardwalks, and stairs include rock falls, slides, torrential/ terrain whose value and significance reside simultaneously Fig. 8 Annotated panoramic views (parts of) from four viewpoint geosites in Seoraksan. The view from Daecheongbong is shown in Fig. 4a (all photographs by P. Migoń) Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 763 Coratza P, Hobléa F (2018) The specificities of geomorphological heri- in both landform inheritance and contemporary geomorpho- tage. In: Reynard E, Brilha J (eds) Geoheritage. Assessment, protec- logical processes. The extraordinary geodiversity of the area, tion, and management. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 87–106 primarily geomorphological diversity, results from the combi- Fernandes N, Tupinambá M, Mello CL, Peixoto MNO (2010) Rio de nation of various regional and site-specific rock controls on Janeiro: a metropolis between granite-gneiss massifs. In: Migoń P (ed) Geomorphological landscapes of the world. Springer, Berlin, pp landforms and processes, the presence of landforms formed 89–100 over different timescales and subject to various pathways of Giardino M, Mortara G, Chiarle M (2017) The glaciers of the Valle remodeling under present-day conditions. Although never gla- d’Aosta and Piemonte regions: records of present and past environ- ciated (at least, not re-shaped by glaciers to any evident ex- mental and climate changes. In: Marchetti M (ed) Soldati M. Springer, Landscapes and landforms of Italy, pp 77–88 tent), Seoraksan hosts numerous inherited landforms pro- Gordon JE (2018) Mountain geodiversity: characteristics, values and cli- duced by cold-climate conditions as well as structural land- mate change. In: Hoorn C, Perrigo A, Antonelli A (eds) Mountains, forms whose assignment to certain narrowly-defined climate and biodiversity. Wiley, Chichester, pp 137–154 timespans does not seem possible. Therefore, referring to the Gordon J, Crofts R, Díaz-Martínez E (2018) Geoheritage conservation conceptual issue of Bsignificance^ present at the interface of and environmental policies: retrospect and prospect. In: Reynard E, Brilha J (eds) Geoheritage. Assessment, protection, and manage- geosciences, and geomorphology in particular, and nature ment. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 213–235 conservation and promotion (Migoń 2014), Seoraksan may Goudie A, Viles H (2015) Landscapes and landforms of Namibia. indeed be considered as a highly significant representative of Springer, Dordrecht unglaciated, very dynamic granite mountain scenery, and pos- Gunnell Y (2015) Ancient landforms in dynamic landscapes: inheritance, transience and congruence in Earth-surface systems. sibly a Btype geomorphic locality^ for any comparative stud- Geomorphology 233:1–4 ies. Moreover, it is argued that strategies to develop geo- Gunnell Y, Jarman D, Braucher R, Calvet M, Delmas M, Leanni L, education and more informed educational tourism should se- Bourlès D, Arnold M, Aumaître G, Keddaouche K (2013) The gran- riously consider this geological control—landform inheri- ite tors of Dartmoor, Southwest England: rapid and recent emer- tance—contemporary geomorphological process triad which gence revealed by Late Pleistocene cosmogenic apparent exposure ages. Quat Sci Rev 61:62–76 together explain the complexity of mountain landscapes, since Hall AM, Gillespie MR, Thomas CW, Ebert K (2013) Scottish landform Seoraksan is a most suitable place to explore these issues, also examples: the Cairngorms—a pre-glacial upland granite landscape. for general public. Scot Geogr J 129:2–14 Huber KH (1999) Zum Formenschatz der Granitverwitterung und – Acknowledgements This research project was supported by Injegun abtragung im nordwestlichen Waldviertel. In: Steininger FF (ed) (Gangwondo) and the Cultural Heritage Administration to the Natural Erdgeschichte des Waldviertels, 2nd edn. Waldviertler Heritage Institute of Korea. We are grateful to Mr. M. Y. Lee and Ms. Heimatbund, Horn – Waidhofen/Thaya, pp 113–132 S. O. Ju for their field assistance and the National Park Service for per- Hughes K, Ballantyne R (2010) Interpretation rocks! Designing signs for mission to visit some wild sites. Mr. H. J. Yoon at the Inje County geotourism sites. In: Newsome D, Dowling RK (eds) Geotourism: Government is specially appreciated for his support for administration the tourism of geology and landscape. Goodfellow, Oxford, pp 184– and field work. We are also grateful to other members of the research team for their helpful discussion during our field work. Two journal Jo W-R (2000) Geology and geomorphology. In: Kwon H-J, Huh WK reviewers are thanked for their constructive comments on the first version (eds) Korea. The land and people. Kyohaksa, Seoul, pp 29–52 of the paper. Kee W-S, Kim H, Kim BC, Choi S-J, Park S-I, Hwang SK (2010) Geological report of the Seoraksan sheet. Scale 1:50,000. Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Kim YB (2008) Geoheritage of Korea. In: Leman MS, Reedman A, Pei Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// CS (eds) Geoheritage of East and Southeast Asia. Lestari, Malaysia, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, pp 115–147 distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro- Kirkbride V, Gordon JE (2010) The geomorphological heritage of the priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Cairngorm Mountains. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Report No 348 (ROAME No. F00AC104) Larwood JG, Badman T, McKeever PJ (2013) The progress and future of geoconservation at a global level. Proc Geol Assoc 124:720–730 Lautensach H (1945) Korea. Eine Landeskunde auf Grund eigener Reise und der Literatur. K.F. Koehler-Verlag, Leipzig (reprinted as: Korea. References A geography based on the author’s travels and literature. Springer, Berlin 1988) Bollati I, Pelfini M, Smiraglia C (2017) Landscapes of northern Macadam J (2018) Geoheritage: getting the message across. What mes- Lombardy: from the glacial scenery of Upper Valtellina to the sage and to whom? In: Reynard E, Brilha J (eds) Geoheritage. Prealpine lacustrine environment of Lake Como. In: Soldati M, Assessment, protection and management. 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Granite Landform Diversity and Dynamics Underpin Geoheritage Values of Seoraksan Mountains, Republic of Korea

Migoń, Piotr; Kasprzak, Marek; Woo, Kyung
Geoheritage , Volume 11 (3) – Oct 15, 2018
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Springer Journals
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Copyright © 2018 by The Author(s)
Subject
