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/lp/springer-journals/growth-of-paenarthrobacter-aurescens-strain-tc1-on-atrazine-and-4pitW8ROR9
- Publisher
- Springer Journals
- Copyright
- Copyright © 2018 by Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature and the University of Milan
- Subject
- Life Sciences; Microbiology; Microbial Genetics and Genomics; Microbial Ecology; Mycology; Medical Microbiology; Applied Microbiology
- ISSN
- 1590-4261
- eISSN
- 1869-2044
- DOI
- 10.1007/s13213-018-1364-9
- Publisher site
- See Article on Publisher Site
Abstract
Paenarthrobacter aurescens strain TC1 can use the herbicide atrazine and its degradation product isopropylamine as nutrients. Because osmotic stress can change the morphology of arthrobacters and decrease their metabolism of some carbon compounds, the effects of increasing NaCl concentrations on strain TC1 and its ability to utilize atrazine and isopropylamine were determined. Strain TC1 was cultured in minimal media with different NaCl concentrations and varying combinations of D-glucose, ammo- nium sulfate, atrazine, or isopropylamine. Growth was measured quantitatively as an increase in turbidity. Physiological effects were assessed using Biolog™ GP test plates and BD BBL Crystal GP or bioMérieux API 20E test systems. The effects of osmoprotective compounds were determined in liquid media and on agar plates. Strain TC1 formed multicellular myceloids and −1 its growth rate slowed as the salt concentration increased, but the culture yields were similar up to 0.6 mol l NaCl. The bacteria metabolized about half the carbon sources in Biolog™ GP test plates, but their use of some compounds and several hydrolytic activities decreased with high salt concentrations. However, strain TC1 grew well with atrazine and isopropylamine as the −1 −1 nitrogen source in media containing up to 0.6 mol l NaCl. Growth in 0.8 mol l NaCl was more limited but could be enhanced by glycine betaine, L-proline, and L-glutamate. P. aurescens strain TC1 can continue to use atrazine and isopropylamine as nutrients during osmotic stress and so may be particularly useful for remediation of contaminated soils with low water activity. . . . . . Keywords Arthrobacter aurescens Atrazine Bioremediation Isopropylamine Osmotic stress Paenarthrobacter aurescens Introduction microorganisms have been identified which can degrade atra- zine to less toxic metabolites and may be potentially useful for Atrazine (2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-1,3,5-tri- bioremediation of contaminated sites (Wackett et al. 2002; azine) is a broadleaf and grass herbicide that has been com- Ralebitso et al. 2002; Fan and Song 2014; Singh and Singh monly used in the USA, Europe, and Asia. Because of its toxic 2016). These include various Gram-positive bacteria effects as an endocrine disrupter (Hayes et al. 2011), atrazine (Arthrobacter, Clavibacter), Gram-negative bacteria has now been banned in some developed countries. Whether it (Pseudomonas, Ralstonia, Shewanella), and fungi has additional effects on development, pregnancy, and cancer (Aspergillus, Penicillium) that work individually or in combi- is still subject to analysis and debate (Boffetta et al. 2013; nation (De Souza et al. 1998; Vibber et al. 2007; Satsuma Goodman et al. 2014; Van Der Kraak et al. 2014). Because 2009; Zhang et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2012; Nousiainen et atrazine is chemically stable and highly mobile, it is often al. 2015;Wangetal. 2016;Yeetal. 2016). found in soils, surface waters, and ground waters long after Arthrobacter aurescens strain TC1 was one of the first its initial application (Jablonowski et al. 2011). A number of atrazine-degrading bacteria to be identified and characterized in detail biochemically (Strong et al. 2002). This high G + C Gram-positive aerobe has now been reassigned to the genus Paenarthrobacter as Paenarthrobacter aurescens (Busse * Charles E. Deutch 2016). Strain TC1 uses the products of the genes trzN, atzB, Charles.Deutch@asu.edu and atzC to remove the chlorine residue and the two N- alkylamines from atrazine, leading the formation of cyanuric School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State acid (Shapir et al. 2002;Shapir etal. 2005; Seffernick et al. University at the West campus, MC 2352, 4701 W. Thunderbird 2007). Unlike some atrazine-degraders, P. aurescens strain Road, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA 570 Ann Microbiol (2018) 68:569–577 TC1 does not metabolize cyanuric acid further, but it can use deficiency (Germida and Casida 1980). The salt-induced the two N-alkylamines (ethylamine and isopropylamine) as myceloids of A. globiformis differ from normal cells in their carbon, nitrogen, and energy sources (Strong et al. 2002). physiology and responses to environmental stress (Malwane The genome of strain TC1 has been completely sequenced and Deutch 1999). They also show a reduced ability to de- and consists of a circular chromosome and two large circular grade less common carbon sources as measured in BIOLOG™ plasmids (Mongodin et al. 2006). The genes trzN, atzB,and carbon utilization test plates (Malwane and Deutch 1999). Of atzC are located on the larger pTC1 plasmid. Degradation of the 58 compounds that were used by normal cells, 33 showed a the N-alkylamines can occur in three ways: (1) by copper gradual or rapid decrease in the absorbance of the tetrazolium amine oxidases, (2) by flavoprotein dehydrogenases, and (3) product as the salt concentration was increased. The effects of by the Ipu pathway, which involves reaction with glutamate to osmotic stress on the genera Paenarthrobacter, form γ-glutamyl-isopropylamide, oxidation, deamidation, Pseudoarthrobacter, Glutamicibacter, Paeniglutamicibacter, and amine liberation (de Azevedo Wäsch et al. 2002). There and Pseudoglutamicibacter that were recently separated from are multiple genes for the first two groups of enzymes on the the genus Arthrobacter sensu stricto (which includes A. main chromosome and clusters of genes for the last pathway globiformis) have not been described. In fact, salt tolerance on the two plasmids (Shapir et al. 2007). was not used in the description of these new genera (Busse Like other arthrobacters, P. aurescens strain TC1 has genes 2016). We hypothesized that P. aurescens strain TC1 might that allow it to survive under a variety of environmental stress- differ from A. globiformis in its response to osmotic stress es (Mongodin et al. 2006) and so may be particularly suitable and might not be able to degrade atrazine or N-alkylamines for bioremediation. Two key questions in the use of strain TC1 under conditions of reduced water activity. To answer these and other atrazine-degraders for bioremediation in situ are questions, we grew P. aurescens strain TC1 in the presence whether the genes needed for atrazine and N-alkylamine deg- of increasing concentrations of NaCl. The data presented here radation will be expressed efficiently and whether the bacteria show that strain TC1 can grow on atrazine and isopropylamine will grow under the conditions found at a contaminated site. in the presence of relatively high salt concentrations and that Soils often vary in pH, salt composition, temperature, and growth can be enhanced by some compounds known to act as saturation with water. The availability of water varies with osmoprotectants. This bacterium thus may be particularly use- the texture and composition of the soil and can be expressed ful for bioremediation in soils with low water activity. in terms of soil moisture content, water potential, or water activity (Wildman 2016). Bastos and Magan (2009) found that the rates of cellular respiration and atrazine degradation in Materials and methods non-sterile soils varied with the water potential. Soils with reduced water potentials show limited mineralization of pes- Chemicals ticides (Schroll et al. 2006) and decreased degradation of metolachlor (Rice et al. 2002) and mesotrione (Su et al. Atrazine (technical USA/Domestic with surfactant) was pro- 2017). A decrease in water availability leads to osmotic stress vided by Syngenta Crop Protection, Inc. (Greensboro, NC, on the microorganisms in the soil, which can result in a loss of USA). It was added as a finely ground powder to agar media intracellular water and the concentration of cellular contents or as a 1% (w/v) stock solution in methanol to liquid media. (Brown 1976; Wood 2011). Osmotic stress can be imposed on Isopropylamine (> 99.5%) was obtained from Sigma Aldrich bacteria in liquid cultures by the addition of salts like NaCl or (St. Louis, MO, USA). All other chemicals and media com- sugars like sucrose (Sereno et al. 2001). NaCl concentrations ponents were obtained from Sigma Aldrich or Thermo Fisher −1 −1 of 0.6 mol l (3.5% w/v)or 0.8 moll (4.7% w/v)reduce the Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). water activity to 0.98 or 0.97, respectively, which is similar to that found in soils with water potentials of − 2.78 or Bacteria and growth conditions −4.19 MPa. Bacteria can adapt to osmotic stress and a de- crease in water activity by the synthesis, uptake, and accumu- Paenarthrobacter aurescens strain TC1 was acquired from lation of a variety of osmotically compatible solutes (Galinski Dr. Michael Sadowsky at the University of Minnesota and 1995; Kempf and Bremer 1998;Woodet al. 2001). stored at − 80 °C in 20% (v/v) glycerol. The ability of the We have previously shown that imposition of osmotic bacteria to degrade atrazine was periodically confirmed by stress on Arthrobacter globiformis strain ATCC 8010 by streaking them on agar plates with atrazine as the sole nitrogen adding increasing concentrations of NaCl to a liquid medium source. Active stocks were grown at 30 °C on plates of tryptic leads to a reduction in the growth rate and the formation of soy broth agar containing 0.5% (w/v) yeast extract. The mor- clusters of branching cells called myceloids (Deutch and phology of the bacteria was routinely checked by phase- Perera 1992). Similar myceloids have been observed in re- contrast light microscopy with a Nikon Alphaphot microscope sponse to vitamin- (Chan et al. 1973)ormetal ion- and a 100X oil immersion objective. Ann Microbiol (2018) 68:569–577 571 Liquid cultures were usually grown at 30 °C with aeration and the value for the no carbon source control well subtracted in 300 ml nephelometer flasks containing less than 1/10 vol- from each of the other values. Absorbance values < 0.1 greater ume of minimal R medium (Strong et al. 2002; Anon., than the control were recorded as no use, values from 0.1 to American Type Culture Collection 2016)supplemented with 0.5 greater than the control were recorded as low use, and −1 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose and 10 mmol l (NH ) SO . Culture values > 0.5 greater than the control were recorded as high 4 2 4 turbidities were followed in a Klett-Summerson colorimeter use. In similar experiments, exponential-phase cells grown with a red (660 nm) filter. The medium was modified by the in R medium with varying concentrations of NaCl, 0.2% (w/ −1 addition of atrazine, isopropylamine, NaCl, or osmolytes as v) D-glucose, and 10 mmol l (NH ) SO at 30 °C were 4 2 4 specified in each experiment. For some experiments, atrazine harvested, washed, and resuspended in R medium with the and isopropylamine were used at equivalent concentrations of same concentration of NaCl to give a concentration equivalent 300 ppm (0.03%) since the degradation of one molecule of to 40 Klett Units. The cell suspensions were used to inoculate atrazine yields one molecule of isopropylamine. For other BD BBL Crystal GP identification test systems (Becton, experiments, isopropylamine and ammonium sulfate were Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA) or API −1 used at equivalent concentrations of 10 mmol l . For liquid 20E test systems (bioMérieux, Inc., Durham, NC, USA). The cultures containing atrazine, which were inherently turbid due test systems were incubated at 30 °C for 2 or 3 days and scored to the insolubility of the substrate, the bacteria were grown in as directed by the manufacturer. All physiological tests were 5 ml of R medium in 25-ml flasks and then filtered through done at least three times. glass Pasteur Pipets containing a 1–2-cm plug of glass wool (Strong et al. 2002). The absorbance of the filtrates was mea- sured in a Shimadzu UV 160U UV-visible spectrophotometer Results at 600 nm as an indicator of cell growth. Controls showed that this filtration step effectively removed the atrazine and let the Effects of osmotic stress on the growth bacteria through. For growth on agar plates, the R medium and metabolism of P. aurescens strain TC1 was solidified with 2% (w/v) Bacto-agar. To test the effect of potential osmolytes on the use of atrazine as a nitrogen source, Because the consequences of osmotic stress for the R medium agar contained 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, Paenarthrobacter aurescens have not been previously de- −1 0.8 mol l NaCl, and 0.03% atrazine. Some of the plates were scribed, we first assessed the effects of increased salt concen- −1 −1 spread with 100 μlof 0.1 mol l glycine betaine, 0.1 mol l trations on the growth, morphology, and metabolism of P. −1 −1 L-proline, 0.1 mol l choline, 0.1 mol l trehalose, or aurescens strain TC1. The bacteria were grown in minimal −1 0.1 mol l potassium L-glutamate prior to inoculation. For R medium containing 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose as the carbon −1 the determination of viable cell counts, bacterial cultures were source, 10 mmol l (NH ) SO as the nitrogen source, and 4 2 4 serially diluted in 0.85% (w/v)NaCland 100 μl aliquots increasing concentrations of NaCl (Fig. 1). As the salt concen- spread on duplicate plates of tryptic soy broth agar containing tration was raised, there was a somewhat longer lag phase and 0.5% (w/v) yeast extract. Colonies were counted after incuba- a gradual decrease in the growth rate. The yield of the cultures −1 tion for 3 days at 30 °C. All