Managing Mediterranean Forests for Multiple Ecosystem Services: Research Progress and Knowledge Gaps

Susanna Nocentini; Davide Travaglini; Bart Muys

doi:10.1007/s40725-022-00167-w

Managing Mediterranean Forests for Multiple Ecosystem Services: Research Progress and Knowledge Gaps

Nocentini, Susanna; Travaglini, Davide; Muys, Bart 2022-06-01 00:00:00 Purpose of Review Forests provide multiple ecosystem services (ES) to society, and the demand for ES is growing at the global level. However, how to manage forests for the provision of multiple and sometimes conflicting services is a complex and still unresolved issue. In this study, we reviewed the scientific literature for the period 2010–2020 dealing with forest management and multiple ES in Mediterranean forests, with the aim of (1) outlining the progress in research, (2) identify- ing knowledge gaps and research needs, and (3) discussing management approaches considering multiple ES. The selected literature was analyzed considering different aspects of multiple ES (e.g., drivers of changes, modeling approaches, trade- offs, and synergies). Recent Findings Our results show that wood production is still one of the main management objectives, with an increasing attention toward non wood forest products. Carbon sequestration and biodiversity were the most investigated regulating func- tions, but also specific aspects are gaining attention (e.g., lichens for microclimate regulation). Changes in stand structure and density, the impact of coppice vs. high forest, and the effect of management practices vs. abandonment were considered as drivers of change at the stand/management unit scale, while the impact of climate changes and disturbances were considered at the landscape/regional scale using modeling. Summary Despite the progress made in the last decade, our review highlights that further research is needed to fill the gaps in the scientific literature regarding how forest management influences the provision of multiple ES in the Mediterranean region. From a conceptual point of view, there is the need for a shift to a new paradigm based on an adaptable, flexible management, and planning approach to sustain self-organization, adaptive capacity, and overall resilience of Mediterra- nean forests, overcoming the ecosystem “service” approach; operatively, research should move toward a transdisciplinary approach, which considers problems from a diversity of points of view and involves extended peer communities not only in the dissemination of research results, but also in the research process itself. Keywords Forest functions · MFRA · Multi-functional forests · Multi-objective forest management · Multifunctionality · Trade-offs · Synergies Introduction This article is part of the Topical Collection on Forest Management The current demand for multiple goods and benefits from * Davide Travaglini forests, collectively termed “ecosystem services” (ES) davide.travaglini@unifi.it [1], is growing rapidly at the global level, but uncertainty Susanna Nocentini remains as to how to manage ecosystems for the provi- susanna.nocentini@unifi.it sion of multiple, and sometimes conflicting, services [2 ]. Bart Muys According to Manning et al. [3 ], multifunctionality has bart.muys@kuleuven.be been defined only broadly as “the simultaneous provision Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment of multiple functions” [4] and “the potential of landscapes and Forestry, University of Florence, San Bonaventura 13, to supply multiple benefits to society” [5 ], but underly- 50145 Florence, Italy ing these seemingly simple definitions are complex and Division of Forest, Nature and Landscape, KU Leuven, unresolved issues regarding the conceptualization and Celestijnenlaan 200E box 2411, 3001 Leuven, Belgium Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 230 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 measurement of multifunctionality [4–7, 8 ], and the fact After a synopsis of the multifunctional role of Mediter- that many scientists start from the simplified assumption ranean forests (“The multifunctional role of Mediterranean that ES do not have significant and variable relationships forests” section) and a methodological section reporting with one another [9]. how the literature survey was carried out (“Materials and Although the importance of the multiple functions and methods” section), we present the results of the literature the related ES that forests provide is being increasingly analysis considering different aspect of multiple ES (e.g., recognized [10], forests continue to be managed in many ES indicators, drivers of change, modeling approaches, for- cases through conventional means with single or few objec- est types, trade-offs and synergies; “Research progress in tives, which often fail to address the multiple functions of managing Mediterranean forests for multiple ecosystem forests, and are therefore unable to adapt to the challenges services” section), and finally discuss the results and point increasingly faced by forests. Managing a forest to maxi- out the knowledge gaps in the light of recent developments mize provision of a service (or set of services) may lead to a in forest management approaches in Mediterranean forests less resilient and more vulnerable system, not only from the (“Discussion” section). ecological but also from a socio-economic and governance perspective [11, 12]. This is also the case in the Mediterranean region, where The Multifunctional Role of Mediterranean despite the marked multifunctionality of forests in provid- Forests ing valuable goods and services to society, silviculture and forest planning approaches, with few exceptions, have been Mediterranean forests are part of a landscape mosaic that wood-based [13]. reflects interactions between variable climatic and geomor - In 2000, Scarascia-Mugnozza et al. [14] identified for - phological conditions, regional landforms and human influ- est multifunctionality and its scaling aspects as important ence [14, 16, 17]. The very long history of human-induced knowledge gaps on the way to sustainable management of changes has caused a strong reduction of forest area in the Mediterranean forests. A decade later, the Mediterranean Mediterranean region [18], and it has been estimated that Forest Research Agenda [15], based on a consultation pro- by mid-twentieth century, less than 15% of the “potential” cess that involved a large number of institutions in 15 Medi- Mediterranean forest vegetation remained [19]. This trend terranean countries and representing a common vision on has changed in the last decades, and according to the Global the challenges of Mediterranean forests for the 2010–2020 Forest Resources Assessment the total forest area estimated decade, pointed out the importance of identifying forest in 2015 in Mediterranean countries (88 million ha, [20]) management options for ensuring the sustainable produc- has been increasing since 1990, largely the result of natu- tion of multiple goods and services in a changing environ- ral forest expansion, and, to a minor degree, reforestation, ment. Specifically, the 2010–2020 Mediterranean Forest with deforestation remaining at a low level of 0.05 percent/ Research Agenda identified, among others, the following year [20]. In 2015, forests occupied 10% of the total area of key challenges: (a) develop tools and methods to predict the Mediterranean countries, but this proportion varies greatly effects of forest management on multiple forest goods and between the different countries (e.g., 6% in Israel, 37% in services, and related resources; (b) design new forest man- Spain, 61% in Slovenia). However, it is worth noting that agement models that address the multifunctionality of Medi- part of the forest expansion reported for Mediterranean terranean forests in an integrated stand-to-landscape scale; countries has actually taken place outside the Mediterranean and (c) develop user-friendly forest landscape decision sup- region, such as the Euro-Siberian ecoregions of northern port systems to capture the preferences of key stakeholders Spain or France. regarding forest goods and services, and be able to optimize Natural forest expansion is taking place mostly on aban- forest management to ensure the provision of these goods doned agricultural land: land abandonment is increasing in and services. Expected outputs of research efforts for the the Mediterranean Basin, mainly in its northern rim respect decade were new silviculture models and planning models to North African countries [21–23], especially in mountain for addressing multiple objectives and tools for optimizing areas [24], often altering the century long dynamic equilib- multi-objective forest management and analyzing the trade- rium of Mediterranean landscapes [25]. offs between various forest functions and conflicting goals. Forests in the Mediterranean countries have been provid- In this paper, we review the scientific literature of the ing multiple goods and benefits, which are crucial for the last decade specifically dealing with forest management and socio-economic development of rural areas, as well as for multiple ES in Mediterranean forests, with the aim of (1) the well-being of the urban populations of the region [13]. outlining the progress in research, (2) identifying knowledge Mediterranean forests provide provisioning, regulating, gaps and research needs, and (3) discussing management and cultural ES, all of them facilitated by supporting ser- approaches considering multiple ES. vices ensuring the vital ecosystem functions and processes 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 231 (Fig. 1), as classified according to the Millennium Eco- cover, rooting, and organic matter build-up, has long been system Assessment [1]. Among the provisioning services, acknowledged: as early as the fifteenth–sixteenth centuries, wood forest products, such as timber and firewood, have forest management in countries such as Catalonia and the been and are still important, but non-wood forest products Republic of Venice aimed primarily at protecting rural wel- such as resins can sometimes be more important. Particu- fare and conserving soil and water, and only secondarily at larly food products, like mushrooms, game, nuts, and herbs, timber production [13, 29]. Using the total economic value are actively collected from many Mediterranean forests, framework, Croitoru [29] estimated that in many countries and often represent an economic value larger than the har- in the Mediterranean region, the single most valuable forest vested wood products [26, 27 ]. It is therefore necessary to benefit is that deriving from watershed protection, account- optimize management while considering trade-offs between ing for more than 50% of total economic value (e.g., in wood production and, e.g., mushrooms [28 ]. But perhaps Syria, Greece and Italy). most important of all are the public services and externali- In the fragile Mediterranean environment, water con- ties provided by Mediterranean forests [29]. For regulating servation is particularly important. The Mediterranean services, these forests play a fundamental role in soil pro- region is recurrently confronted with water scarcity due to tection, watershed management, climate change mitigation, both climatic factors (limited and irregular rainfall, which and microclimate amelioration [13]. Finally, they also have is expected to further decrease with climate change), and a large importance in providing cultural ES. In addition to social factors (e.g., changes in land use with the expansion their increasing recreational value, Mediterranean forests are of irrigated agriculture; unsustainable water consumption often cultural landscapes full of legacies of former human especially in growing urban areas) [33, 34]. Dryland for- land use and land management practices [30]. These herit- ests have prominent features like increased water infiltration age values merit particular management attention because contributing to water conservation [35]. On the other hand, of their unique historical and archeological importance [31, increasing forest cover may also increase evapotranspiration 32]. and decrease water discharge to rivers, which offers options The millennia long process of deforestation in the Medi- for more water use efficient forest management [33]. It also terranean region has caused and is still causing problems for needs to be emphasized that evapotranspiration by forests is soil conservation and forest hydrology. The destruction of not to be considered as water loss, as this water is recycled the forest cover started in prehistoric times with the trans- into rain elsewhere [36]. formation of forests into agricultural land and the intensive Mediterranean forests are a unique world natural herit- use of forests for grazing or various systems of shifting age in terms of biological diversity [15]. The Mediterranean cultivation. The role of Mediterranean forests in soil con- Basin is one of the world’s major centres for plant diversity servation and watershed protection, mainly through canopy and one of the richest in endemism [37, 38]; this diversity Fig. 1 Graphical representation of the relationships between Mediterranean forests, main drivers of change and ecosystem services 1 3 232 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 is also the consequence of the interaction between environ- systems that have been characterizing many Mediterra- •• mental conditions and human activity which has produced a nean areas [52 ]. Recreation has always been a signifi- great variety of forest types. According to Blondel [18], the cant activity in the Mediterranean region, varying widely apparent resilience of recent Mediterranean ecosystems is across countries; it is very important in the northern Medi- the result of the dynamic coexistence of human and natural terranean and its importance is likely to grow throughout living systems with positive and negative feedback cycles the region [29]. Forest areas are also a fundamental asset operating for long periods at local or regional levels. As a for the esthetic appreciation of rural landscapes [55, 56]. consequence of early deforestation, only little old growth Although forests in the Mediterranean area are still or ancient Mediterranean forests remain, which means that expanding, their ability to provide all these goods and ser- biodiversity features related to primary forests are largely vices will become increasingly affected by environmental lost [39–41]. On the other hand, a large share of Mediter- and social changes. ranean forest biodiversity, especially herbaceous species and Climate change is emerging as the primary driver of associated insects, is related to various levels of disturbance, environmental change in the region [47, 57]. The Medi- including fire and herbivory by livestock, as, e.g., in Medi- terranean has been identified as one of the most reactive terranean heath ecosystems [42, 43], and tends to disappear regions to climate change and defined as a major hotspot after dense afforestation or land abandonment. As a conse- [58, 59]. The primary projected impacts of climate change quence, safeguarding the biodiversity of the Mediterranean on the natural environment and consequently on forests forest faces a complex challenge of managing both natural in the Mediterranean are rapid change in the water cycle and human-induced disturbance regimes [31, 39, 44]. due to increased evaporation and lower