Earth Sciences; Historical Geology; Physical Geography; Biogeosciences; Paleontology; Landscape/Regional and Urban Planning; Mineralogy
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1867-2477
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1867-2485
DOI
10.1007/s12371-018-0332-x
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Abstract

Seoraksan Mountains in the Republic of Korea are presented as an area of outstanding geodiversity combining rock-controlled granite landforms, inherited cold-climate landforms and highly active contemporary geomorphological processes. Three gener- ations of granites, ranging in age from Proterozoic to Cretaceous, are present and each of these supports distinctive morphology. Cretaceous granites are associated with most spectacular features such as domes and towers, fins, long rock slopes, and fluvial gorges. The latter host abundant waterfalls of different types, potholes, and bedrock channels. While no clear glacial landforms exist in Seoraksan, widespread blockfields, blockslopes, and blockstreams constitute the cold-climate legacy of potentially important palaeoclimatic significance. Slope steepness and extreme rainfall events are the decisive factors to explain frequent mass movements which leave visible erosional and depositional evidence on slopes and in valley floors. The geodiversity of Seoraksan makes the area highly suitable for outdoor geo-education and it is also argued that the area represents a highly diverse, non-glaciated mountainous geomorphological system that integrates source and sink areas and is of exceptional value and extraordinary scenic beauty. . . . . Keywords Granite landforms Geodiversity Rock control Viewpoint geosites Seoraksan Introduction these settings, ongoing surface geomorphic processes consider- ably modify the physical landscape and as far as the scenery is Within the general concept of geoheritage, the major interest is concerned, rather little testifies to the distant geological past. In implicitly on inherited geological and geomorphological features many specific cases in mid- to high latitudes, glacial landforms which record various events from the history of the Earth dominate the scenery but even these usually date back to the late (Reynard and Brilha 2018). Furthermore, these features are often Pleistocene. In such mountain environments, the contemporary fragile and at risk of irreversible transformation or even complete geodiversity rather than the variety of inherited features is often loss due to either natural processes or, perhaps more often, hu- considered decisive for the geoheritage value (Panizza 2009; man activities. Thus, evaluation of geoheritage values typically Giardino et al. 2017; Coratza and Hobléa 2018). However, some goes hand in hand with conservation initiatives and proposals, mountain ranges, even if they were glaciated in the Pleistocene, aimed at designing best strategies to preserve valuable geological retain their pre-Quaternary geomorphic features at both macro localities as they are (Prosser et al. 2013, 2018; Larwood et al. (e.g., remnants of elevated surfaces of low relief) and medium 2013; Gordon et al. 2018). This past-oriented and conservation- scale (e.g., tors and blockfields), formed under long-term controls driven approach needs to be refined in dynamic mountainous of geological setting and climate change (Slaymaker and environments, especially in the so-called Bhigh mountains.^ In Embleton-Hamann 2009, 2018;Halletal. 2013; Gunnell 2015). Thus, mountain geomorphological landscapes are inher- ently complex and this needs to be reflected in both geoheritage * Piotr Migoń and geodiversity assessment (Thomas 2012;Gordon 2018). piotr.migon@uwr.edu.pl In this paper, our focus is on one of the highest mountain ranges of the Korean Peninsula—Seoraksan Mountains, located in the Institute of Geography and Regional Development, University of north-eastern part of the Republic of Korea. Its biodiversity and Wrocław, pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50-137 Wrocław, Poland esthetic values have long been known and appreciated, including Department of Geology, Kangwon National University, the establishment of a National Park in 1970 and a UNESCO Chuncheon, Republic of Korea 752 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 Fig. 1 The granite landscape of Seoraksan is typified by deeply incised valleys with bedrock channels and steep rock slopes dissected into a network of narrow ridges and ravines (photograph by P. Migoń) Biosphere Reserve in 1982. However, while biological conserva- shores of the East Sea (Sea of Japan) (Fig. 2). It belongs to the tion is clearly a priority, geoheritage values are both under- coastal mountain range of Taebaek which runs along the east- researched and apparently less promoted, despite the outstanding ern side of the Korean Peninsula in a NNW–SSE direction (Jo scenery (Fig. 1). Consequently, there are two main reasons to 2000). The highest peak, Daecheongbong, rises to 1708 m present the Seoraksanstudy. First, rather little is known about the a.s.l. and several others exceed 1500 m a.s.l. No evident topo- geodiversity of the Korean Peninsula in general. While the out- graphic boundaries of Seoraksan exist on either the northern standing geoheritage of Jeju Island, in part inscribed as UNESCO or southern side. The mountainous terrain continues both to- World Heritage and also recognized as UNESCO Man and wards the south and the north, although reaching slightly low- Biosphere Reserve and UNESCO Global Geopark, is well recog- er altitudes of 1000–1500 m a.s.l. In accordance with overall nized internationally (Woo et al. 2013); limited information is tilting of the Taebaek range to the west, Seoraksan shows available about the various mountain ranges within the some topographic asymmetry. Mt. Daecheongbong is located Peninsula, with recognition and appreciation of geomorphology in the eastern part of the mountains and elevation drops sharp- lagging behind an interest in the rock and palaeontological record ly to the east, to the narrow coastal plain (2–3kmwidein the (see Kim 2008). The northern part of the Peninsula is even less south, 5–10 km in the north), whereas to the west, it decreases known, although scattered and dated publications leave no doubt gradually. West-facing drainage basins are therefore larger and that the mountainous environments there are spectacular more complex. (Lautensach 1945). Second, Seoraksan is a textbook example of Seoraksan represents Bclassic^ mountainous topography with granite mountainous scenery, with a combination of structural, narrow, often sharp-crested ridges separated by