growth and viability experiments was similar with salt concentrations up to 0.6 mol l NaCl but −1 were done at least three times. dropped with higher concentrations of NaCl (0.8 mol l ). We previously showed that A. globiformis strain ATCC 8010 −1 Carbon source utilization and physiological could tolerate NaCl concentrations up to 1.2 mol l when experiments grown in the more enriched EYG medium containing yeast extract (Deutch and Perera 1992) and the same was true for P. Paenarthrobacter aurescens strain TC1 was grown in 10 ml aurescens strain TC1 (data not shown). In the absence of of R medium with varying concentrations of NaCl, 0.2% (w/v) added salt, strain TC1 formed multicellular myceloids during −1 D-glucose and 10 mmol l (NH ) SO at 30 °C with aeration the early stages of growth, grew as bent rods during exponen- 4 2 4 to exponential phase in nephelometer flasks. The bacteria tial phase, and divided into shorter cocci during stationary were harvested by centrifugation at 10,000×g,washedonce phase like A. globiformis. In the presence of increasing con- with 0.85% (w/v) NaCl, and resuspended in Biolog™ inocu- centrations of NaCl, the bacteria formed myceloids with short lating fluid containing the same concentration of NaCl to give branches during both exponential phase and stationary phase a concentration equivalent to 40 Klett Units with a red and often aggregated into large clusters. The morphology of (660 nm) filter (OD = 0.6 or 25% transmittance at the myceloids of P. aurescens strain TC1 as seen by phase- 600 nm). The wells of a standard Biolog™ GP test plate contrast light microscopy was similar to that found with A. (Biolog, Inc., Hayward, CA, USA) were inoculated with globiformis (Deutch and Perera 1992). 150 μl of bacteria and the plates incubated at 30 °C. The Because previous studies of A. globiformis strain ATCC absorbance of each well at 595 nm was recorded after 3 days, 8010 indicated that osmotic stress altered its ability to utilize 572 Ann Microbiol (2018) 68:569–577 reduction in the utilization of some carbon sources in response to osmotic stress and the inability of P. aurescens strain TC1 to degrade some polymers suggested there might be a problem in the utilization of atrazine or its products. The carbon utilization studies were extended by examining the properties of P. aurescens strain TC1 in the BD BBL Crystal GP and in the bioMérieux API 20E test systems. Arthrobacters are commonly thought to be non-fermenters and to grow only by aerobic respiration (Morris 1960), so 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 most of the wells in these test systems gave negative results. Time (days) These systems, on the other hand, contain more tests for hy- Fig. 1 Growth of P. aurescens strain TC1 at 30 °C with aeration in −1 drolytic activity and so might be better predictors of the ability minimal R medium containing 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, 10 mmol l −1 (NH ) SO , and 0 NaCl (black circle), 0.1 mol l NaCl (white circle), of the bacteria to degrade complex molecules like atrazine into 4 2 4 −1 −1 0.2 mol l NaCl (black triangle), 0.3 mol l NaCl (white triangle), their constituent parts. With the BD BBL Crystal GP system, −1 −1 0.4 mol l NaCl (black square), 0.6 mol l NaCl (white square), and hydrolysis of several glycosides (4-MU-β-D-glucoside, 4- −1 0.8 mol l NaCl (black diamond). Turbidities were measured in Klett- MU-α-D-glucoside, p-nitrophenyl-β-D-cellobioside, p- Summerson colorimeter with a red (660 nm) filter −1 nitrophenyl-α-D-maltoside) occurred in 0.2 or 0.4 mol l −1 NaCl but decreased in the presence of 0.6 mol l NaCl. some potential carbon sources (Malwane and Deutch 1999), With the bioMérieux API 20E system, there was weak hydro- the effects of increasing concentrations of NaCl on the metab- lysis of ONPG, weak utilization of citrate, and weak fermen- olism in P. aurescens strain TC1 were determined. The bacte- tation of D-glucose and L-arabinose in the absence of NaCl ria first were tested for carbon source utilization in Biolog™ and the intensity of these reactions decreased after growth in GP2 plates containing 95 different compounds (Bochner and higher concentrations of salt. There was good hydrolysis of −1 −1 Savageau 1977; Bochner 1989) after growth in 0, 0.2 mol l , gelatin with bacteria grown in 0 or 0.2 mol l NaCl but no −1 or 0.4 mol l NaCl. It was not possible to test the bacteria breakdown of this polymer by bacteria grown in 0.4 or −1 −1 after growth in 0.6 mol l NaCl because there was no color 0.6 mol l NaCl. The decrease in hydrolytic activities in P. development in the wells after adding bacteria in inoculating aurescens strain TC1 grown in high salt concentrations