precipitation; a Mediterranean forests contribute to carbon storage and decrease in soil water storage capacity (due to changes in sequestration even if the uncertainty related to the assess- porosity resulting from a change in temperatures, mak- ment in the various countries is high, and this indirect ben- ing soils drier) and thus an acceleration of desertification efit (e.g., regulation of global climate) is not assessed in already underway by previous overexploitation and deple- a systematic way and often remains site-specific [45]. The tion of soils; a northward or altitudinal shift in altitude of importance of Mediterranean forests in carbon sequestra- terrestrial biodiversity (animals and plants); and extinction tion is thus quite variable and is affected by the general of the most climate-sensitive or least mobile species and lower productivity of Mediterranean systems in compari- colonization by new species [47, 57]. son to northern- or central-European ecosystems [46]. For- It is anticipated that demographic evolution will be another ests in northern Mediterranean countries sequester about major driver of Mediterranean forest ecosystem change in the 0.01–1.08 t C/ha annually [29]. Over the past 25 years, near future [47], with most of the population growth occur- growing stock in Mediterranean forests has increased by 137 ring in southern and eastern countries, particularly in urban million m per year. The reasons for growing stock accumu- and coastal areas. Increased population numbers may inten- lation in Mediterranean forests are many and complex, but sify pressure on the resources provided by forests, in terms land abandonment and reduction of harvest levels are the of resource use, including drinking and irrigation water, and principal ones [47]. recreational use [47]. A related major change is that of rural Mediterranean forests also contribute to air quality regu- exodus and land abandonment, which has accelerated in the lation, noise reduction, and have a cooling effect [47], all northern rim of the Mediterranean since the 1970s, while it benefits which are particularly important for forests around has increased since the 2000s in the Eastern Mediterranean, urban areas [48–51]. particularly Turkey, and might get triggered in the southern Mediterranean forests have a very important role in Mediterranean in the decades to come. This large-scale land- providing what have been collectively termed “cultural scape transformation holds opportunities and risks for the •• ecosystem services”, e.g., opportunities for tourism and Mediterranean forest [60 ]. Opportunities in the sense that recreational activities; appreciation of natural scenery; as the forest area increases, the potential provision of associ- inspiration for culture, art and design; sense of place and ated ES also increases. It is as well a massive phenomenon of belonging; spiritual and religious inspiration; education; rewilding, where large areas get depopulated, and, e.g., rare and science [1]. Mediterranean forests contribute to the larger mammals, like wolves, bears, and others, are able to cultural landscapes that have been shaped by centuries of re-establish. There are also increased opportunities of wood •• human–environment interactions [52 ]. The co-evolution provisioning, e.g., for engineered timber, biorefinery, or bio- between forest ecosystems and the related human popula- energy for local use, which stay so far largely untapped due to tions in terms of domestication (of trees, ecosystems and mobilization challenges [61], but which should be carefully landscapes [53]) have resulted in forests (domestic forests, evaluated in relation to the multiple functions that these new or or rural forests [54]), which can be considered as biocul- aging forests can provide. On the other hand, the accumulation tural, or socio-ecological products of the agroforestry 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 233 of biomass over large contiguous landscapes can increase the The large majority of the selected documents emerging •• risk of megafires [62 ]. from our literature survey were research papers (82%), fol- Thus, forest management in the Mediterranean faces a lowed by literature reviews and general discussions (18%) substantial challenge if the capacity of forests to provide the on various aspects of ES provided by Mediterranean forests. multiple and valued ecological goods and services is to be Most of the research papers (91%) come from the north- maintained in the future. western countries of the Mediterranean basin (Spain, Italy, Portugal, and France), while only 9% are from the south and Materials and Methods south-eastern countries of the Mediterranean basin (Israel, Tunisia, Turkey). To identify research progress and knowledge gaps, we searched Scopus and Web of Science databases for all types Scale of Application of documents that were explicitly related to forest management and ES in the Mediterranean area for the period 2010–2020. Research papers considered different scale levels using vari- The literature survey was carried out in December 2020 using ous approaches. At the stand or management unit level (32% the following terms in the combined field of title, abstract, and of the selected documents), analyses were based on experi- key words: (“forest management” AND Mediterranean AND mental field data or inventory data [63– 66, 67 , 68–70] or service) OR (“forest management” AND Mediterranean AND retrospective studies based on archives [71]. At larger scale multi). A total of 107 publications satisfied this conditional levels, the impact of forest management on the provision of search, which were reduced to 97 publications after removing multiple ES was more often analyzed through stakeholder duplicate documents found on both databases. Then, we read perception [72], expert opinion [73, 74] or modeling, typi- in full the documents to assess their relevance for the scope cally at the landscape or regional scale (43% of the selected of our review using the following criteria: (1) the research documents) [75, 76]. For their growing importance, we will must be related to forests in the Mediterranean basin, (2) the examine the methodological aspects of modeling approaches research must be related to the forest management context, in a separate section (Modeling Approaches). and (3) at least one ES and the relationships with forest man- agement must be considered. Documents that considered land use management but did not explicitly use forest management Ecosystem Services and Indicators criteria to assess ES were not considered; economic evaluation of ES was out of the scope of our review. In order to get a com- Although title, keywords, and/or abstract contained the term plete picture of research on forest management and multiple “multiple” referred to ES or functions, our results showed ES in the Mediterranean area in the 2010–2020 period, we that only a relatively limited number of documents actually then examined the literature referenced in the selected docu- considered the impact of forest management on more than ments, using a snowball approach and the criteria listed above, one ES. Most of the publications (77%) mentioned one, two, leading to a final set of 56 documents (Online Resource 1) that or three ES, rarely more than three (23%). were used for analysis. Twenty different ES were considered among provision- Selected documents were analyzed to extract the follow- ing (8 ES), regulating (8 ES), and cultural (4 ES) services ing information: (Fig. 2). While wood production is still one of the main management objectives in Mediterranean forests, in the last Scale/scope of research (stand, landscape, general, etc.); decade the focus has increasingly shifted towards impact Considered ES and indicators; of management on other aspects of forest ecosystems. Our Drivers of change in ES provisioning; review highlighted an increasing attention towards specific Modeling approaches; products which have a relevant socio-economic role in the Forest types; Mediterranean context, such as the production of cork [25, Interactions between ES and trade-offs and synergies. 68, 77], pine nuts [75, 78], fungi (edible [63, 65, 67 , 79]; for biobased innovations [80]), pine honeydew honey [81], •• • and water [25, 64, 68, 82 , 83 ]. Interestingly, new terms Research Progress in Managing referring to specific objective/ES oriented silviculture have Mediterranean Forests for Multiple been coined, such as mycosilviculture [80], hydrology-ori- Ecosystem Services ented silviculture [64], water-yield silviculture [64]. Climate regulation (carbon sequestration) and biodi- In the last decade, there has been a growing research interest versity (generic), among regulating functions, were the towards the impact of forest management on the provision most frequently investigated in relation to other ES, but of multiple ES from Mediterranean forests. also specific aspects are gaining attention such as, e.g., 1 3 234 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 Fig. 2 Ecosystem services considered in the selected docu- ments and number of times that each service was considered (C = cultural service, P = provi- sioning service, R = regulating service) the importance of lichen communities for microclimate Drivers of Change regulation in Mediterranean forest and woodland ecosys- tems [66, 84 ]. The majority of the studies considered forest management Cultural services such as recreation, ecotourism, sports, as the only driver of change in multiple ES provision (72%), •• and esthetic values were less investigated [73, 82 ]. while the remaining studies considered no more than three A great variety of indicators/parameters have been used drivers. Regarding the studies based on multiple drivers, to quantify forest response in terms of the considered ES forest management was most often combined with climate (Table 1). As an example, impact on carbon cycle, related change (20%) and to a lesser extent with fire (4%); few stud- to climate regulation, has been measured in terms of car- ies (4%) analyzed the combined effect of climate change and bon stored in above ground biomass [68, 75, 77], in above biodiversity with management or socio-economic variables. •• ground and below ground biomass [76, 82 , 85], annual At the stand/management unit scale, changes in stand wood volume increment [69], carbon sequestration rate vs structure and density are the main management features on site carbon stock [78], overall wood production, i.e., considered as drivers of change in the provision of multiple considering both carbon stored in the forest compartments ES from Mediterranean forests [63, 68, 69, 71, 75, 77]. and carbon fixed in removed wood [78], biomass growth Other drivers are the impact of coppice vs. high for- of trees, and shrubs [83 ]. Another example, biodiversity • est [84 , 86] and the effect of traditional management vs. response has been quantified using the number of tree abandonment of traditional practices, including grazing, in species [69], floristic diversity [69], lichen communities • agro-silvo-pastoral systems [25, 66, 83 ]. The impact of cli- [84 ], structural diversity and number of “large” trees mate (climate change scenarios [75]) and disturbances, such [71], habitat diversity and endangered species [25], and as fire [86], were more often considered at the landscape/ tree micro-habitats [70]. regional scale using modeling approaches. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 235 Table 1 Examples of indicators used in the selected documents to assess ecosystem services in the Mediterranean forests Ecosystem service Indicator Units Method Reference Provisioning Cork Cork supply kg Model-based [77, 152] −1 kg ha Model-based [91, 153] −1 −1 Annual increment cork kg ha year Model-based [68] mass −1 −1 •• •• Edible mushroom Mushroom production kg ha year Model-based [63, 82 , 88 , 154] in one year −1 Mushroom productionkg ha Field data [65, 67 ] Fodder Annual fodder produc- Annual FU Model-based [68] tion −2 Forage for goats and kcal m Literature data [119] forage for cattle Grazing FU Model-based [153] Genetic resources Seed dispersal ha Model-based [155] −1 −1 Honey Annual honey produc-kg ha year Literature data [81] tion Index based on flower Score (0–10) Model-based [119] counts in the plots −1 −1 Pine nut Annual cone produc-kg ha year Model-based [75, 156] tion −1 −1 kg tree year Model-based [94] −2 −1 •• •• Water Water exported yearly l m year Model-based [82 , 88 ] by surface runoff or deep drainage into the water table 3 −1 −1 Annual water m ha year Model-based [68, 83 ] −1 Water rechargemm year Model-based [157, 158] −1 −1 Water quality based on kg ha year Model-based [159] nitrate yield −1 −1 •• Wood Wood production per t ha year Official statistics [82 ] year 3 −1 −1 •• m ha year Model-based [71, 81, 88 , 156] 3 −1 Wood production m ha Field data Model-based [69, 71, 76, 87, 91, 158, 160] −1 t ha Field data [70] Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] to fulfil different functions in the sampling point Timber yield m Model-based [77] 3 −1 −1 Annual increment m ha year Model-based [75] Regulation Biodiversity Grassland habitat % Model-based [86] cover −1 Tree microhabitatsn ha Field data [70] 3 −1 −1 •• Habitat for biodiversity m ha year Model-based [88 ] (deadwood) Habitat conservation Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] (capacity of forest type to fulfil differ - ent functions in the sampling point) −2 Density of geophyte, n m Model-based [119] density of flowers, −2 Density of fleshy fruitskcal m Model-based [119] 1 3 236 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 Table 1 (continued) Ecosystem service Indicator Units Method Reference Tree species diversity – Shannon index, Field [69] data n Model-based [161] Floristic diversity – Shannon Index, Field [69] data Reptiles n Model-based [155] Reptile (species rich- n Model-based [157] ness) Bird (species richness) n Model-based [157] −1 Bird species (density)n ha Model-based [162] Vertebrate (species ha Model-based [163] distribution) Photosynthetic per- – Chlorophyll a fluo- [84 ] formances by forest rescence emission, macrolichens Field data Stand structure diver- – Model-based [71] sity indices Ecosystem diversity – Model-based [160] (pattern analysis) Climate regulation Carbon in above kg Model-based [77, 91] ground biomass −1 kg ha Model-based [75, 119, 153] −1 Mg ha Model-based [68, 86, 152] t Model-based [157] CO2eq −1 −1 •• • •• Carbon in above t ha year Model-based [82 , 83 , 88 , 160] and below ground biomass −1 kg ha Model-based [164] −1 Carbon in above Mg ha Model-based [76, 87] ground and below ground biomass, dead organic matter, and soil organic carbon −1 −1 Carbon in above and t ha year Field data [69] CO2eq below ground bio- mass derived from annual increment of tree volume −2 −1 Gross primary produc- kg C·m year Model-based [165] tion and soil respira- tion −2 Vegetation carbon and kg C·m Model-based [165] soil organic carbon Environmental protec- Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] tion to fulfil different functions in the sampling point •• Riparian forest cover % Map-based [82 ] around watercourses considering a buffer zone of 25 m around •• Erosion control Forest cover of areas % Map-based [82 ] with a slope higher than 30% 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 237 Table 1 (continued) Ecosystem service Indicator Units Method Reference −1 •• Total amount of soil t ha Model-based [88 ] erosion