numerous deeply fluvial, periglacial, and mass movement-related features that rep- incised valleys (Fig. 3). The first-order topographic feature is a c. resent outstanding geodiversity and thus, is claimed to have sig- 30-km-long ridge of west-east extension which forms the mor- nificant geoheritage value. Consequently, the aims of this contri- phological axis of the mountain area and includes all the highest bution include presentation of the extraordinary diversity of geo- peaks which exceed 1600 m a.s.l. It drops steeply to the south, to morphological features through the most representative examples, the WNW–ESE aligned valley system controlled by the strike of discussion of inheritance versus dynamics in the context of the Hangyeryeong Fault, beyond which a slightly lower (maxi- geoheritage, and outlining perspectives for popularization of mum elevation 1518 m a.s.l. at Garibong), southern part of geoheritage, with special focus on viewpoint geosites and manage- Seoraksan extends. The backbone of the northern part of ment of a dynamic landscape. Seoraksan is a sinuous and, in sections, extremely rocky ridge running from Mt. Daecheongbong to the NNW, towards Hwangcheolbong (1381 m). Numerous secondary ridges and Study Area intervening short but steep valleys account for the considerable erosional dissection of the whole range. Gross geomorphic fea- Location and Main Traits of Relief tures of Seoraksan, as well as the predominance of bedrock channels in the range and uneven stream long profiles (see be- Seoraksan is located in the middle of the Korean Peninsula, in low), suggest that the area has experienced geologically recent the northern part of the Republic of Korea, overlooking the Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 753 Fig. 2 Location of Seoraksan within the Korean Peninsula uplift that accounts for its considerable elevation and terrain generation of granites, collectively known as the Daebo steepness. Unfortunately, no independent data are available to Granites, is of Jurassic age. Zircon Pb-U ages for these gran- constrain this process. ites range from 170 to 190 Ma (Kee et al. 2010). These are mainly biotite and two mica granites, equigranular, with me- dium to coarse texture, and locally weakly foliated. The youn- Geology gest granites are of Cretaceous age and date from about 88 Ma. Again, several lithological variants are present, includ- Seoraksan is built of various igneous and metamorphic rocks ing coarser Seoraksan granites, with porphyritic texture and which differ in age and record different stages of geotectonic locally with large (a few cm long) potassium feldspar crystals, evolution of the Korean Peninsula. Three main generations of and finer Gwittaegicheong granites which form localized oc- rock complexes can be distinguished, of Proterozoic/early currences (stocks) within the more widespread Seoraksan Paleozoic, Jurassic and Cretaceous age, respectively, with granites. In the northern part of the National Park, where granites being an important component of each complex blockfields and blockslopes abound, quartz-feldspar porphyry (Kee et al. 2010). Proterozoic rocks are represented by is widespread. Stratigraphically, the Jurassic and Cretaceous gneisses, subordinately by quartzites and amphibolites, intrud- granites are separated by clastic and volcanic rocks of the ed by a few lithological variants of granites. Due to subse- Baekdam Group which occur in the central-north part of quent deformation, the latter have acquired certain features Seoraksan (Kee et al. 2010). of metamorphic rocks such as foliation and banding. The next 754 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 Fig. 3 Relief of Seoraksan and adjacent areas. White line shows the boundary of the National Park. Source: USGS (2004), Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, 3 Arc Second scene SRTM Several major faults have been mapped around Seoraksan, juxtaposition of different rock types. While the role of exogenic trending NE–SW, NNE–SSW, and WNW–ESE and partly coin- processes to make the structure visible is obvious and each fluvial cident with morphological boundaries of the mountain range. erosional landform in a rock-cut channel or a periglacial land- They are strike-slip faults and interpreted as multi-phase, active form reflects bedrock control, the focus here is on relationships during the Mesozoic (Kee et al. 2010). However, their late between rocks, granites in this particular case, and denudational Cenozoic reactivation is likely, considering the geomorphologi- landforms. Seoraksan is a most suitable location to examine such cal characteristics of Seoraksan. relationships due to the close occurrence of different variants of granite, good exposure, and wide vistas. Among the four local- ities considered below, Daecheongbong represents Proterozoic Granite Landforms and Key Geosite Localities granites, whereas the remaining three are built of Cretaceous granite. Structural Landforms Daecheongbong Structural (or rock-controlled) landforms are understood as those which owe their morphological characteristics to the properties of The summit part of Daecheongbong is not a classic geosite or the bedrock itself, including its lithological features, discontinu- geomorphosite. It is crowned by a mass of jointed bedrock ities, orientation of strike and dip (if applicable), and outcrops and angular boulders which then give way to Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 755 moderately steep but otherwise rather smooth, regolith- reduces rock mass strength, and easily yield to grain-by-grain covered slopes, but the main value of the peak resides in an breakdown. Therefore, not only the slopes are less inclined but unobstructed panoramic view over the entire Seoraksan. Thus, regolith is produced more efficiently than mass wasting pro- it fits the category of viewpoint geosites (Migoń and Pijet- cesses can evacuate it. Moderately steep slopes with occasion- Migoń 2017). The view to the north is particularly noteworthy al rock cliffs and tors typify the outcrop area of Proterozoic as it presents the contrast between smooth, largely forested granites near water divides. slopes in the Proterozoic granites, and highly dissected ero- sional landscape in the Cretaceous Seoraksan granites, domi- Ulsanbawi nated by bare rock slopes and deep joint-guided ravines (Fig. 4a). The reasons for the different response of two rock com- Ulsanbawi is the most accessible among numerous granite plexes of similar composition to exogenic processes are attrib- monoliths in Seoraksan, reached by a marked trail from the uted to the nature