again fluid containing this higher salt concentration. The carbon suggested there might be a problem in atrazine utilization compounds were divided into five groups: (1) those that were since this process requires the removal of the N-alkylamines used at high efficiency at all salt concentrations (A of > 0.5 from the ring structure. compared to the control well), (2) those that were used were low efficiency at all salt concentrations (A of 0.1 to 0.5 Effects of osmotic stress on the growth of P. aurescens compared to the control well), (3) those that were used with strain TC1 with atrazine and isopropylamine decreasing efficiency as the salt concentration was increased, (4) those that were used with increasing efficiency as the salt Paenarthrobacter aurescens strain TC1 was originally isolated concentration was increased, and (5) those that were not used from a spill site in South Dakota USA after extracting the mi- at all (Table 1). Paenarthrobacter aurescens strain TC1 only croorganisms from soil and directly plating them on minimal R −1 used 48 of the 95 possible carbon sources (50%), which was medium agar plates containing 500 mg l (500 ppm, 0.05%) of less than was found with A. globiformis strain ATCC 8010 atrazine as the sole carbon and nitrogen source (Strong et al. (58/95, 61%, Malwane and Deutch 1999). The metabolism 2002). To determine if strain TC1 can degrade atrazine and of simple sugars, organic acids, and amino acids that directly isopropylamine during osmotic stress, the bacteria first were enter the glycolytic pathway or the citric acid cycle including streaked or spotted onto agar plates containing minimal R me- D-fructose, D-gluconate, D-glucose, D-mannose, acetic acid, 2- dium supplemented with different concentrations of NaCl, oxoglutarate (α-ketoglutarate), L-lactate, L-malate, succinate, 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose as the primary carbon source, and −1 −1 L-glutamate, asparagine, and glycerol remained high after 10 mmol l (NH ) SO ,10mmoll isopropylamine, or 4 2 4 −1 growth in the presence of 0.4 mol l NaCl. The metabolism 300 ppm (0.03%) atrazine as the nitrogen source. After 7 days of some disaccharides (cellobiose, D-trehalose, sucrose) and at 30 °C, streaks and colonies or spots were visible on all the −1 amino acids (D-alanine, L-alanine) decreased as the salt con- plates at salt concentrations up to 0.6 mol l NaCl. centration was increased. Interestingly, there were a few com- To assess the growth of P. aurescens strain TC1 quantita- pounds including D-galacturonic acid, L-arabinose, and D-ma- tively, the bacteria were grown in three replicate 5-ml cultures −1 lic acid whose utilization was higher in 0.2 mol l NaCl than in minimal R medium with 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose and in the absence of added salt. However, the use of some poly- 300 ppm (0.03%) atrazine or 300 ppm (0.03%) mers (β-cyclodextrin, dextrin, mannan) did not occur. The isopropylamine as the nitrogen source. After 7 days, the Turbidity (Klett Units) Ann Microbiol (2018) 68:569–577 573 TM Table 1 Utilization of carbon sources by P. aurescens strain TC1 in Biolog GP2 plates Carbon compounds used Carbon compounds used Carbon compounds used with Carbon compounds used with Carbon compounds not used with high efficiency with low efficiency decreasing efficiency increasing efficiency Tween 40 D-Galactose Dextrin L-Arabinose α-Cyclodextrin Tween 80 D-Psicose N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine D-Galacturonic acid β-Cyclodextrin D-Fructose D-Ribose Arbutin D-Malic Acid Glycogen D-Gluconic Acid D-Sorbitol D-Cellobiose Inulin D-Glucose D-Xylose Maltotriose Mannan D-Mannitol p-Hydroxy-Phenyl- Palatinose N-Acetyl-β-D-Mannosamine acetic Acid D-Mannose Succinic Acid Mono- Salacin Amygdalin methyl Ester Acetic Acid Propionic Acid Sucrose D-Arabinol β-Hydroxybutryic Acid Pyruvic Acid D-Trehalose L-Fucose α-Ketoglutaric Acid N-Acetyl-L-Glutamic Acid Turanose Gentibiose L-Lactic Acid L-Alaninamide D-Alanine m-Inositol L-Malic Acid Glycyl-L-Glutamic Acid L-Alanine α-D-Lactose Pyruvic Acid Methyl ester L-Serine L-Alanylglycine Lactulose Succinic acid Maltose L-Asparagine D-Melezitose L-Glutamic Acid D-Melibiose L-Pyroglutamic Acid α-Methyl-D-Galactoside Putrescine β-Methyl-D-Galactoside Glycerol 3-Methyl-Glucose α-Methyl-D-Glucoside β-Methyl-D-Glucoside α-Methyl-D-Mannoside D-Raffinose L-Rhamnose - Sedoheptulosan Stachyose D-Tagatose Xylitol α-Hydroxybutyric acid γ-Hydroxybutyric acid α-Ketovaleric Acid Lactamide D-Lactic Acid Methyl Ester Succinamic Acid 2,3-Butandiol Adenosine 2’-Deoxyadenosine Inosine Thymidine Uridine Adenosine-5’-Monophosphate Thymidine-5’-Monophosphate Uridine-5’-Monophosphate