avoided in each plot, compared to the potential soil erosion that could occur in absence of vegetation Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] to fulfil different functions in the sampling point 3 −1 Sediment retention m ha Model-based [153] −1 −1 Soil loss per unit of t ha year Model-based [159] area per unit of time −1 •• Soil fertility Amount of organic t ha Model-based [82 ] carbon in the soil −2 −1 •• Water regulation Sum of canopy water l m year Model-based [82 ] storage capacity and soil water holding capacity −2 Water holding capacity mg HO cm Field and laboratory [84 ] by forest macroli- data chens −1 Deep percolation, mm year Model-based [165] evapotranspiration, interception, runoff, soil evaporation, stemflow, transpira- tion Soil microclimate Lichens, bryophytes % soil covered by Field data [66] regulation and cyanobacteria biocrusts living on topsoil (biocrusts) −1 Mechanical stability of Average slenderness H D Field data [69] the forest system ratio of dominant trees −1 −1 •• Cultural Experiential use Animal species obser- N° obs. ha year Other statistics [82 ] vations introduced on web portal •• Landscape conserva- Surface of protected % Map-based [82 ] tion areas included in the Natura 2000 Network Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] to fulfil different functions in the sampling point −1 •• Physical use Routes recorded and N° tracks ha Other statistics [82 ] introduced by users using app and web portal −1 •• Recreational use Number of beds N° places ha Official statistics [82 ] in rural tourism establishments per municipality Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] to fulfil different functions in the sampling point 1 3 238 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 Table 1 (continued) Ecosystem service Indicator Units Method Reference Monetary quantifica- € Model-based [160] tion of touristic and recreational value Decrease in annual ha Model-based [161] burned area due to forest fires A decision support system (DSS) was developed for large Modeling Approaches scale applications to assess trade-offs between ecosystem management planning [77]. The DSS SADfLOR integrates Various research papers used modeling approaches for the vegetation dynamic model SUBER v. 4.0 [90] with a multiple forest ES assessment at the stand, landscape, or trade-off analysis functionality between criteria. The trade- regional scale. Most of these studies used forest modeling off analysis is based on the Pareto Frontier approach [91], to assess both forest multifunctionality and the influence • which includes multi-objective linear model building func- of forest management [73, 76, 77, 83 , 87] and other driv- •• tionalities and an interactive decision map building func- ers/disturbances (e.g., climate change, fires [75, 82 , 86, •• tionality to analyze trade-offs between the different criteria. 88 ]) on ES. Economic indicators such as the net present value are also Examples of forest models used to assess the relation- calculated based on prices and operational costs from sta- ships between multiple ES (provisioning, regulation, and tistical data. cultural services), forest management, and other drivers The hybrid forest patch model PICUS was specifically of change in different forest types in the Mediterranean is developed for Pinus pinea [92–94]. It allows to assess the reported in Table 2. More information on scenarios and influence of forest management scenarios and of climate models used to evaluate ES in the Mediterranean can be •• change projections on stand development and on the related found in Morán-Ordóñez et al. [89 ]. ES. PICUS includes 3D gap model [95], process-based pro- Among the research papers that investigated the influ- duction model, management module, and cone and nut pro- ence of forest management on ES, the majority of these duction module. It provides a projection of stand dynamics studies (70%) used non-spatial indices or growth models under simulated management prescriptions and climate con- that simulate forest dynamics at plot scale, while others ditions, including single tree information such as diameter, (30%) used forest models for mapping ES. height, and volume [75]. The Index of Importance of Function and the Capability The process-based forest model GOTILWA (Growth Of of Function Fulfilment Index (IFF-CFFI) were proposed to Trees Is Limited by WAter) is a stand level ecophysiological assess the forest multifunctionality at the landscape scale, model that models forest growth as a function of climate, and to calculate the capability of forest management sys- soil, and other environmental and management factors [96]. tems to fulfil different forest functions [73]. The model It is parameterized for a range of Mediterranean tree spe- requires the stratification of the forests into forest types cies. In a more recent version called GOTILWA + [97, 98], and the assessment of multifunctionality on field plots by it developed into a forest management optimization tool by estimating the capacity of each forest type to fulfil for - linking the model with a multiple particle swarm algorithm, est functions. A score ranging from 0 (for less important which allows to find the optimal forest management for sev - function) to 10 (for the most prevalent function) is used eral ES simultaneously, taking into account the trade-offs to calculate the Index of Importance of Function for each between them. Considered ES are wood production, water function. Field plots are aggregated according to manage- use efficiency, fire risk and net present value, and considered ment systems and forest types, and then compared with management practices are rotation length, age of first thin- three indicators of multifunctionality: average number of ning, thinning frequency, and thinning intensity. functions fulfilled by each forest type, average value of A model to assess future trade-offs and synergies each function associated to a forest type, and mean total between multiple ES under climate change scenarios and value of all functions referred to each forest type. The management options reflecting different EU forest policy Capability of Function Fulfilment Index is calculated as •• scenarios was proposed by [88 ]. These authors used the mean of the product between Index of Importance of the process-based model SORTIE-ND [99, 100] to simu- Function and capability of the management system to fulfil late forest dynamics at plot level under each scenario and the function of all plots related to the forest type. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 239 1 3 Table 2 Examples of forest models used in the selected documents to assess multiple ecosystem services and their relationships with forest management and other drivers of change in different forest types in the Mediterranean (L = landscape scale, MU = management unit/stand scale; N = national scale, R = regional scale, n.c. = not considered) Model name Country Scenario map Scale Time period Forest type Ecosystem services Drivers of Trade-offs and Reference (years) change synergies Provisioning Regulating Cultural LURE France Yes L 200 Silver fir Genetic Biodiversity n.c Forest manage- No [155] resources ment strategies (traditional forest manage- ment, genetic forest manage- ment) IIF-CFFI Italy No L 10–30 Oak Wood production Biodiversity Landscape con- Forest manage- No [73] Environmental servation ment regimes protection Recreational use (coppice and Erosion control high forest) GOTILWA Spain No MU 200 Pine, Evergreen Wood production Climate regula- Fire risk Forest manage- Trade-offs [97] oak tion ment regimes analysis Water use effi- (Rotation ciency length, fre- quency and intensity of thinning) Climate Change scenario Soil LANDIS-II Italy Yes L 150 Grassland n.c Biodiversity n.c Forest manage- No [86] Oak Climate regula- ment prescrip- Pine tion tions (thinning, coppicing, elimination of encroach- ing vegetation on non-forest areas) Climate change Fire PICUS Spain No L 120 Pine Cone production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- No [75] Wood production tion ment regimes (wood produc- tion, cone production, wood and cone production) Climate change 240 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 1 3 Table 2 (continued) Model name Country Scenario map Scale Time period Forest type Ecosystem services Drivers of Trade-offs and Reference (years) change synergies Provisioning Regulating Cultural PINEA2 Spain No MU 100 Pine Cone production n.c n.c Forest manage- No [156] Wood production ment scenarios (wood produc- tion, cone production, wood and cone production) SUBER Portugal No L 90 Oak Cork production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- No [152] tion ment regimes (business-as- usual, adaptive management) Climate Change scenario SADfLOR Portugal No R 50 Oak Cork production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs [77] Wood production tion ment prescrip- analysis tions (planting density, cork extraction periodic- ity, thinning interval) – Portugal Yes N 40 Different forest Water provision- Erosion control n.c Forest manage- No [159] types ing (water ment scenarios quality) (as set up by Portuguese regulations) MIMOSE Italy Yes R 20 Different forest Wood production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs [76, 87] types tion ment regimes analysis (coppice, coppice in conversion to high forest, and high forest) Management restrictions (e.g., lengthen- ing rotation periods, reduc- ing harvesting intensity) Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 241 1 3 Table 2 (continued) Model name Country Scenario map Scale Time period Forest type Ecosystem services Drivers of Trade-offs and Reference (years) change synergies Provisioning Regulating Cultural – Spain No R 100 Pine n.c Biodiversity Decrise in Forest manage- No [161] burned area ment (no due to forest management, fires thinning and scrub clearing) – Spain No L 100 Pine Water provision- n.c n.c Forest manage- No [158] ing ment regimes Wood production (no manage- ment, thinning) – Spain No MU 100 Pine Wood production Biodiversity n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs [71] ment (from analysis even-aged structure to multi-aged structure) TOOFES Italy Yes MU 50–210 Silver fir Wood production Biodiversity Recreational use Forest manage- Trade-offs [160] Climate regula- ment prescrip- analysis tion tions (thinning and final felling) – Italy Yes MU n.c Oak Cork production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- No [68] Fodder produc- tion ment (alterna- tion tive silvicul- Water provision- tural options) ing •• – Spain Yes R Different time Different forest Edible mush- Climate regula- Experiential use Socioeconomic Trade-offs and [82 ] period depend- types rooms produc- tion Landscape con- variables synergies ing on ESs tion Erosion control servation Climatic vari- analysis Water provision- Flood protection Physical use ables ing Soil fertility Recreational use Biodiversity Wood production Water regulation variables Spain No MU 50 Oak n.c Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs [165] tion Water ment (no analysis regulation management, thinning and scrub clearing) EEFMD Spain Yes R 90 Oak Water provision- Climate regula- n.c Forest man- Trade-offs [83 ] Pine ing tion agement is analysis abandoned or is continued 242 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 1 3 Table 2 (continued) Model name Country Scenario map Scale Time period Forest type Ecosystem services Drivers of Trade-offs and Reference (years) change synergies Provisioning Regulating Cultural – Tunisia Yes L n.c Oak Cork production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- No [153] Fodder produc- tion ment (thinning tion Erosion control and afforesta- tion of the shrub land) •• SORTIE-ND Spain No L 99 Pine Wood production Biodiversity n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs and [88 ] Edible mush- Climate regula- ment scenarios synergies rooms produc- tion (business- analysis tion Erosion control as-usual, Water provision- promotion of ing wood energy, promotion of carbon storage, reduction of forest vulner- ability) Climate change scenarios Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 243 combined the outputs with empirical and process-based to predict commercial harvesting and forest regeneration models to estimate changes for six different ES. Pearson’s investment decisions. correlations were used to evaluate trade-offs and synergies A method to spatially assess both trade-offs and synergies among ES. among ES, and their relationships with predictor variables •• More recently, a growing number of simulation models was proposed by Roces-Díaz et al. [82 ]. Such method have been used to produce scenario maps that can help to foresees the use of quantitative indicators of ES, the stand- advance the understanding of the influence of drivers of ardization of ES indicators to a common scale (0–1) using change on ES. the proximity-to-target methodology, and their aggregation LANDIS-II [101] is a grid-based model which includes at the municipality level, assuming that all indicators are variable time steps for ecological processes (e.g., woody bio- relevant and similarly important. Pearson correlations are mass and carbon dynamics) and a platform to incorporate used to investigate the trade-offs and synergies among nor - drivers of change. LANDIS-II was used at the landscape malized ES, and to explore their relationships with predic- scale to examine the impacts on grasslands of simulated sce- tors of ES supply. narios including climate change projections, forest manage- ment prescriptions, and fire disturbance [86]. The ecosystem Forest Types process model PnET-II was used to simulate growth and dispersal of tree and shrub species. Fire disturbance was The most frequently investigated forest types in the Mediter- simulated using the base fire extension [102]. The LANDIS- ranean are cork oak woodlands (20% of the selected docu- II output maps of the dynamics of the biomass of forest ments), pine stands (29% of the documents) (Pinus halepen- species were compared with the land-cover/land-use map sis, Pinus pinaster, Pinus pinea, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus to evaluate the potential impacts on ES (climate regulation brutia, and Pinus nigra re-/af-forestations), oak forests (11% and biodiversity). of the documents) (Quercus cerris, Quercus ilex, and mixed The Multiscale Mapping of ecoSystem services oak forests), and, at the landscape scale, the presence of both (MIMOSE) is a spatially explicit multi-scale approach which broadleaved and coniferous forests (32% of the documents). was developed to model the influence of alternative forest management scenarios on ES and their trade-offs [76, 87]. Cork Oak Forests It combines GIS-based model, scenario model, economic valuation, and the Integrated Valuation of Environmental Cork oak woodlands, a traditional part of Mediterranean Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model. MIMOSE allows landscapes and rural economies, have been traditionally to investigate the effects of forest management regimes on managed so as to provide multiple productions, mainly cork, ES provision at the operational level of the forest manage- wood, and fodder for livestock grazing. These traditional ment unit, and attempt to upscale results at a broader scale productions have been included in the current ES frame- (e.g., regional or national). The model requires qualitative work, which is increasingly