and density of discontinuities. Cretaceous main gateway to the Park in Oeseorak (meaning Bthe outer granites are massive, with joint spacing from a few to > 10 m part of the Seoraksan Mountain^). The trail, equipped with apart, and have tight fabric retarding granular disintegration ladders in the final part, allows visitors to get to the top of and hence, regolith production. Following rock mass strength the mountain. Ulsanbawi is a steep-sided rock ridge built of considerations (Selby 1980), very steep, weathering-limited the Seoraksan granite, c. 2 km long and 200 m wide, elongated slopes can be expected in such settings. The presence of nar- NW–SE, and rising above moderately steep (c. 30°) regolith- row zones of dense fracturing (< 0.5 m apart) accounts for the covered slopes (Fig. 4b). Extension of the ridge follows re- origin of a network of ravines separating massive rock com- gional discontinuities oblique to the main WNW–ESE partments. By contrast, Proterozoic granites have joint density trending faults, whereas perpendicular SW–NE joints divide in the order of 1–2 m and show evidence of foliation, which the ridge into a number of individual compartments. However, Fig. 4 Structural geomorphology of Seoraksan. a Contrast between Granite monolith of Ulsanbawi, with overhangs and ledges testifying to smooth, regolith-covered, and largely forested slopes in Proterozoic rock slope failures. c Dome of Biseondae with curved surface-parallel granites (foreground and background right) and bare rock slopes in fractures. d Rock fins separated by vertical joints along the Cretaceous granites (background left) (view from Daecheongbong). b Gongnyongneungseon ridge (all photographs by P. Migoń) 756 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 none of these joints has yet been hollowed out to form a ridge- vertical walls 50–200 m high, facing two opposite directions, cutting ravine. The rock slopes of Ulsanbawi are c. 150 m and a serrated crest line. high. The massive primary structure of the monolith has allowed curved sheeting joints to develop and these, along Fluvial Landforms with vertical discontinuities, govern the pattern of rock slope failures. Numerous scars and overhangs testify to the detach- The fluvial morphology of Seoraksan is dominated by bed- ment of large volumes of rock, the complementary evidence rock channels and high-energy, boulder-rich, braided chan- being big boulders (as much as > 10 m long) scattered on nels. The former are particularly abundant in the headwater slopes. In turn, degradation of the summit parts is controlled sections of valleys, although at many places, bedrock is by the vertical joints and includes the development of clefts, concealed under recent debris flow deposits. Longitudinal separation of fins, and their eventual fall. Thus, Ulsanbawi is a stream profiles are very irregular, with multiple steps and very good example of both the geomorphic expression of a more evident knickpoint zones. At the local scale, this fluvial massive granite compartment amidst more jointed bedrock, assemblage certainly reflects the resistance of bedrock but it is the geomorphic role of joints, and the diverse patterns of rock also tempting to use it as an indicator of ongoing uplift of the slope degradation. area and incision in response. The most characteristic land- forms testifying to ongoing incision are slot canyons and wa- Biseondae terfalls. The latter are abundant and occur on streams of all sizes, in a variety of shapes, ranging from free falls for more The triple dome of Biseondae is perhaps the best in Seoraksan, than 50 m to steep chutes, and cascading staircases. Waterfalls and certainly the most accessible type of a granite landform are associated with potholes and other minor forms of bedrock identified worldwide as the most characteristic for granites erosion. (Twidale 1982;Migoń 2006). It rises above the Cheonbuldong valley floor, with rock slopes reaching down Sibiseonnyeotang to the bedrock channel (Fig. 4c). The total height of the dome is c. 250 m, with the western part being both the highest and The name, which translates into BTwelve Fairy Bathing most regularly shaped. The tripartite structure of Biseondae Springs,^ refers to the middle section of a valley in the west- results from the presence of two zones of bedrock shattering, ernmost part of Seoraksan, known for a string of potholes whereas the nearly perfect shape of the western dome is due to separated by chutes and waterfalls (Fig. 5a). The entire sec- the paucity of vertical and horizontal joints. Instead, curved tion, easily accessible via a hiking trail, is c. 300 m long, sheeting joints are prominent. Halfway up the rock slope, an whereas the drop in elevation is c. 100 m. Potholes are of artificially enlarged cavity of Geumganggul hosts a Buddhist variable size and shape, from circular features a few meters shrine. The little observation deck at the entrance offers views across to elongated troughs more than 20 m long. Close to the over the Cheonbuldong Valley and towards Mt. downstream end of the reach, a double-step waterfall occurs, Daecheongbong, complementing the view from the latter with a big pothole halfway down the drop. Above some pot- and showing the remarkable morphological contrast between holes located in the thalweg, there are smaller landforms of two types of granites. this kind, probably activated during torrential flows generated by the summer monsoon rains and typhoons. The entire Gongnyongneungseon bedrock-cut reach has developed in an area where the resistant Cretaceous granite upstream contacts with apparently less re- This place name refers to the section of the ridge in the central sistant Jurassic granite downstream and, hence, waterfalls are part of Seoraksan which connects Mt. Daecheongbong in the lithology-controlled. south and Mt. Madeungnyeong in the north (Fig. 2). The ridge is accessible for hikers along a technically difficult trail which Cheonbuldong climbs or skirts consecutive granite peaks. While different shapes of granite residual peaks may be seen along the path, The Cheonbuldong valley in the north-eastern part of including domes, half-domes, conical peaks, and angular Seoraksan is widely acclaimed as one of the highlights of towers, the most characteristic are narrow fins (Fig. 4d). the National Park for its impressive scenery, particularly in Fins, present mainly in the eastern part of the ridge, may be autumn. However, it also offers a spectacular collection of considered as equivalents of domes which have developed in fluvial landforms which includes slot gorges, waterfalls, sin- places where