D-Fructose-6-Phosphate α-D-Glucose-1-Phosphate Glucose-6-Phosphate D-L-α-Glycerolphosphate -1 -1 TM The test plates were inoculated with bacteria after growth in R medium containing 0, 0.2 mol l NaCl, or 0.4 mol l NaCl and resuspension in Biolog inoculation fluid containing the same salt concentration to give equivalent turbidities. The absorbance of each well at 595 nm was determined after 3 days at 30 C. “High efficiency” indicates an absorbance >0.5 greater than the control at all salt concentrations, “low efficiency” indicates an absorbance of 0.1-0.5 greater than the control at all salt concentrations, “decreasing efficiency” indicates that the absorbance declined as the salt concentration increased, “increased efficiency” indicates that the absorbance increased as the salt concentration increased, and “not used” indicates an absorbance <0.1 greater than the control (no substrate) well. −1 cultures were filtered through glass wool to remove the resid- persisted in NaCl concentrations as high as 0.6 mol l −1 ual insoluble material (Strong et al. 2002) and the turbidity of (Fig. 2). Growth was barely detectable in 0.9 mol l NaCl. the filtrate determined at 600 nm as a measure of cell growth. The final turbidity (A ) of about 0.3 with atrazine and −1 The final yield (A ) in medium containing 10 mmol l isopropylamine in the absence of salt was similar to that (NH ) SO was about 1.4 at all NaCl concentrations tested. seen by Strong et al. (2002) when 0.05% atrazine was added 4 2 4 Growth with atrazine and isopropylamine was less but to R medium as the sole carbon and nitrogen source. 574 Ann Microbiol (2018) 68:569–577 Because of the insolubility of the atrazine and the possible To determine if these osmoprotectants could also improve loss of bacteria (particularly the myceloids) during the filtra- the growth of P. aurescens strain TC1 on atrazine, the bacteria tion step, these experiments were difficult to do quantitatively. were streaked or spotted on agar plates of R medium contain- −1 We therefore used isopropylamine as a substitute for atrazine ing 0.8 mol l NaCl, 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, and 0.03% atra- in most of the remaining experiments and measured culture zine as the nitrogen source. Some of the plates had been pre- −1 turbidities directly in nephelometer flasks with a Klett- viously spread with 100 μl of 0.1 mol l glycine betaine, −1 −1 −1 Summerson colorimeter. Growth of P. aurescens strain TC1 0.1 mol l L-proline, 0.1 mol l choline, 0.1 mol l treha- −1 −1 with 20 mmol l isopropylamine as the nitrogen source and lose, or 0.1 mol l potassium L-glutamate. There was little 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose as the carbon source was slower than growth on the unsupplemented plates, but growth was more that shown in Fig. 1 with (NH ) SO but continued even in the obvious on the plates containing glycine betaine, L-proline, or 4 2 4 −1 −1 presence of 0.8 mol l NaCl (Fig. 3a). With 50 mmol l L-glutamate. The other compounds had little effect. isopropylamine as the sole carbon and nitrogen source, In an attempt to quantify these results, P. aurescens strain growth was even slower but again possible in the presence TC1 also was grown overnight in liquid R medium and diluted −1 −1 of 0.6 mol l NaCl (Fig. 3b). Thus, P. aurescens strain 1/100 into 10 ml of liquid R medium containing 0.8 mol l TC1 can metabolize this compound even during osmotic NaCl, 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, 0.03% atrazine as the nitrogen −1 −1 stress. The appearance of the bacteria after growth in media source, and 0.1 mol l glycine betaine, 0.1 mol l L-proline, −1 −1 −1 containing isopropylamine in the absence of NaCl (normal 0.1 mol l choline, 0.1 mol l trehalose, or 0.1 mol l po- -1 bent rods) or in the presence of 0.2 to 0.8 mol l NaCl tassium L-glutamate. The turbidity and viable cell count in (myceloids) as seen by-phase contrast microscopy was each culture were determined initially and again after 7 and similar to that seen when ammonium sulfate was used as 14 days. All of the cultures began with a relatively high tur- the nitrogen source. bidity [about 80 Klett Units ] due to the insolubility of (600 nm) the atrazine and only showed a gradual increase over the next Effects of osmolytes on the growth by P. aurescens 2 weeks. Examination of the cultures by phase-contrast light strain TC1 with isopropylamine and atrazine microscopy indicated that there was growth of the bacteria in the cultures supplemented with L-proline, glycine betaine, or L- Many bacteria can adapt to osmotic stress through the cyto- glutamate as shown by the formation of clusters of branching plasmic accumulation of small