adding other important func- (forest types) and quantitative (altitude, slope, forest age, tions such as water regulation, carbon storage, landscape standing volume, biomass) spatial data for each forest unit enhancement, cultural heritage value, which in turn leads to (polygon). Annual increment of wood volume is used to take trade-offs and synergies with traditional productions. into consideration forest growth. The InVEST model [103], Density management is an important tool in these tradi- partially modified to adapt input data and simulations to the tional woodlands, with a tangible impact on the relationship context of Mediterranean forest ecosystems, is used to assess between the different ES, with varying outcomes depending ES provision and their economic value. A trade-off analy - also on the scale and methods used in the analysis. High- sis based on the concept of equilibrium [104, 105] is used density management scenarios can provide an increase in to investigate the interaction between ES and management cork production and carbon sequestration, and a decrease in scenarios. fodder and water yield compared to low density scenarios, An environmental-economic forest management decision with a clear trade-off between the considered ES [68], while (EEFMD) model was developed to estimate spatially dis- a large-scale application of SADfLOR DSS ([77], see Mod- tributed effects of forest management scenarios on ES, and eling Approaches) using multiple-criteria forest ecosystem to simulate the potential effects of payments of ES, and of management planning scenarios in Alentejo in Southern trade-offs between ES, on forest management decisions and Portugal, showed that wood production directly competes their environmental consequences [83 ]. The EEFMD model with carbon stock and cork supply. Both over-use and aban- integrates detailed forest, hydrological, and economic data, donment of traditional management practices can affect the and includes functions to predict forest growth, yield, and provision of ES from cork oak savannahs [25]. Overuse structure at the forest management unit level. The manage- causes soil degradation, which together with drought ham- ment model is combined with an economic decision module pers tree regeneration and increases tree mortality, reducing 1 3 244 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 ecosystem carbon stocks, while abandonment favors shrub that stands growing on good sites should be managed using encroachment which shifts soil carbon from below- to rather short rotations aiming at timber production, while in aboveground plant biomass, increasing the risk of carbon medium- and poor-quality sites longer rotations take advan- losses through wildfires or other disturbances [25]. tage of the joint production of pine honey and timber. An interesting aspect of the relationship between biodi- versity and the overall functioning of the cork oak system is Oak Forests the impact of livestock grazing on the biocrust cover (i.e., lichens, bryophytes, and cyanobacteria living on topsoil), Most oak forests in the Mediterranean area have a century- which contribute to key ecosystem processes by fixing car - long history of coppicing for firewood production and often bon and nitrogen, protecting soil surface from erosion forces, characterize traditional rural landscapes. Conversion to high promoting soil formation and stability, and taking part in forest is a possible alternative between forest abandonment, hydrological cycles and biotic interactions [66]. According largely present in many Mediterranean areas where coppic- to these authors, changes in topsoil-soil surface microcli- ing is not commercially profitable, and intensification of mate may have a notable effect on cork-oak regeneration forest utilization, with larger felled areas, whole tree har- processes, which is one of the main concerns in cork oak vesting, and other methods which have a heavy impact on woodland management. The contribution of biocrusts to ES soil conservation and landscape quality [17]. An important is thus traded-off by livestock grazing. research and operative question in these forests is the impact of coppicing vs. high forest on the trade-offs and synergies Pine Forests between wood production, biodiversity, and other regulating and cultural ES. Coppice management in Mediterranean oak Pines are typical of the Mediterranean area, with different forests can pose a threat to the conservation of important species participating in different ecosystems, from low - organisms with a regulating role in forest ecosystems, such land and coastal forests to mountain forests. Silvicultural as Lobaria pulmonaria, a macrolichen which can increase tools such as thinning and regeneration methods have an the water storage capacity in forest canopies and positively impact on the provision of different ES, causing trade-offs influences their hydrology: retaining unlogged forest-patches and synergies. Wood production and biodiversity are often in a Mediterranean oak coppice increases the availability of compared in relation to different management options, e.g., microhabitats in Mediterranean oak forest, thus producing a Marchi et al. [69] in Pinus nigra plantations and Alonso- synergy between regulating services and biodiversity [84 ]. Ponce et al. [71] in Pinus sylvestris forests. In this second A trade-off evaluation between biodiversity and wood pro- case, ecological features and especially management systems duction using tree microhabitats (TreeMs) as proxy indica- interact to drive the evolution of diversity indices and, where tors of biodiversity in Mediterranean mixed forests (Quercus management maintains more than one age class, a synergy cerris and other broadleaves) showed that the retention of between timber production and structural diversity can be TreeMs hinders the maximization of the economic revenue obtained. The effect of management and thinning treatments during harvesting operations; the identification of TreeMs on mushroom yields (Lactarius deliciosus) in Pinus pinaster can help forest managers develop more informed decisions forests in Spain is an interesting example of the complex during tree marking operations, so that forest management relations that must be considered when targeting research can actively sustain the conservation of forest biodiversity to identify the links between forest management, ES, and enhancing the multifunctional role of forests [70]. Evidence the underlying ecological and functional processes [63, 65]. from a landscape scale expert evaluation exercise in South- Climate and site quality have been shown to have a greater ern Italy showed that the high forest management system impact than management on the annual income from wood, fulfilled the highest number of functions, thus the conver - nut, and carbon storage in Pinus pinea forests in the Spanish sions from coppice to high forest in the most fertile sites Northern Plateau [75], based on a simulation of three forest may increase the overall value by incrementing protective, management regimes—focus on timber, cones, and com- tourism and productive functions [73]. bined objectives—and five climate scenarios (see Modeling Approaches). An interesting case of joint production optimi- Broadleaved and Coniferous Forests zation on a modelling basis is presented by de-Miguel et al. [81], who analyzed the relationship between timber produc- Mediterranean landscapes are often characterized by the tion and pine honeydew honey, an economically important presence of patches of different forest types, which can pro- non-wood forest product in eastern Mediterranean countries duce diversified combinations of ES in relation to different produced by bees harvesting the honeydew caused by a scale management and planning strategies, such as, e.g., favoring insect, Marchalina hellenica Genn. in Pinus brutia forests. productive aspects vs. nature protection, or management vs. From a strictly economic point of view, the simulations show abandonment. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 245 In two study cases in Italian landscapes character- Discussion ized by broadleaved forests (coppices and high forests) and artificial conifer stands ([76, 87], see Modeling Our review shows that process-oriented research on driv- Approaches), management restrictions, longer rotation ers, response type, interactions, synergies, and trade-offs periods, a reduced harvesting intensity, and a close-to- between multiple ES in Mediterranean forests, based on nature forestry approach increased carbon sequestration field experiments and research protocols, is still at the and decreased wood production (and associated Total Net beginning. Instead, the growing ability in data process- Present Value), while the total ecosystem service value ing, coupled with increasing availability of remote sens- did not show substantial differences. Specifically, timber ing data, is promoting substantial progress in research provision and carbon sequestration came out as conflicting based on spatially explicit data and modeling at differ - services, i.e., biomass removal yielded high timber rev- ent scales, from local to regional/national. This approach, enues and low carbon stock at least in the short-term [87]. often implicitly, refers to an “ecosystem service bundle” The impact of active forest management continuation approach, where individual ES can be thought of as differ - or abandonment on carbon and water related ES was eval- ent elements of an interrelated whole [106] or, empirically, uated by Ovando et al. [83 ], using the EEFMD model as sets of ES that repeatedly appear together across space (see Modeling Approaches) in Andalusia (southern Spain) or time. The analysis of spatial patterns of ES can show in a landscape comprising many forest species (Quercus how services are distributed across the landscape, how ilex, Quercus suber, Pinus pinaster, Pinus halepensis, the distributions of different services compare, and where Pinus nigra, Pinus pinea, and Pinus sylvestris). Active trade-offs and synergies among ES might occur [107], but forest management generally implied a reduction in the these patterns cannot definitively determine whether or carbon sequestration potential, whereas abandonment not trade-offs or synergies are occurring over time [108]. was expected—at least in the medium term—to increase The analysis of forest ES and their relationships with carbon stocks due to shrub encroachment and tree densi- drivers of change, including management, is a complex fication. Conversely, forest abandonment was expected to task. Approaches based on one or few ES allow more flex- increase biomass stock and consequently evapotranspira- ibility in accounting for drivers of change but provide a tion, reducing water f low (total blue water), but Authors partial view of the multifunctional role of forest ecosys- caution on the fact that their carbon sequestration esti- tems. On the other hand, approaches that attempt to con- mates for the forest abandonment scenarios consider a sider a wide range of ES for a more complete assessment simplified model and assumptions which ignore the com- of forest functions most often rely on heterogeneous data, plex ecological succession dynamics in forest ecosystems. with differences regarding their sources, calculation meth- In Catalonia (North-eastern Spain), an area character- •• ods, spatial scales, and temporal mismatches [82 ], mak- ized by a variety of forest ecosystems from coastal to ing data combination more complex and less robust due to mountain areas with Pinus spp., Quercus spp., Fagus problems of uncertainty assessment [109–112]. •• sylvatica L., Abies alba Mill., Roces-Díaz et al. [82 ] Selection of ES indicators is frequently problematic. assessed the spatial relationships (trade-offs and syner- Some indicators may be somewhat simplistic since they gies) of a set of provisioning, regulating and cultural ES are constrained by data availability, and some potentially (Table 2). Land-based indicators and forest-based indica- important ES indicators are not considered because of the tors of the selected ES were compared. Biodiversity (par- lack of information, especially for regulating and cultural ticularly woody species richness) had a positive relation •• services [82 , 113]. In addition, some indicators that are with most of the investigated ES (provisioning, regulat- used to assess a specific ES could be related with more ing and cultural ES), while climatic conditions were the than one ES, e.g., in Mediterranean forests mushroom main determinants in the supply of the different ES, with production can be associated with cultural values or as an most indicators being positively associated with precipita- •• indicator of food provision [82 ]. Information regarding tion and negatively associated with temperature. Positive marketed services of forest ecosystems (e.g., ecological, associations were particularly strong among provision- biospheric, social, amenity, and other services) is still ing and regulating services, with highest values (r > 0.7) scarce, and large variations persist in monitoring and between water storage and mushroom production or water reporting the value of marketed forest services [114]. exported. Forest-based indicators better ref lect the intrin- Forest management is one of the major drivers of sic properties of forests and therefore appear more appro- change impacting on ES, and in our review several stud- priate than land-based indicators when the aim of the ies investigated the influence of management on multiple study is to identify the fundamental trade-offs between ES supply from Mediterranean forests. To this end, inno- different ES. vative forest modeling techniques have been developed to 1 3 246 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 enhance decision making in forest management. Especially among the different ES in relation to the considered driver spatial models have gained attention in the last decade is not an easy task. as they provide ES maps that have many potential uses In Table 3, we attempted an analysis of the relationships for decision-makers and planners. For example, ES maps that link forest management, Mediterranean forest ecosys- provide spatial tools than can help to consider synergies tem processes, and the related products and benefits. Our •• and trade-offs of forest management [82 , 87] and could analysis is necessarily a simplification but we believe it can be overlayed with predicted future land-use and climate be useful for highlighting the complexity of the connections changes to understand the influence of drivers of change involved and for highlighting research gaps. The green area on ES into a dynamic planning perspective. However, in the table shows synergies, the yellow area trade-offs. We approaches based on forest modeling rely on assumptions separated modelling approaches, experimental trials/field that management prescriptions, such as, e.g., thinning data, and literature reviews. intensity and interval, remain constant over the considered As can be seen from the table, there is a variety of out- time period, which is not likely especially in long-time comes, the same driver can produce synergies or tradeoffs, interval analysis (cfr., e.g., [76]). Thus, modeling complex which depend not only on forest type but also on many other forest dynamics, e.g., forest growth, changes in species factors, starting from the aim of the different papers, which