vertical joints of one predominant direction are gular and strings of potholes, inclined rock slabs, and shallow more closely spaced, whereas the perpendicular direction is rock-cut troughs. Among them, the slot canyon in the upper under-represented. In such cases, there is little scope for part of the valley deserves particular attention as the most curved unloading joints. Fins are characterized by high, nearly accessible landform of this kind in Seoraksan. It is c. 100 m Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 757 Fig. 5 Bedrock fluvial landforms of Seoraksan. a Waterfalls and potholes in Sibiseonnyeotang. b Fracture-guided slot canyon in Cheonbuldong valley. c Daeseungpokpo Falls, the highest in Seoraksan. d Biryongpokpo Falls (all photographs by P. Migoń) long and has a tight V-shaped cross-section (Fig. 5b). It is a trail that connects the ranger station at Jangsudae in the main bounded by 60–80° inclined rock walls with densely spaced valley and Mt. Daeseungyeong in the main ridge. unloading joints. Two > 10-m-high waterfalls are present at either end of the slot. Controls on the occurrence of the canyon Biryongpokpo Falls and Yukdampokpo Falls are structural. It follows a N–S zone of highly fractured rock. These two easily accessible waterfalls close to the main tourist Daeseungpokpo Falls service area in Oeseorak offer contrasting examples of con- trols on waterfall origin. Biryongpokpo Falls is located further This is the highest waterfall in Seoraksan, with a single drop of upstream and represents a single drop of 16 m into a large pool 88 m (Fig. 5c), exposed for viewing from the observation plat- deepened by erosion. The origin of the falls is related to var- form in front of it, roughly at the height of the threshold. It is iable structural conditions along the stream length. The water- located within a minor tributary valley to the Jayangcheon trunk fall occurs at a spot where the stream leaves one heavily joint- valley, the former beginning (upstream of the falls) only less than ed and hence more erodible linear zone, makes a 90° turn and 2 km longupstream ofthefalls.Therefore,theamount of water is enters another jointed zone, parallel to the former. The fall is limited (which to some extent reduces the visual impact) and the over the more massive threshold separating the two zones threshold shows little evidence of dissection. However, (Fig. 5d). Yukdampokpo Falls occur within a relatively Daeseungpokpo Falls is an excellent example of a knickpoint straight reach, similarly over a more massive rock compart- that separates a deeply incised, rejuvenated reach downstream, ment. It consists of two parts: the upper one is a steep chute; and a wide upstream section filled by thick boulder-dominated the lower one is a free fall into a large erosional basin. Immediately upstream, two potholes separated by a series of debrisflow deposits.Bothsectionsofthe valley canbeseenfrom 758 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 rock slabs and a rock-cut trough indicate the presence of the currently inaccessible, as the trail has been closed since 1991 same, less erodible zone across the valley. for nature restoration. Nevertheless, the northeast-facing blockslope can be seen from a panoramic viewpoint on top Periglacial Landforms of Ulsanbawi. Disregarding some forest patches within the blockslope, its entire exposed part occupies an area of 650 × During the Pleistocene, Seoraksan was not glaciated, or at 350 m (Fig. 6b). Bedrock cliffs, 2–3 m high, are present close least there is no unequivocal evidence for local glaciation. to and across the ridge, accounting for its stepped profile. The No evident cirques occur and none of the major valleys shows blockslope itself is composed of angular fragments of variable clear morphological features of glacial erosion (U-shaped size, up to 3 m long. Several topographic features suggest past cross-section, ice-molded hills). However, similar to some cementation by ground ice and permafrost creep. These are other Korean mountains (e.g., Rhee et al. 2017), a clear testa- closed elongated and linear hollows, lobate ramparts pointing ment of cold-climate conditions is provided by extensive downslope, and individual blocks in emerging position. Next blockfields (products of in situ mechanical breakdown, with to the main blockslope and east of it, block accumulations are little subsequent movement) and blockslopes (some gravity- confined to valleys and are distinctly elongated (= driven movement may have occurred) (Park 2000, 2003). blockstreams), forming a branched pattern. These spatial rela- Their occurrence is lithology-controlled. Practically, no tionships suggest the removal of fine material by throughflow blocky accumulations occur within coarse Seoraksan granites and residual character of blocky accumulations which in turn where the upper slopes are too steep to host blockfields any- points to a complex origin of blockfields in Seoraksan. way, whereas they are abundant in finer-grained and more jointed granite variants such as the Cretaceous Sites Evidencing Contemporary Dynamics Gwittaegicheong granite and in quartz-feldspar porphyry. Some metamorphic rocks support blocky accumulations too Seoraksan is a very dynamic mountain environment. High (e.g., along the main ridge west of Mt. Kkeutcheong), al- rates of geomorphic processes result from the combined ef- though these are almost entirely forested. Being located at fects of high relative relief and abundant precipitation. The rather low latitude and altitude, the blockfields of Seoraksan, height difference between crest lines and valley floors is con- although probably less scenic than other granite landforms, siderable, reaching the order of 1000 m or more over very are equally valuable part of the regional geoheritage, possibly short distances of 2–3 km, resulting in extremely steep slopes, quite significant for palaeoclimatic research in East Asia. where inclinations > 30° are the norm and sections > 50°, including nearly vertical rock slopes, are common. Annual Gwittaegicheongbong precipitation is around 1200–1400 mm but a significant part of it comes as heavy summer rains with daily totals of the The main ridge around Mt. Gwittaegicheongbong is exten- order of several hundred millimeters, and occasionally, sively covered by blockfields which give way to blockslopes, Seoraksan is hit by a typhoon, with hourly intensities above especially on southwest-facing slopes (Fig. 6a). Individual 100 mm. In these circumstances, mass movements and torren- blocks are up to 3 m long and the thickness of the cover is at tial flows in channels are generated, capable of significant least 2 m. Bedrock cliffs locally protrude through the remodeling of the landscape. blockfield. Many blocks stand in upright position and there The two most common mass movement processes are rock are large, up to 1 m long, voids in between them. falls and debris flows, the latter transforming into Nevertheless, blocks are generally stable which is consistent hyperconcentrated flows within the channels and valley with fairly big weathering pits and pans developed on their floors. These flows, given sudden generation by extreme rain- upper surfaces. Some of these hollows are > 1 m long and 10– fall, may be considered as flash floods in hydrological terms. 