organic compounds called myceloid cells. These myceloids were similar to those seen in osmolytes by endogenous synthesis or by transport from the cultures with ammonium sulfate or isopropylamine as the ni- environment (Galinski 1995; Kempf and Bremer 1998; Wood trogen source. The viable cell counts remained relatively con- et al. 2001). Species of Arthrobacter have been shown to stant in the unsupplemented culture or in those supplemented accumulate trehalose and glycine betaine as osmoprotectants with choline, trehalose, or L-glutamate for the first week and (Zevenhuizen 1992; Časaitė et al. 2006; Časaitė et al. 2011). then began to decrease. The viable cell count for the cultures Analysis of the genome of P. aurescens strain TC1 has indi- supplemented with glycine betaine increased about threefold in cated that it has the potential to form transporters for glycine the cultures in the first week and then began to decrease. The betaine and L-proline as well as enzymes needed to convert choline to glycine betaine (Mongodin et al. 2006). To deter- 0.5 mine if the growth of strain TC1 during osmotic stress could be stimulated by compounds known to function as osmolytes, 0.4 cultures were grown in minimal R medium containing −1 −1 0.3 0.8 mol l NaCl, 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, 10 mmol l −1 (NH ) SO ,and 1mmoll concentrations of L-proline, gly- 4 2 4 0.2 cine betaine, choline, L-glutamate, and trehalose. There was good stimulation of growth by glycine betaine and L-proline, 0.1 some stimulation by L-glutamate, and little stimulation by choline or trehalose (Fig. 4a). To determine if these com- 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 pounds might also affect the utilization of isopropylamine, P. -1 NaCl concentration (mol l ) aurescens strain TC1 was grown in R medium containing Fig. 2 Growth of P. aurescens strain TC1 at 30 °C with aeration in −1 −1 0.8 mmol l NaCl, 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, 10 mmol l minimal R medium containing 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, varying −1 isopropylamine as the nitrogen source, and 1 mmol l con- concentrations of NaCl, and 300 ppm atrazine (white circle) or 300 ppm isopropylamine (black circle) as the sole nitrogen source. centrations of glycine betaine, L-proline, choline, L-glutamate, After 7 days, three replicate samples were filtered through glass wool and trehalose. Again, there was good stimulation of growth by and the turbidities of the filtrates measured at 600 nm in a Shimadzu glycine betaine and L-proline, some stimulation by L-gluta- UV160U UV-visible spectrophotometer. The results show the means and standard deviations of the replicates at each salt concentration mate, and none by other compounds (Fig. 4b). Turbidity (A ) 600 nm Ann Microbiol (2018) 68:569–577 575 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 Time (days) Time (days) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Time (days) Fig. 4 a Shows the effects of osmolytes on the growth of P. aurescens 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 strain TC1 at 30 °C with aeration in minimal R medium containing Time (days) −1 −1 0.8 mol l NaCl, 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, 10 mmol l (NH ) SO ,and 4 2 4 −1 Fig. 3 a Shows the growth of P. aurescens strain TC1 at 30 °C with no added supplement (black circle), 1 mmol l L-proline (white circle), −1 −1 aeration in minimal R medium containing 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, 1mmol l glycine betaine (black triangle), 1 mmol l choline (white −1 −1 −1 20 mmol l isopropylamine as the sole nitrogen source, and 0 NaCl triangle), 1 mmol l trehalose (black square), or 1 mmol l L-glutamate −1 −1 (black circle), 0.1 mol l NaCl (white circle), 0.2 mol l NaCl (black (white square). b Shows the effects of osmolytes on the growth of −1 −1 triangle), 0.3 mol l NaCl (white triangle), 0.4 mol l NaCl (black P. aurescens strain TC1 at 30 °C with aeration in minimal R medium −1 −1 −1 −1 square), 0.6 mol l NaCl (white square), and 0.8 mol l NaCl (black containing 0.8 mol l NaCl, 0.2% (w/v) D-glucose, 20 mmol l diamond). b Shows the growth of P. aurescens strain TC1 at 30 °C with isopropylamine as the sole nitrogen source, and no added supplement −1 −1 −1 aeration in R medium containing 50 mmol l isopropylamine as the sole (black circle), 1 mmol l L-proline (white circle), 1 mmol l glycine −1 −1 −1 carbon and nitrogen source and 0 NaCl (black circle), 0.1 mol l NaCl betaine (black triangle), 1 mmol l choline (white triangle), 1 mmol l −1 −1 −1 (white circle), 0.2 mol l NaCl (black triangle), 0.3 mol l NaCl (white trehalose (black square), or 1 mmol l L-glutamate (white square) −1 −1 triangle), 0.4 mol l NaCl (black square), 0.6 mol l NaCl (white −1 square), and 0.8 mol l NaCl (black diamond). Turbidities were measured in Klett-Summerson colorimeter with a red (660 nm) filter Radosevich 1999; Zhang et al. 2014). We have focused on the issue of water availability and used increasing concentra- viable cell count in the culture supplemented with L-proline tions of NaCl as a way to reduce water activity. Our studies remained constant for 2 weeks. A major complication in these indicated that P. aurescens strain TC1 could grow in a mini- experiments was that the myceloids formed in media containing mal medium with ammonium as the nitrogen source at salt −1 −1 0.8 mol l NaCl still formed single colonies on an agar plate concentrationupto0.8 moll . NaCl concentrations of −1 −1 even though they were composed of multiple cellular units and 0.6 mol l (3.5%) or 0.8 mol l (4.7%) reduce the water tended to aggregate into clusters. activity to 0.98 or 0.97, respectively. These low water activi- ties limit the growth of many bacteria (Wildman 2016), and we have found that they can reduce the use of many potential Discussion carbon sources by arthrobacters (Malwane and Deutch 1999). P. aurescens strain TC1 used fewer compounds in the Because of the stability and potential toxicity of atrazine, there Biolog™ GP2 test plates than did A. globiformis strain has been a great deal of interest in the use of microorganisms ATCC 8010 and showed decreased hydrolytic activities in for bioremediation of contaminated sites (Wackett et al. 2002; the BD BBL Crystal GP and API 20E test systems after Ralebitso et al. 2002; Fan and Song 2014; Singh and Singh growth in high concentrations of NaCl. However, use of atra- 2016). Among the factors that might limit degradation of at- zine and isopropylamine as a nitrogen source by P. aurescens −1 −1 razine are the soil moisture content (Issa and Wood 2005; strain TC1 still occurred in 0.6 mol l or 0.8 mol l NaCl. Moreno et al. 2007; Bastos and Magan 2009), the pH Thus, the answer to the general question of whether P. (Weber 1993), and presence of other carbon and nitrogen aurescens strain TC1 can continue to degrade these com- sources (Assaf and Turco 1994; Gebendinger and pounds during osmotic stress is yes. Turbidity (Klett Units) Turbidity (Klett Units) Turbidity (Klett Units) Turbidity (Klett Units) 576 Ann Microbiol (2018) 68:569–577 Pseudarthrobacter gen. nov. and emended description of Shapir et al. (1998) found that growth of the atrazine- Arthrobacter roseus. Int J System Evol Microbiol 66:9–37 degrading strain Pseudomonas sp. ADP in a saline atrazine Časaitė V, Bružytė S, Meškys R (2006) Effect of glycine betaine on medium decreased as the NaCl concentration increased. osmoadaptation of Arthrobacter strains. Biologija 4:46–48 Growth was stimulated by prior exposure to 0.1% NaCl and Časaitė V, Povilonienė S, Mešklenė R, Rutkienė R, Meškys R (2011) Studies of dimethylglycine oxidase isoenzymes in Arthrobacter by the presence of glycine betaine. Glycine betaine and other globiformis cells. Curr Microbiol 62:1267–1273 osmotically compatible solutes also have been found to stim- Chan ECS, Zyk B, Gomersall M (1973) Biotin deficiency in Arthrobacter ulate microorganisms used in the treatment of anaerobic globiformis: comparative cell ultrastructure and nonreplacement of sludges (Vyrides and Stuckey 2017). We found that the use the compound by structurally unrelated compounds. J Bacteriol 113: −1 394–402 of isopropylamine and atrazine in the presence of 0.8 mol l de Azevedo Wäsch SI, van der Ploeg JR, Maire T, Lebreton A, Kiener A, NaCl was stimulated by glycine betaine and L-proline. This Leisinger T (2002) Transformation of isopropylamine to L-alaninol suggests P. aurescens strain TC1 may be useful for bioreme- by P seudomonas sp. strain KIE171 involves N-glutamylated inter- diation of atrazine-contaminated sites, particularly if the soil mediates. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:2368–2374 contains osmoprotective compounds from plant material or De Souza ML, Newcombe D, Alvey S, Crowley DE, Hay A, Sadowsky MJ, Wackett LP (1998) Molecular basis of a bacterial consortium: these are added as amendments. Strain TC1 is limited as an interspecies catabolism of atrazine. Appl Environ Microbiol 64: agent for bioremediation in that it cannot break down cyanuric 178–184 acid. It thus may be helpful to combine P. aurescens strain Deutch CE, Perera GS (1992) Myceloid cell formation in Arthrobacter TC1 with other microbes that can degrade this compound. globiformis during osmotic stress. 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Annals of Microbiology – Springer Journals
Published: Aug 8, 2018