composition, and competition between trees, shrubs, and consequently conditions the methods applied and the type •• grasses, is still a challenge for future research [88 , 115, of research approach, e.g., field trials usually refer to a lim- 116]. ited time and space scale which may capture only a lim- This reflects a general shortcoming in ES research: ited picture of the actual interactions [69] while modeling according to Bürgi et al. [117], the long-term dynamics approaches usually consider a larger space and time scale, are quite relevant and important to estimating future ES but are based on standardized parameters which might not because (a) ecosystem properties (structures and pro- grasp the real complexity of the effects. cesses) change, by natural or human-induced processes Interactions among the services themselves can cause (e.g., succession or land use), and (b) demands for ES also changes in one service to alter the provision of another [9]. change because of factors such as population dynamics, Thinning is an interesting example of what Bennett et al. [9] technological innovations, and socioeconomic changes. have termed a shared driver in relation to the provision of There are also varied time-lags between the effects of multiple ES, causing different types of responses and inter - management and service provision: for example, carbon actions among ES. For example, moderate thinning in Medi- sequestration following a forest plantation will begin terranean evergreen oak coppices has been shown to increase within 5–10 years of planting, but landscape, recrea- water availability by reducing stand evapotranspiration and tion, and biodiversity values may take several decades to soil water depletion while at the same time increasing car- emerge [118]. Generally, in natural or semi-natural eco- bon assimilation [122, 123 ]. In this case, thinning acts as a systems, with complex and long-term dynamics, such as shared driver with a similar positive response which is unidi- forests, the full consequences of management decisions rectional (increased water availability for the remaining trees can be evaluated only over decades [119]. Furthermore, is expected to increase their water status and hence their research generally focuses a set of ES that is currently carbon assimilation) but individual growth does not in turn considered important by the stakeholders or the research- increase water availability. Similarly, increased edible mush- ers, but it is not certain that this set of ES will remain the room production (Lactarius spp.) in Pinus pinaster stands 2 −1 same in the future because several factors may contribute thinned with low intensity (removal of 10 m ha irrespec- to long-term changes in ES, including scientific insights tive of pre-thinning density) has been attributed to reduced that bring new ES to light, and emerging concerns, such water interception by standing trees and an increased water as climate change [117]. availability at the soil level [63]. Conversely, thinning can One of the main challenges when managing for multiple be considered as a shared driver resulting in a synergy but ES is that they are not independent of each other and the with no interaction among the considered ES, as for example relationships between them may be highly non-linear [120]. in the case of thinning in conifer afforestations which can Attempts to optimize a single service often lead to reduc- increase tree biodiversity by favoring natural regeneration tions or losses of other services—in other words, they are of local broadleaved species and at the same time improve “traded-off” [121]. The interaction among different ES is a wood quality production [69], but the increase in biodiver- fundamental process that influences how the considered ES sity does not affect wood production, nor is the opposite true. responds to a driver of change [108]. Synergies arise when Table 3 shows that wood production is the most fre- multiple services are enhanced simultaneously, while trade- quently investigated ES in relation to other ES, as could offs occur when the provision of one service is reduced due be expected, while water provisioning and water holding to increased use of another. Detecting synergies or trade-offs capacity have been much less investigated in their relation 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 247 Table 3 Synergies (Syn) and trade-offs (Trad) between different eco- synergy. References in blue indicate modelling approaches, in black system services in Mediterranean forests. Synergies are reported in field data and experimental trials, in red literature reviews. Drivers: the green area, trade-offs in the yellow area. References in brackets * thinning intensity/type/stand density; ** regeneration method; *** () indicate that one ecosystem service is not directly investigated as evenaged/uneven aged; + traditional management; + + traditional such but appears in the discussion/conclusions as possible trade-off or management abandonment; + + + coppice/high forest; °long rotations ES Syn Wood Cork Pine nuts Edible HoneyFresh Fodder Carbon Biodiversity Water Provisioning Cultural Regulating Trad production production mushrooms water sequestration holding services services services (Blue capacity generic generic generic water) Wood - ([63])* [69]* [69]* [88]+ [71]** *** production [70] Cork [77]* - [68]* [25]+ production Pine nuts [75] - [75] Edible - [82] mushrooms Honey [81]° - Fresh water [68]* - (Blue water) Fodder [68]* - Carbon [75] [25]++ [83]++ - [69]* sequestration [76]+++ [86]*+++ [77]* [88]+ [87]*** +++ Biodiversity - [84]° Water - holding capacity Provisioning - [82] services generic [82] - Cultural services generic Regulating [82] - services generic to the provision of other ES, especially wood production. Projected impacts of climate warming in the Mediterranean The relationship between wood production, non-wood for- show a general reduction in the provision of regulating ser- est products like edible mushrooms and other ES, has also vices, a general increase in climate-related forest hazards, been scarcely investigated, despite the fact that mushroom and reductions in range extent and habitat suitability for the •• gathering, including truffles [124], is a popular practice in most drought-sensitive forest species [129 ]. However, our many Mediterranean countries. Similarly, cultural ES have review shows that only a limited number of studies consid- been only rarely considered in relation to other ES and to ered climate change as a driver in multiple ES provision. The the various drivers. Integrating genetic diversity into adap- potential impact of land abandonment on ES supply due to tive forestry practice may contribute to enhance the capacity changing socio-economic factors is still not fully understood • •• • •• of managed forests to respond to climate-driven changes; [83 , 130 , 131 , 132 ]. In addition, the added effects of however, the influence of silvicultural systems on gene flow climate change and land abandonment can increase the risk and pollen dispersal within Mediterranean forest is not of fire: due to global warming, fire danger and burned areas fully understood [125, 126]. Since all these functions will are expected to increase in Mediterranean areas and will increase their importance in the Mediterranean area in the be further exacerbated by ongoing changes in land use and near future, research should focus on them. management that increase fuel loads and continuity [133, Climate change is a growing global threat impacting on 134]. ES and human well-being [127], and is likely the main threat In addition to climate change, one of the biggest threats to the diversity and survival of Mediterranean forests [128]. to Mediterranean ecosystems and their ES provision is 1 3 248 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 biodiversity loss. The biodiversity crisis of the Mediterra- well. Overall, management should promote an increase nean terrestrial ecosystems is largely underestimated due in heterogeneity and adaptability of simplified and often to a lack of information. Most reported studies lack biodi- maladapted forest systems, such as extensive conifer affor - versity indicators. Studies have considered tree diversity or estation, in the face of changing conditions [17]. woody species diversity at most, while these woody spe- Research shows, e.g., that thinning is potentially ben- cies represent only a few percent of the 20,000 plant species eficial in terms of reducing the risk of fire hazard [135, in the Mediterranean area. By overlooking effects of land 136] or increasing the ground water supply [137, 138], but abandonment, afforestation, invasive exotics, eutrophication, may as well lead to a certain loss of forest microclimate. ruderalization, forest management, and climate change on Defining the optimal density for these combined benefits herbaceous species and associated invertebrates, a massive depends on the site, composition, and structure of each extinction is taking place unnoticed [43]. Clever forest man- specific situation [123 , 139]. agement techniques in synergy with water, fire, livestock, Research must therefore focus on more in-depth knowl- bioeconomy management could get a far end in taking bio- edge of the ecohydrology of Mediterranean forests and •• diversity more actively on board in management [60 ]. A their response to drought to ensure the best application of major obstacle to evaluate management measures beneficial these management practices [140]. to biodiversity conservation is the lack of taxonomic exper- From a general point of view, the growing interest for tise and monitoring efforts. The diversity is overwhelming, provision of multiple ES from Mediterranean forests can identification a serious challenge. But new citizen science be considered as a further evolution of the concept of mul- apps like plant@net and iNaturalist could help a lot to make tifunctionality, which has been a concern of forest manage- this more feasible than ever. Foresters taking the ES of plant ment for much longer time before the emergence of the ES diversity on board will have an extra asset for management, concept. In the conventional forest management approach, and will ascertain their role and recognize their ability to multifunctionality was based, explicitly or implicitly, on manage habitats for Natura 2000 goals. the “wake theory”, which states that if forests are effi- Because of the variety of experimental approaches and ciently managed for wood production, then all the other methods, time/space scales, and, above all, of the complex forest utilities will follow [141, 142]. In recent times, combination of different forest types in landscapes which this approach, based on a reductionist and deterministic have a long history of human impact, translating research paradigm [12], by ignoring dynamics and reactions from results in univocal operative guidelines for real life manage- other interacting systems, has caused and is still causing ment and planning of Mediterranean forests for the provision conflicts (e.g., between wood production, landscape and of multiple ES is not an easy task. nature conservation, recreation and related stakeholders, Nevertheless, some general insights can be identified, etc.) [12]. Furthermore, societal preferences and values some similar to those identified for other forest regions (e.g., can change very quickly, significantly altering the social temperate forests, boreal forests etc.), others which instead environment for forest management [143, 144]. are peculiar to the specific Mediterranean situation. Manag- A shift in the management paradigm is therefore neces- ing Mediterranean forests is a perfect example of the adagio sary. Mediterranean forests show many of the character- “think globally, act locally”. Globally, there is the urgency istics of complex adaptive systems [17] and are the result of guaranteeing forest resilience and adaptive capacity in of co-evolutionary processes between cultivation and face of an uncertain future both in the environmental and adaptation at various scales [18, 145]. This makes them socio-economic conditions, and the need for considering perfect examples of complex socio-ecological systems stakeholder perceptions and expectations as inevitable driv- [146] where management must strive to maintain overall ers. On the local level, Mediterranean forests face two main resilience not only from an ecological point of view but constraints: water limitation and fire risk, both of which are also taking into account the interacting social systems. In increasing due to climate change and socio-economic driven this context, a flexible approach is needed for capturing the land use changes. information and insights necessary to manage Mediterra- Mediterranean forests will probably undergo substan- nean forests not only for their instrumental value, but also •• tially stronger water limitations by the end of the twenty- for their biocultural [52 ] and intrinsic value [12], thus first century [123 ]. This points out the need for devising accepting the challenge coming from the development of forest management approaches that can promote a syn- an ethic of nature which is currently being debated in a ergy between fire prevention and water management both historical and evolutionary perspective of forest research •• at the stand and landscape scale, especially where land [147 ]. This also requires abandoning the use of the term abandonment is favouring a densification of forest stands. “service” when dealing with forest ecosystems, which This can produce further synergies with biodiversity con- should not be valued only for the services they provide servation and the development of circular bioeconomy as to humans. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 249 On the operational level, it is still unclear how fast the overcoming the ecosystem service approach. This implies transition from provisioning to multifunctionality is affect- an adaptable, flexible management and planning approach ing silvicultural and forest regulation methods applied in that sustains self-organization, adaptive capacity, and overall everyday practice. Although this question was outside the resilience of Mediterranean forests. scope of our review, we believe that further studies are This means promoting functionally diverse forests and needed to identify progress and trends in silvicultural meth- landscapes, which can act as insurance for the maintenance ods and management approaches actually used in multifunc- of key ecosystem functions such as, e.g., water conserva- tional forest management in the Mediterranean area, and on tion and regulation, carbon storage, resilience against distur- ways to introduce some level of management in new Medi- bances (fire, drought), and ecosystem productivity. terranean forests resulting from land abandonment. It can be Traditional Mediterranean forest landscapes, which are expected that Mediterranean forest management will become the product of a very long co-evolution of society and nature, more often part of overall landscape planning, where the should be maintained not only for their cultural and histori- conservation, restoration, or creation of mixed agro-silvo- cal importance, but also because they can contribute to keep- pastoral landscape mosaics serve multiple goals of resource ing more options open for adaptation to future climate and provisioning, biodiversity conservation, heritage and eco- other global changes. Human presence and involvement in •• tourism, and crucially, fire resilience [60 ], in a context Mediterranean forest landscapes is a safeguard against the of global change. Therefore, it is necessary to develop flex- negative consequences of rural abandonment: both research ible management strategies to promote adaptation to future and policymakers should contribute to finding sustainable changes [148] and the role of forests in providing important solutions for maintaining economically and environmentally services that can help people adapt to climate variability viable livelihoods in these precious environments. and change [149]. Finally, research on managing Mediterranean forests for Finally, research progress in managing Mediterranean multiple functions and benefits for the present and the future forests will also depend on the research potential of the requires moving toward a transdisciplinary approach, where countries facing the Mediterranean, and on the possibility of problems are approached from a diversity of points of view overcoming the unequal distribution of resources and infra- and where extended peer communities are involved not only structures which characterizes them [150]; specifically, for - in dissemination of research results, but also in the research est management research in the Mediterranean area should process itself. build on long-term research partnerships and networking Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- involving the use of participatory research and research tary material available at https://doi. or g/10. 