15 cm deep. Sections of bare blockslopes extend for up to Although both types are favored by geological conditions and 600 m and reach the bottoms of first-order valleys. Satellite rock properties, their triggers and geomorphic impact are dif- images indicate minor relief within certain parts of ferent. Rock falls occur on very steep rock slopes which are blockslopes (stripes, furrows) but these cannot be seen from subject to high tensile stresses, resulting in primary joint open- a trail that crosses the upper part of the blockfield. ing and the development of secondary unloading sheeting joints. Along these intersecting joint planes, large rock com- Hwangcheolbong partments are detached and move downslope. In this way, huge granite blocks fall, roll, or slide down, eventually North- and south-facing slopes of Hwangcheolbong in the reaching the footslopes or the valley floors. Debris flows, in northern part of Seoraksan host the most impressive and the turn, are distinctly weather-controlled phenomena and are ini- most extensive blocky accumulations. Among the potential tiated during typhoons on regolith-covered slopes. Movement geomorphosites presented here, this is the only locality typically starts with slow sliding of water-laden regolith over a Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 759 Fig. 6 Cold-climate heritage of Seoraksan. a Blockslopes below Mt. Gwittaegicheongbong. b Extensive blockfields and blockslopes at Mt. Hwangcheolbong. The irregular topography of the blockfields suggests modifications by permafrost creep (all photographs by P. Migoń) steeply inclined sheeting plane and transforms into a flow after However, if trails or other infrastructure were affected, reaching a ravine or headwater valley. These debris-laden engineering work erases most geomorphic effects. Here, flows in Seoraksan may travel for many kilometers, complete- three representative localities in the southern part of the ly transforming the pre-existing morphology of valley floors. Park are characterized in more detail. The visible evidence of mass movements and valley floor remodeling is ubiquitous in Seoraksan. The legacy of rock falls comprises scars and overhangs within rock Osaek slopes and chaotic blocky accumulations at the foot of rock slopes, including valley floors if there is direct Upstream from the hot spring resort of Osaek, the stream slope-channel coupling. Debris slides leave exposed bed- winds between granite towers and spurs built of massive rock slabs within otherwise forested slopes, whereas sub- Cretaceous Seorak granites. Vertical slopes connect the sequent flows produce big boulders scattered in the valley tops and rock benches with the valley floor and have been floors, lateral ridges (levees), and debris fans at the junc- affected by frequent rockfalls. Their effects can be ob- tion with a main valley. Exposed sequences of flow- served in the channel, in the form of numerous angular related deposits may reach 10 m. Depending on the length boulders, some up to 10 m, piled one upon another. of time that has elapsed since an event, these features are Corresponding scars within rock slopes can be seen as well (Fig. 7a). still bare or colonized by re-established vegetation. 760 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 Hangyeryeong Pass chute, with big blocks of local rocks used to stabilize the floor and the banks (Fig. 7d). However, a panel at the road bridge The trail from Hangyeryeong Pass to the main ridge climbs contains photographs indicating the scale of transformation steeply through dense forest but from a few places upper sec- due to debris flow and damage. tions of debris flow tracks may be seen (Fig. 7b). They provide a good illustration of the general mechanism, showing ex- Dual Significance of Granite Landforms—Inherited posed, steeply dipping sheeting surfaces as the detachment Features and Ongoing Dynamics area c. 25 m wide and a boulder-filled ravine below. Further up, the trail crosses the track of another debris flow, this time Seoraksan provides an example of an area where inherited and initiated within a low-angle, regolith-covered slope. Broken contemporary geomorphological features combine into high- and transported tree logs can be still observed (Fig. 7c). value geodiversity, additionally coupled with outstanding sce- nic attributes which directly bear on the area’s popularity Heulimgol among tourists. It is not the only area for which such a com- bination was comprehensively documented and one might The tributary valley of Heulimgol was completely re-shaped argue that each mountainous area is typified by a comparable by a flood in 2009 and rehabilitated after 2012. The value of association of values. However, in most examples, inheritance this locality, easily accessible due to its roadside setting, is is linked with Pleistocene glacial legacy whose temporal con- thus not to see the effects of ongoing processes, as these have text can be reasonably constrained by dating techniques. been erased, but the amount of work required to restore safety. Examples include the Dolomites in Italy (Panizza 2009; The valley floor has been transformed into a box-shaped Soldati 2010) and various other parts of the Alps (Bollati Fig. 7 Evidence of contemporary geomorphological dynamics. a Huge boulders in the foreground are products of rock fall from precipitous valley sides directly into the channel (Osaek district of Seoraksan). b Scar left by regolith slide, transformed downslope into debris flow (above Hangyeryeong Pass). c Source zone of a debris flow (above Hangyeryeong Pass). d Channel rehabilitation after damage caused by a recent flood (Oeseorak district) (all photographs by P. Migoń) Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 761 et al. 2017;Giardino etal. 2017). In much fewer examples, would considerably alter the scenery. Thus, in terms of current both pre-Quaternary erosional history and Quaternary