1007/ s40725- 022- 00167-w . capacity building [151]. Acknowledgements We thank two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments which helped us improve the earlier version of Conclusions this paper. Funding Open access funding provided by Università degli Studi di Our review highlights that there are still many gaps in the Firenze within the CRUI-CARE Agreement. This work was funded by scientific literature regarding the interactions between ES the European Forest Institute Mediterranean Facility in support of a and drivers of change in Mediterranean forests, providing Mediterranean Forest Research Agenda 2030. opportunities for further research on synergies and/or trade- offs between ES in relation to management. Declarations From a conceptual point of view, research on multi- functionality of Mediterranean forests is still mostly con- Conflict of Interest Susanna Nocentini, Davide Travaglini, and Bart Muys declare that they have no conflict of interest. ceived following an ES-oriented approach, which is based on a deterministic view and leads to managing forests so Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent This article does not as to create the structure and composition that best meet contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any the desired output in terms of benefits for humans. The risk of the authors. of this approach is that it intrinsically reduces the ability of forest ecosystems to adapt to future, often unexpected Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- changes, while at the same time missing the connection with tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long the complexity and unpredictability of the socio-economic as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, environment. provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes There is therefore the need for a shift to a new para- were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated digm which considers Mediterranean forests as complex otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in adaptive systems and recognizes also their intrinsic value, 1 3 250 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not 8.• van der Plas F, Ratcliffe S, Ruiz ‐Benito P, Scherer‐Lorenzen permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will M, Verheyen K, Wirth C, Zavala MA, Ampoorter E, Baeten L, need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a Barbaro L, Bastias C, Bauhus J, Benavides R, Benneter A, Bonal copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . 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Publisher: Springer Journals
Copyright: Copyright © The Author(s) 2022. corrected publication 2022
eISSN: 2198-6436
DOI: 10.1007/s40725-022-00167-w
Publisher site: See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

Purpose of Review Forests provide multiple ecosystem services (ES) to society, and the demand for ES is growing at the global level. However, how to manage forests for the provision of multiple and sometimes conflicting services is a complex and still unresolved issue. In this study, we reviewed the scientific literature for the period 2010–2020 dealing with forest management and multiple ES in Mediterranean forests, with the aim of (1) outlining the progress in research, (2) identify- ing knowledge gaps and research needs, and (3) discussing management approaches considering multiple ES. The selected literature was analyzed considering different aspects of multiple ES (e.g., drivers of changes, modeling approaches, trade- offs, and synergies). Recent Findings Our results show that wood production is still one of the main management objectives, with an increasing attention toward non wood forest products. Carbon sequestration and biodiversity were the most investigated regulating func- tions, but also specific aspects are gaining attention (e.g., lichens for microclimate regulation). Changes in stand structure and density, the impact of coppice vs. high forest, and the effect of management practices vs. abandonment were considered as drivers of change at the stand/management unit scale, while the impact of climate changes and disturbances were considered at the landscape/regional scale using modeling. Summary Despite the progress made in the last decade, our review highlights that further research is needed to fill the gaps in the scientific literature regarding how forest management influences the provision of multiple ES in the Mediterranean region. From a conceptual point of view, there is the need for a shift to a new paradigm based on an adaptable, flexible management, and planning approach to sustain self-organization, adaptive capacity, and overall resilience of Mediterra- nean forests, overcoming the ecosystem “service” approach; operatively, research should move toward a transdisciplinary approach, which considers problems from a diversity of points of view and involves extended peer communities not only in the dissemination of research results, but also in the research process itself. Keywords Forest functions · MFRA · Multi-functional forests · Multi-objective forest management · Multifunctionality · Trade-offs · Synergies Introduction This article is part of the Topical Collection on Forest Management The current demand for multiple goods and benefits from * Davide Travaglini forests, collectively termed “ecosystem services” (ES) davide.travaglini@unifi.it [1], is growing rapidly at the global level, but uncertainty Susanna Nocentini remains as to how to manage ecosystems for the provi- susanna.nocentini@unifi.it sion of multiple, and sometimes conflicting, services [2 ]. Bart Muys According to Manning et al. [3 ], multifunctionality has bart.muys@kuleuven.be been defined only broadly as “the simultaneous provision Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment of multiple functions” [4] and “the potential of landscapes and Forestry, University of Florence, San Bonaventura 13, to supply multiple benefits to society” [5 ], but underly- 50145 Florence, Italy ing these seemingly simple definitions are complex and Division of Forest, Nature and Landscape, KU Leuven, unresolved issues regarding the conceptualization and Celestijnenlaan 200E box 2411, 3001 Leuven, Belgium Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 230 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 measurement of multifunctionality [4–7, 8 ], and the fact After a synopsis of the multifunctional role of Mediter- that many scientists start from the simplified assumption ranean forests (“The multifunctional role of Mediterranean that ES do not have significant and variable relationships forests” section) and a methodological section reporting with one another [9]. how the literature survey was carried out (“Materials and Although the importance of the multiple functions and methods” section), we present the results of the literature the related ES that forests provide is being increasingly analysis considering different aspect of multiple ES (e.g., recognized [10], forests continue to be managed in many ES indicators, drivers of change, modeling approaches, for- cases through conventional means with single or few objec- est types, trade-offs and synergies; “Research progress in tives, which often fail to address the multiple functions of managing Mediterranean forests for multiple ecosystem forests, and are therefore unable to adapt to the challenges services” section), and finally discuss the results and point increasingly faced by forests. Managing a forest to maxi- out the knowledge gaps in the light of recent developments mize provision of a service (or set of services) may lead to a in forest management approaches in Mediterranean forests less resilient and more vulnerable system, not only from the (“Discussion” section). ecological but also from a socio-economic and governance perspective [11, 12]. This is also the case in the Mediterranean region, where The Multifunctional Role of Mediterranean despite the marked multifunctionality of forests in provid- Forests ing valuable goods and services to society, silviculture and forest planning approaches, with few exceptions, have been Mediterranean forests are part of a landscape mosaic that wood-based [13]. reflects interactions between variable climatic and geomor - In 2000, Scarascia-Mugnozza et al. [14] identified for - phological conditions, regional landforms and human influ- est multifunctionality and its scaling aspects as important ence [14, 16, 17]. The very long history of human-induced knowledge gaps on the way to sustainable management of changes has caused a strong reduction of forest area in the Mediterranean forests. A decade later, the Mediterranean Mediterranean region [18], and it has been estimated that Forest Research Agenda [15], based on a consultation pro- by mid-twentieth century, less than 15% of the “potential” cess that involved a large number of institutions in 15 Medi- Mediterranean forest vegetation remained [19]. This trend terranean countries and representing a common vision on has changed in the last decades, and according to the Global the challenges of Mediterranean forests for the 2010–2020 Forest Resources Assessment the total forest area estimated decade, pointed out the importance of identifying forest in 2015 in Mediterranean countries (88 million ha, [20]) management options for ensuring the sustainable produc- has been increasing since 1990, largely the result of natu- tion of multiple goods and services in a changing environ- ral forest expansion, and, to a minor degree, reforestation, ment. Specifically, the 2010–2020 Mediterranean Forest with deforestation remaining at a low level of 0.05 percent/ Research Agenda identified, among others, the following year [20]. In 2015, forests occupied 10% of the total area of key challenges: (a) develop tools and methods to predict the Mediterranean countries, but this proportion varies greatly effects of forest management on multiple forest goods and between the different countries (e.g., 6% in Israel, 37% in services, and related resources; (b) design new forest man- Spain, 61% in Slovenia). However, it is worth noting that agement models that address the multifunctionality of Medi- part of the forest expansion reported for Mediterranean terranean forests in an integrated stand-to-landscape scale; countries has actually taken place outside the Mediterranean and (c) develop user-friendly forest landscape decision sup- region, such as the Euro-Siberian ecoregions of northern port systems to capture the preferences of key stakeholders Spain or France. regarding forest goods and services, and be able to optimize Natural forest expansion is taking place mostly on aban- forest management to ensure the provision of these goods doned agricultural land: land abandonment is increasing in and services. Expected outputs of research efforts for the the Mediterranean Basin, mainly in its northern rim respect decade were new silviculture models and planning models to North African countries [21–23], especially in mountain for addressing multiple objectives and tools for optimizing areas [24], often altering the century long dynamic equilib- multi-objective forest management and analyzing the trade- rium of Mediterranean landscapes [25]. offs between various forest functions and conflicting goals. Forests in the Mediterranean countries have been provid- In this paper, we review the scientific literature of the ing multiple goods and benefits, which are crucial for the last decade specifically dealing with forest management and socio-economic development of rural areas, as well as for multiple ES in Mediterranean forests, with the aim of (1) the well-being of the urban populations of the region [13]. outlining the progress in research, (2) identifying knowledge Mediterranean forests provide provisioning, regulating, gaps and research needs, and (3) discussing management and cultural ES, all of them facilitated by supporting ser- approaches considering multiple ES. vices ensuring the vital ecosystem functions and processes 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 231 (Fig. 1), as classified according to the Millennium Eco- cover, rooting, and organic matter build-up, has long been system Assessment [1]. Among the provisioning services, acknowledged: as early as the fifteenth–sixteenth centuries, wood forest products, such as timber and firewood, have forest management in countries such as Catalonia and the been and are still important, but non-wood forest products Republic of Venice aimed primarily at protecting rural wel- such as resins can sometimes be more important. Particu- fare and conserving soil and water, and only secondarily at larly food products, like mushrooms, game, nuts, and herbs, timber production [13, 29]. Using the total economic value are actively collected from many Mediterranean forests, framework, Croitoru [29] estimated that in many countries and often represent an economic value larger than the har- in the Mediterranean region, the single most valuable forest vested wood products [26, 27 ]. It is therefore necessary to benefit is that deriving from watershed protection, account- optimize management while considering trade-offs between ing for more than 50% of total economic value (e.g., in wood production and, e.g., mushrooms [28 ]. But perhaps Syria, Greece and Italy). most important of all are the public services and externali- In the fragile Mediterranean environment, water con- ties provided by Mediterranean forests [29]. For regulating servation is particularly important. The Mediterranean services, these forests play a fundamental role in soil pro- region is recurrently confronted with water scarcity due to tection, watershed management, climate change mitigation, both climatic factors (limited and irregular rainfall, which and microclimate amelioration [13]. Finally, they also have is expected to