glacial recognition and potential significance, Seoraksan can be con- inheritance are highlighted, such as in the Cairngorms, sidered as a benchmark terrain to demonstrate intertwining of Scotland (Kirkbride and Gordon 2010;Hall etal. 2013). inherited landforms and contemporary processes to shape Non-glacial long-term evolution, much more problematic to granite scenery of outstanding scenic value which has never date, is highlighted less frequently. Furthermore, contempo- been shaped by glaciers. rary dynamics is rarely addressed and its contribution to re- gional geoheritage, clearly focused on conservation, is either Perspectives and Issues in Geoscience Outreach given a secondary role or, perhaps unintentionally, neglected. and Geo-education Against this background, one can better evaluate the sig- nificance of Seoraksan’s geomorphological heritage. Here, Despite outstanding values, the geo-educational potential of geomorphological inheritance is manifest not only in evident- Seoraksan is so far poorly exploited. Current outdoor interpre- ly Bfossilized^ features such as blockfields (although they tative facilities are almost entirely focused on biological probably should not be considered entirely relict—see Park values, ecosystem complexity, rare plant, and animal species. 2000, 2003), but also in bedrock-controlled major A few geomorphic localities, including several presented in denudational landforms such as domes, fins, and towers, this paper, have information panels focused on individual which are products of long-term operation of exogenous pro- landforms such as waterfalls or peculiar boulders, but the cesses, apparently in relation to ongoing, although poorly un- stories told are local legends and tales rather than targeted derstood and constrained surface uplift. Likewise, minor ero- attempts to enhance visitors’ understanding. In other places sional features such as waterfall steps and bedrock channels (e.g., at Gwongeumseong and Gongyeongneungseon), large have their roots in the geomorphic history of the area. panels were erected but their information content is limited to However, contemporary processes continue to shape these naming peaks visible from these localities, nothing else. landforms, particularly through extreme geomorphic phenom- Another aspect is that many trails, accessible in the past, were ena of rock and debris slides, debris flows, boulder falls, and closed due to long-term nature restoration projects and it is floods. Separating inheritance from ongoing dynamics is nei- uncertain whether they will ever re-open. Among them, per- ther feasible nor helpful in understanding and appreciating manent closure of the Hwangcheolbong trail would be a par- Seoraksan’s geoheritage and the same is probably true for ticular loss since it shows the most impressive and varied other non-glaciated mountain ranges which show consider- examples of periglacial blockfields and blockslopes. able surface dynamics. Commenting upon the deficit of interpretation of Seoraksan’s Seoraksan is an example of a predominantly granite geo- geoheritage and geodiversity, it needs to be noted that erection of morphological landscape and outstanding values of granite panels in the field is not necessarily the best option given tech- scenery in general have been emphasized many times. nical difficulties in very steep terrain, paucity of suitable places, Leaving aside spectacular granite mountainous terrains glaci- and negative impact on landscape esthetics. This applies to both ated in the past or at present, such as those of Yosemite (USA), exposed and valley-bottom settings. Mountain and ridge tops— Torres del Paine (Chile), Los Glaciares National Park viewpoint geosites sensu Migoń and Pijet-Migoń (2017)—are (Argentina), or Serra da Estrela (Portugal), numerous non- excellent locations to interpret the scenery, to highlight and ex- glaciated granite mountains have long been appreciated for plain rock control on landscape appearance, and to discuss spatial their physical landscape, even making their way into the patterns of mass movements, since scars of depletion zones are UNESCO World Heritage List in recognition of their scenery, often clearly visible and pathways of movement can be tracked following the World Heritage criterion no. (vii). These include down the valleys. Comprehensive interpretation, however, re- granite mountains of east China—Huangshan and quires space and can hardly be reduced to a limited number of Sanqingshan (Thomas 2010), prominent inselbergs massifs words, recommended in some theoretical considerations of the Namib Desert (Migoń 2010;Goudieand Viles 2015), (Hughes and Ballantyne 2010; Macadam 2018). Large interpre- or granite-gneiss domes in Rio de Janeiro (Fernandes et al. tation panels in open terrain would be very intrusive but also 2010). However, none of these examples highlights ongoing difficult to keep in good shape during harsh winter conditions. landforming processes as significant contributing agents. Likewise, too many panels cramped along a particular section of Other examples of granite landscapes of considerable value a valley are unlikely to make good impression. Therefore, down- for geosciences such as those of south-west England loadable mobile resources and information leaflets to be distrib- (Dartmoor, Bodmin Moor – Campbell et al. 1998;Gunnell uted at the beginning of trails and in National Park information et al. 2013), Sardinia (Melis et al. 2017), Lower Austria centers would better suit the purpose and can be more tailored (Huber 1999,Migoń et al. 2018), or the Mojave Desert, towards various categories of visitors with different levels of USA (Oberlander 1974), are more subdued and lack high- interest. Among various localities, the following are best suited magnitude but short-duration geomorphic events which to act as viewpoint geosites, developed towards interpretation of 762 Geoheritage (2019) 11:765–782 the whole scenery (Fig. 8): (1) the top of Ulsanbawi, (2) flash flood flows, and tree uprooting. In the last decade, sev- Gwong eu mseon g, ( 3 ) Geu m gan ggu l, (4 ) eral important trails had to be temporarily closed due to dam- Gongnyeongneungseon, and (5) Daecheongbong (Fig. 4). age from geomorphic activity and some are closed for this However, at each of these sites, erection of large panels is not reason at the moment. Critical sites are monitored, while in recommended for esthetic reasons, and at some, is not even other spots, steep and potentially unstable rock walls have physically possible (Geumganggul). Thematic geo-trails may fo- been artificially strengthened. However, the constant threat cus on periglacial inheritance (Hangyeryeong to from surface processes may be also seen as an opportunity Gwittagicheongbong), fluvial bedrock erosion to increase knowledge about landscape dynamics, impact of (Sibiseonnyeontang), and transformation of debris flows into natural events, their triggers, remedies, and countermeasures. Bregular^ river flow (Cheonbuldong valley to Oeseorak). In fact, in a few places, information panels recall specific All initiatives towards popularization of geoheritage and events of this kind such as the collapse of an elevated board- geodiversity of Seoraksan may have one significant con- walk in Cheonbuldong Valley in 2007. straint, related to a theme argued to be significant for geoscientific value of the territory, i.e., contemporary geomor- phic dynamics. Long sections of trails cross the terrain which Conclusions is not only technically difficult but geomorphologically active, with impact on trail infrastructure. Processes affecting paths, Seoraksan provides an excellent example of a mountainous boardwalks, and stairs include rock falls, slides, torrential/ terrain whose value and significance reside simultaneously Fig. 8 Annotated panoramic views (parts of) from four viewpoint geosites in Seoraksan. The view from Daecheongbong is shown in Fig. 4a (all photographs by P. Migoń) Geoheritage (2019) 11:751–764 763 Coratza P, Hobléa F (2018) The specificities of geomorphological heri- in both landform inheritance and contemporary geomorpho- tage. In: Reynard E, Brilha J (eds) Geoheritage. Assessment, protec- logical processes. The extraordinary geodiversity of the area, tion, and management. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 87–106 primarily geomorphological diversity, results from the combi- Fernandes N, Tupinambá M, Mello CL, Peixoto MNO (2010) Rio de nation of various regional and site-specific rock controls on Janeiro: a metropolis between granite-gneiss massifs. In: Migoń P (ed) Geomorphological landscapes of the world. Springer, Berlin, pp landforms and processes, the presence of landforms formed 89–100 over different timescales and subject to various pathways of Giardino M, Mortara G, Chiarle M (2017) The glaciers of the Valle remodeling under present-day conditions. Although never gla- d’Aosta and Piemonte regions: records of present and past environ- ciated (at least, not re-shaped by glaciers to any evident ex- mental and climate changes. In: Marchetti M (ed) Soldati M. Springer, Landscapes and landforms of Italy, pp 77–88 tent), Seoraksan hosts numerous inherited landforms pro- Gordon JE (2018) Mountain geodiversity: characteristics, values and cli- duced by cold-climate conditions as well as structural land- mate change. In: Hoorn C, Perrigo A, Antonelli A (eds) Mountains, forms whose assignment to certain narrowly-defined climate and biodiversity. Wiley, Chichester, pp 137–154 timespans does not seem possible. Therefore, referring to the Gordon J, Crofts R, Díaz-Martínez E (2018) Geoheritage conservation conceptual issue of Bsignificance^ present at the interface of and environmental policies: retrospect and prospect. In: Reynard E, Brilha J (eds) Geoheritage. Assessment, protection, and manage- geosciences, and geomorphology in particular, and nature ment. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 213–235 conservation and promotion (Migoń 2014), Seoraksan may Goudie A, Viles H (2015) Landscapes and landforms of Namibia. indeed be considered as a highly significant representative of Springer, Dordrecht unglaciated, very dynamic granite mountain scenery, and pos- Gunnell Y (2015) Ancient landforms in dynamic landscapes: inheritance, transience and congruence in Earth-surface systems. sibly a Btype geomorphic locality^ for any comparative stud- Geomorphology 233:1–4 ies. Moreover, it is argued that strategies to develop geo- Gunnell Y, Jarman D, Braucher R, Calvet M, Delmas M, Leanni L, education and more informed educational tourism should se- Bourlès D, Arnold M, Aumaître G, Keddaouche K (2013) The gran- riously consider this geological control—landform inheri- ite tors of Dartmoor, Southwest England: rapid and recent emer- tance—contemporary geomorphological process triad which gence revealed by Late Pleistocene cosmogenic apparent exposure ages. Quat Sci Rev 61:62–76 together explain the complexity of mountain landscapes, since Hall AM, Gillespie MR, Thomas CW, Ebert K (2013) Scottish landform Seoraksan is a most suitable place to explore these issues, also examples: the Cairngorms—a pre-glacial upland granite landscape. for general public. Scot Geogr J 129:2–14 Huber KH (1999) Zum Formenschatz der Granitverwitterung und – Acknowledgements This research project was supported by Injegun abtragung im nordwestlichen Waldviertel. In: Steininger FF (ed) (Gangwondo) and the Cultural Heritage Administration to the Natural Erdgeschichte des Waldviertels, 2nd edn. Waldviertler Heritage Institute of Korea. We are grateful to Mr. M. Y. Lee and Ms. Heimatbund, Horn – Waidhofen/Thaya, pp 113–132 S. O. Ju for their field assistance and the National Park Service for per- Hughes K, Ballantyne R (2010) Interpretation rocks! Designing signs for mission to visit some wild sites. Mr. H. J. Yoon at the Inje County geotourism sites. In: Newsome D, Dowling RK (eds) Geotourism: Government is specially appreciated for his support for administration the tourism of geology and landscape. Goodfellow, Oxford, pp 184– and field work. We are also grateful to other members of the research team for their helpful discussion during our field work. Two journal Jo W-R (2000) Geology and geomorphology. In: Kwon H-J, Huh WK reviewers are thanked for their constructive comments on the first version (eds) Korea. The land and people. Kyohaksa, Seoul, pp 29–52 of the paper. Kee W-S, Kim H, Kim BC, Choi S-J, Park S-I, Hwang SK (2010) Geological report of the Seoraksan sheet. Scale 1:50,000. Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Kim YB (2008) Geoheritage of Korea. In: Leman MS, Reedman A, Pei Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// CS (eds) Geoheritage of East and Southeast Asia. Lestari, Malaysia, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, pp 115–147 distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro- Kirkbride V, Gordon JE (2010) The geomorphological heritage of the priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Cairngorm Mountains. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. 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Journal

Geoheritage – Springer Journals

Published: Oct 15, 2018

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