further decrease with climate change), and a large importance in providing cultural ES. In addition to social factors (e.g., changes in land use with the expansion their increasing recreational value, Mediterranean forests are of irrigated agriculture; unsustainable water consumption often cultural landscapes full of legacies of former human especially in growing urban areas) [33, 34]. Dryland for- land use and land management practices [30]. These herit- ests have prominent features like increased water infiltration age values merit particular management attention because contributing to water conservation [35]. On the other hand, of their unique historical and archeological importance [31, increasing forest cover may also increase evapotranspiration 32]. and decrease water discharge to rivers, which offers options The millennia long process of deforestation in the Medi- for more water use efficient forest management [33]. It also terranean region has caused and is still causing problems for needs to be emphasized that evapotranspiration by forests is soil conservation and forest hydrology. The destruction of not to be considered as water loss, as this water is recycled the forest cover started in prehistoric times with the trans- into rain elsewhere [36]. formation of forests into agricultural land and the intensive Mediterranean forests are a unique world natural herit- use of forests for grazing or various systems of shifting age in terms of biological diversity [15]. The Mediterranean cultivation. The role of Mediterranean forests in soil con- Basin is one of the world’s major centres for plant diversity servation and watershed protection, mainly through canopy and one of the richest in endemism [37, 38]; this diversity Fig. 1 Graphical representation of the relationships between Mediterranean forests, main drivers of change and ecosystem services 1 3 232 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 is also the consequence of the interaction between environ- systems that have been characterizing many Mediterra- •• mental conditions and human activity which has produced a nean areas [52 ]. Recreation has always been a signifi- great variety of forest types. According to Blondel [18], the cant activity in the Mediterranean region, varying widely apparent resilience of recent Mediterranean ecosystems is across countries; it is very important in the northern Medi- the result of the dynamic coexistence of human and natural terranean and its importance is likely to grow throughout living systems with positive and negative feedback cycles the region [29]. Forest areas are also a fundamental asset operating for long periods at local or regional levels. As a for the esthetic appreciation of rural landscapes [55, 56]. consequence of early deforestation, only little old growth Although forests in the Mediterranean area are still or ancient Mediterranean forests remain, which means that expanding, their ability to provide all these goods and ser- biodiversity features related to primary forests are largely vices will become increasingly affected by environmental lost [39–41]. On the other hand, a large share of Mediter- and social changes. ranean forest biodiversity, especially herbaceous species and Climate change is emerging as the primary driver of associated insects, is related to various levels of disturbance, environmental change in the region [47, 57]. The Medi- including fire and herbivory by livestock, as, e.g., in Medi- terranean has been identified as one of the most reactive terranean heath ecosystems [42, 43], and tends to disappear regions to climate change and defined as a major hotspot after dense afforestation or land abandonment. As a conse- [58, 59]. The primary projected impacts of climate change quence, safeguarding the biodiversity of the Mediterranean on the natural environment and consequently on forests forest faces a complex challenge of managing both natural in the Mediterranean are rapid change in the water cycle and human-induced disturbance regimes [31, 39, 44]. due to increased evaporation and lower precipitation; a Mediterranean forests contribute to carbon storage and decrease in soil water storage capacity (due to changes in sequestration even if the uncertainty related to the assess- porosity resulting from a change in temperatures, mak- ment in the various countries is high, and this indirect ben- ing soils drier) and thus an acceleration of desertification efit (e.g., regulation of global climate) is not assessed in already underway by previous overexploitation and deple- a systematic way and often remains site-specific [45]. The tion of soils; a northward or altitudinal shift in altitude of importance of Mediterranean forests in carbon sequestra- terrestrial biodiversity (animals and plants); and extinction tion is thus quite variable and is affected by the general of the most climate-sensitive or least mobile species and lower productivity of Mediterranean systems in compari- colonization by new species [47, 57]. son to northern- or central-European ecosystems [46]. For- It is anticipated that demographic evolution will be another ests in northern Mediterranean countries sequester about major driver of Mediterranean forest ecosystem change in the 0.01–1.08 t C/ha annually [29]. Over the past 25 years, near future [47], with most of the population growth occur- growing stock in Mediterranean forests has increased by 137 ring in southern and eastern countries, particularly in urban million m per year. The reasons for growing stock accumu- and coastal areas. Increased population numbers may inten- lation in Mediterranean forests are many and complex, but sify pressure on the resources provided by forests, in terms land abandonment and reduction of harvest levels are the of resource use, including drinking and irrigation water, and principal ones [47]. recreational use [47]. A related major change is that of rural Mediterranean forests also contribute to air quality regu- exodus and land abandonment, which has accelerated in the lation, noise reduction, and have a cooling effect [47], all northern rim of the Mediterranean since the 1970s, while it benefits which are particularly important for forests around has increased since the 2000s in the Eastern Mediterranean, urban areas [48–51]. particularly Turkey, and might get triggered in the southern Mediterranean forests have a very important role in Mediterranean in the decades to come. This large-scale land- providing what have been collectively termed “cultural scape transformation holds opportunities and risks for the •• ecosystem services”, e.g., opportunities for tourism and Mediterranean forest [60 ]. Opportunities in the sense that recreational activities; appreciation of natural scenery; as the forest area increases, the potential provision of associ- inspiration for culture, art and design; sense of place and ated ES also increases. It is as well a massive phenomenon of belonging; spiritual and religious inspiration; education; rewilding, where large areas get depopulated, and, e.g., rare and science [1]. Mediterranean forests contribute to the larger mammals, like wolves, bears, and others, are able to cultural landscapes that have been shaped by centuries of re-establish. There are also increased opportunities of wood •• human–environment interactions [52 ]. The co-evolution provisioning, e.g., for engineered timber, biorefinery, or bio- between forest ecosystems and the related human popula- energy for local use, which stay so far largely untapped due to tions in terms of domestication (of trees, ecosystems and mobilization challenges [61], but which should be carefully landscapes [53]) have resulted in forests (domestic forests, evaluated in relation to the multiple functions that these new or or rural forests [54]), which can be considered as biocul- aging forests can provide. On the other hand, the accumulation tural, or socio-ecological products of the agroforestry 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 233 of biomass over large contiguous landscapes can increase the The large majority of the selected documents emerging •• risk of megafires [62 ]. from our literature survey were research papers (82%), fol- Thus, forest management in the Mediterranean faces a lowed by literature reviews and general discussions (18%) substantial challenge if the capacity of forests to provide the on various aspects of ES provided by Mediterranean forests. multiple and valued ecological goods and services is to be Most of the research papers (91%) come from the north- maintained in the future. western countries of the Mediterranean basin (Spain, Italy, Portugal, and France), while only 9% are from the south and Materials and Methods south-eastern countries of the Mediterranean basin (Israel, Tunisia, Turkey). To identify research progress and knowledge gaps, we searched Scopus and Web of Science databases for all types Scale of Application of documents that were explicitly related to forest management and ES in the Mediterranean area for the period 2010–2020. Research papers considered different scale levels using vari- The literature survey was carried out in December 2020 using ous approaches. At the stand or management unit level (32% the following terms in the combined field of title, abstract, and of the selected documents), analyses were based on experi- key words: (“forest management” AND Mediterranean AND mental field data or inventory data [63– 66, 67 , 68–70] or service) OR (“forest management” AND Mediterranean AND retrospective studies based on archives [71]. At larger scale multi). A total of 107 publications satisfied this conditional levels, the impact of forest management on the provision of search, which were reduced to 97 publications after removing multiple ES was more often analyzed through stakeholder duplicate documents found on both databases. Then, we read perception [72], expert opinion [73, 74] or modeling, typi- in full the documents to assess their relevance for the scope cally at the landscape or regional scale (43% of the selected of our review using the following criteria: (1) the research documents) [75, 76]. For their growing importance, we will must be related to forests in the Mediterranean basin, (2) the examine the methodological aspects of modeling approaches research must be related to the forest management context, in a separate section (Modeling Approaches). and (3) at least one ES and the relationships with forest man- agement must be considered. Documents that considered land use management but did not explicitly use forest management Ecosystem Services and Indicators criteria to assess ES were not considered; economic evaluation of ES was out of the scope of our review. In order to get a com- Although title, keywords, and/or abstract contained the term plete picture of research on forest management and multiple “multiple” referred to ES or functions, our results showed ES in the Mediterranean area in the 2010–2020 period, we that only a relatively limited number of documents actually then examined the literature referenced in the selected docu- considered the impact of forest management on more than ments, using a snowball approach and the criteria listed above, one ES. Most of the publications (77%) mentioned one, two, leading to a final set of 56 documents (Online Resource 1) that or three ES, rarely more than three (23%). were used for analysis. Twenty different ES were considered among provision- Selected documents were analyzed to extract the follow- ing (8 ES), regulating (8 ES), and cultural (4 ES) services ing information: (Fig. 2). While wood production is still one of the main management objectives in Mediterranean forests, in the last Scale/scope of research (stand, landscape, general, etc.); decade the focus has increasingly shifted towards impact Considered ES and indicators; of management on other aspects of forest ecosystems. Our Drivers of change in ES provisioning; review highlighted an increasing attention towards specific Modeling approaches; products which have a relevant socio-economic role in the Forest types; Mediterranean context, such as the production of cork [25, Interactions between ES and trade-offs and synergies. 68, 77], pine nuts [75, 78], fungi (edible [63, 65, 67 , 79]; for biobased innovations [80]), pine honeydew honey [81], •• • and water [25, 64, 68, 82 , 83 ]. Interestingly, new terms Research Progress in Managing referring to specific objective/ES oriented silviculture have Mediterranean Forests for Multiple been coined, such as mycosilviculture [80], hydrology-ori- Ecosystem Services ented silviculture [64], water-yield silviculture [64]. Climate regulation (carbon sequestration) and biodi- In the last decade, there has been a growing research interest versity (generic), among regulating functions, were the towards the impact of forest management on the provision most frequently investigated in relation to other ES, but of multiple ES from Mediterranean forests. also specific aspects are gaining attention such as, e.g., 1 3 234 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 Fig. 2 Ecosystem services considered in the selected docu- ments and number of times that each service was considered (C = cultural service, P = provi- sioning service, R = regulating service) the importance of lichen communities for microclimate Drivers of Change regulation in Mediterranean forest and woodland ecosys- tems [66, 84 ]. The majority of the studies considered forest management Cultural services such as recreation, ecotourism, sports, as the only driver of change in multiple ES provision (72%), •• and esthetic values were less investigated [73, 82 ]. while the remaining studies considered no more than three A great variety of indicators/parameters have been used drivers. Regarding the studies based on multiple drivers, to quantify forest response in terms of the considered ES forest management was most often combined with climate (Table 1). As an example, impact on carbon cycle, related change (20%) and to a lesser extent with fire (4%); few stud- to climate regulation, has been measured in terms of car- ies (4%) analyzed the combined effect of climate change and bon stored in above ground biomass [68, 75, 77], in above biodiversity with management or socio-economic variables. •• ground and below ground biomass [76, 82 , 85], annual At the stand/management unit scale, changes in stand wood volume increment [69], carbon sequestration rate vs structure and density are the main management features on site carbon stock [78], overall wood production, i.e., considered as drivers of change in the provision of multiple considering both carbon stored in the forest compartments ES from Mediterranean forests [63, 68, 69, 71, 75, 77]. and carbon fixed in removed wood [78], biomass growth Other drivers are the impact of coppice vs. high for- of trees, and shrubs [83 ]. Another example, biodiversity • est [84 , 86] and the effect of traditional management vs. response has been quantified using the number of tree abandonment of traditional practices, including grazing, in species [69], floristic diversity [69], lichen communities • agro-silvo-pastoral systems [25, 66, 83 ]. The impact of cli- [84 ], structural diversity and number of “large” trees mate (climate change scenarios [75]) and disturbances, such [71], habitat diversity and endangered species [25], and as fire [86], were more often considered at the landscape/ tree micro-habitats [70]. regional scale using modeling approaches. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 235 Table 1 Examples of indicators used in the selected documents to assess ecosystem services in the Mediterranean forests Ecosystem service Indicator Units Method Reference Provisioning Cork Cork supply kg Model-based [77, 152] −1 kg ha Model-based [91, 153] −1 −1 Annual increment cork kg ha year Model-based [68] mass −1 −1 •• •• Edible mushroom Mushroom production kg ha year Model-based [63, 82 , 88 , 154] in one year −1 Mushroom productionkg ha Field data [65, 67 ] Fodder Annual fodder produc- Annual FU Model-based [68] tion −2 Forage for goats and kcal m Literature data [119] forage for cattle Grazing FU Model-based [153] Genetic resources Seed dispersal ha Model-based [155] −1 −1 Honey Annual honey produc-kg ha year Literature data [81] tion Index based on flower Score (0–10) Model-based [119] counts in the plots −1 −1 Pine nut Annual cone produc-kg ha year Model-based [75, 156] tion −1 −1 kg tree year Model-based [94] −2 −1 •• •• Water Water exported yearly l m year Model-based [82 , 88 ] by surface runoff or deep drainage into the water table 3 −1 −1 Annual water m ha year Model-based [68, 83 ] −1 Water rechargemm year Model-based [157, 158] −1 −1 Water quality based on kg ha year Model-based [159] nitrate yield −1 −1 •• Wood Wood production per t ha year Official statistics [82 ] year 3 −1 −1 •• m ha year Model-based [71, 81, 88 , 156] 3 −1 Wood production m ha Field data Model-based [69, 71, 76, 87, 91, 158, 160] −1 t ha Field data [70] Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] to fulfil different functions in the sampling point Timber yield m Model-based [77] 3 −1 −1 Annual increment m ha year Model-based [75] Regulation Biodiversity Grassland habitat % Model-based [86] cover −1 Tree microhabitatsn ha Field data [70] 3 −1 −1 •• Habitat for biodiversity m ha year Model-based [88 ] (deadwood) Habitat conservation Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] (capacity of forest type to fulfil differ - ent functions in the sampling point) −2 Density of geophyte, n m Model-based [119] density of flowers, −2 Density of fleshy fruitskcal m Model-based [119] 1 3 236 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 Table 1 (continued) Ecosystem service Indicator Units Method Reference Tree species diversity – Shannon index, Field [69] data n Model-based [161] Floristic diversity – Shannon Index, Field [69] data Reptiles n Model-based [155] Reptile (species rich- n Model-based [157] ness) Bird (species richness) n Model-based [157] −1 Bird species (density)n ha Model-based [162] Vertebrate (species ha Model-based [163] distribution) Photosynthetic per- – Chlorophyll a fluo- [84 ] formances by forest rescence emission, macrolichens Field data Stand structure diver- – Model-based [71] sity indices Ecosystem diversity – Model-based [160] (pattern analysis) Climate regulation Carbon in above kg Model-based [77, 91] ground biomass −1 kg ha Model-based [75, 119, 153] −1 Mg ha Model-based [68, 86, 152] t Model-based [157] CO2eq −1 −1 •• • •• Carbon in above t ha year Model-based [82 , 83 , 88 , 160] and below ground biomass −1 kg ha Model-based [164] −1 Carbon in above Mg ha Model-based [76, 87] ground and below ground biomass, dead organic matter, and soil organic carbon −1 −1 Carbon in above and t ha year Field data [69] CO2eq below ground bio- mass derived from annual increment of tree volume −2 −1 Gross primary produc- kg C·m year Model-based [165] tion and soil respira- tion −2 Vegetation carbon and kg C·m Model-based [165] soil organic carbon Environmental protec- Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] tion to fulfil different functions in the sampling point •• Riparian forest cover % Map-based [82 ] around watercourses considering a buffer zone of 25 m around •• Erosion control Forest cover of areas % Map-based [82 ] with a slope higher than 30% 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 237 Table 1 (continued) Ecosystem service Indicator Units Method Reference −1 •• Total amount of soil t ha Model-based [88 ] erosion avoided in each plot, compared to the potential soil erosion that could occur in absence of vegetation Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] to fulfil different functions in the sampling point 3 −1 Sediment retention m ha Model-based [153] −1 −1 Soil loss per unit of t ha year Model-based [159] area per unit of time −1 •• Soil fertility Amount of organic t ha Model-based [82 ] carbon in the soil −2 −1 •• Water regulation Sum of canopy water l m year Model-based [82 ] storage capacity and soil water holding capacity −2 Water holding capacity mg HO cm Field and laboratory [84 ] by forest macroli- data chens −1 Deep percolation, mm year Model-based [165] evapotranspiration, interception, runoff, soil evaporation, stemflow, transpira- tion Soil microclimate Lichens, bryophytes % soil covered by Field data [66] regulation and cyanobacteria biocrusts living on topsoil (biocrusts) −1 Mechanical stability of Average slenderness H D Field data [69] the forest system ratio of dominant trees −1 −1 •• Cultural Experiential use Animal species obser- N° obs. ha year Other statistics [82 ] vations introduced on web portal •• Landscape conserva- Surface of protected % Map-based [82 ] tion areas included in the Natura 2000 Network Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] to fulfil different functions in the sampling point −1 •• Physical use Routes recorded and N° tracks ha Other statistics [82 ] introduced by users using app and web portal −1 •• Recreational use Number of beds N° places ha Official statistics [82 ] in rural tourism establishments per municipality Capacity of forest type Score (0–10) Expert opinion [73] to fulfil different functions in the sampling point 1 3 238 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 Table 1 (continued) Ecosystem service Indicator Units Method Reference Monetary quantifica- € Model-based [160] tion of touristic and recreational value Decrease in annual ha Model-based [161] burned area due to forest fires A decision support system (DSS) was developed for large Modeling Approaches scale applications to assess trade-offs between ecosystem management planning [77]. The DSS SADfLOR integrates Various research papers used modeling approaches for the vegetation dynamic model SUBER v. 4.0 [90] with a multiple forest ES assessment at the stand, landscape, or trade-off analysis functionality between criteria. The trade- regional scale. Most of these studies used forest modeling off analysis is based on the Pareto Frontier approach [91], to assess both forest multifunctionality and the influence • which includes multi-objective linear model building func- of forest management [73, 76, 77, 83 , 87] and other driv- •• tionalities and an interactive decision map building func- ers/disturbances (e.g., climate change, fires [75, 82 , 86, •• tionality to analyze trade-offs between the different criteria. 88 ]) on ES. Economic indicators such as the net present value are also Examples of forest models used to assess the relation- calculated based on prices and operational costs from sta- ships between multiple ES (provisioning, regulation, and tistical data. cultural services), forest management, and other drivers The hybrid forest patch model PICUS was specifically of change in different forest types in the Mediterranean is developed for Pinus pinea [92–94]. It allows to assess the reported in Table 2. More information on scenarios and influence of forest management scenarios and of climate models used to evaluate ES in the Mediterranean can be •• change projections on stand development and on the related found in Morán-Ordóñez et al. [89 ]. ES. PICUS includes 3D gap model [95], process-based pro- Among the research papers that investigated the influ- duction model, management module, and cone and nut pro- ence of forest management on ES, the majority of these duction module. It provides a projection of stand dynamics studies (70%) used non-spatial indices or growth models under simulated management prescriptions and climate con- that simulate forest dynamics at plot scale, while others ditions, including single tree information such as diameter, (30%) used forest models for mapping ES. height, and volume [75]. The Index of Importance of Function and the Capability The process-based forest model GOTILWA (Growth Of of Function Fulfilment Index (IFF-CFFI) were proposed to Trees Is Limited by WAter) is a stand level ecophysiological assess the forest multifunctionality at the landscape scale, model that models forest growth as a function of climate, and to calculate the capability of forest management sys- soil, and other environmental and management factors [96]. tems to fulfil different forest functions [73]. The model It is parameterized for a range of Mediterranean tree spe- requires the stratification of the forests into forest types cies. In a more recent version called GOTILWA + [97, 98], and the assessment of multifunctionality on field plots by it developed into a forest management optimization tool by estimating the capacity of each forest type to fulfil for - linking the model with a multiple particle swarm algorithm, est functions. A score ranging from 0 (for less important which allows to find the optimal forest management for sev - function) to 10 (for the most prevalent function) is used eral ES simultaneously, taking into account the trade-offs to calculate the Index of Importance of Function for each between them. Considered ES are wood production, water function. Field plots are aggregated according to manage- use efficiency, fire risk and net present value, and considered ment systems and forest types, and then compared with management practices are rotation length, age of first thin- three indicators of multifunctionality: average number of ning, thinning frequency, and thinning intensity. functions fulfilled by each forest type, average value of A model to assess future trade-offs and synergies each function associated to a forest type, and mean total between multiple ES under climate change scenarios and value of all functions referred to each forest type. The management options reflecting different EU forest policy Capability of Function Fulfilment Index is calculated as •• scenarios was proposed by [88 ]. These authors used the mean of the product between Index of Importance of the process-based model SORTIE-ND [99, 100] to simu- Function and capability of the management system to fulfil late forest dynamics at plot level under each scenario and the function of all plots related to the forest type. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 239 1 3 Table 2 Examples of forest models used in the selected documents to assess multiple ecosystem services and their relationships with forest management and other drivers of change in different forest types in the Mediterranean (L = landscape scale, MU = management unit/stand scale; N = national scale, R = regional scale, n.c. = not considered) Model name Country Scenario map Scale Time period Forest type Ecosystem services Drivers of Trade-offs and Reference (years) change synergies Provisioning Regulating Cultural LURE France Yes L 200 Silver fir Genetic Biodiversity n.c Forest manage- No [155] resources ment strategies (traditional forest manage- ment, genetic forest manage- ment) IIF-CFFI Italy No L 10–30 Oak Wood production Biodiversity Landscape con- Forest manage- No [73] Environmental servation ment regimes protection Recreational use (coppice and Erosion control high forest) GOTILWA Spain No MU 200 Pine, Evergreen Wood production Climate regula- Fire risk Forest manage- Trade-offs [97] oak tion ment regimes analysis Water use effi- (Rotation ciency length, fre- quency and intensity of thinning) Climate Change scenario Soil LANDIS-II Italy Yes L 150 Grassland n.c Biodiversity n.c Forest manage- No [86] Oak Climate regula- ment prescrip- Pine tion tions (thinning, coppicing, elimination of encroach- ing vegetation on non-forest areas) Climate change Fire PICUS Spain No L 120 Pine Cone production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- No [75] Wood production tion ment regimes (wood produc- tion, cone production, wood and cone production) Climate change 240 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 1 3 Table 2 (continued) Model name Country Scenario map Scale Time period Forest type Ecosystem services Drivers of Trade-offs and Reference (years) change synergies Provisioning Regulating Cultural PINEA2 Spain No MU 100 Pine Cone production n.c n.c Forest manage- No [156] Wood production ment scenarios (wood produc- tion, cone production, wood and cone production) SUBER Portugal No L 90 Oak Cork production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- No [152] tion ment regimes (business-as- usual, adaptive management) Climate Change scenario SADfLOR Portugal No R 50 Oak Cork production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs [77] Wood production tion ment prescrip- analysis tions (planting density, cork extraction periodic- ity, thinning interval) – Portugal Yes N 40 Different forest Water provision- Erosion control n.c Forest manage- No [159] types ing (water ment scenarios quality) (as set up by Portuguese regulations) MIMOSE Italy Yes R 20 Different forest Wood production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs [76, 87] types tion ment regimes analysis (coppice, coppice in conversion to high forest, and high forest) Management restrictions (e.g., lengthen- ing rotation periods, reduc- ing harvesting intensity) Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 241 1 3 Table 2 (continued) Model name Country Scenario map Scale Time period Forest type Ecosystem services Drivers of Trade-offs and Reference (years) change synergies Provisioning Regulating Cultural – Spain No R 100 Pine n.c Biodiversity Decrise in Forest manage- No [161] burned area ment (no due to forest management, fires thinning and scrub clearing) – Spain No L 100 Pine Water provision- n.c n.c Forest manage- No [158] ing ment regimes Wood production (no manage- ment, thinning) – Spain No MU 100 Pine Wood production Biodiversity n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs [71] ment (from analysis even-aged structure to multi-aged structure) TOOFES Italy Yes MU 50–210 Silver fir Wood production Biodiversity Recreational use Forest manage- Trade-offs [160] Climate regula- ment prescrip- analysis tion tions (thinning and final felling) – Italy Yes MU n.c Oak Cork production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- No [68] Fodder produc- tion ment (alterna- tion tive silvicul- Water provision- tural options) ing •• – Spain Yes R Different time Different forest Edible mush- Climate regula- Experiential use Socioeconomic Trade-offs and [82 ] period depend- types rooms produc- tion Landscape con- variables synergies ing on ESs tion Erosion control servation Climatic vari- analysis Water provision- Flood protection Physical use ables ing Soil fertility Recreational use Biodiversity Wood production Water regulation variables Spain No MU 50 Oak n.c Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs [165] tion Water ment (no analysis regulation management, thinning and scrub clearing) EEFMD Spain Yes R 90 Oak Water provision- Climate regula- n.c Forest man- Trade-offs [83 ] Pine ing tion agement is analysis abandoned or is continued 242 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 1 3 Table 2 (continued) Model name Country Scenario map Scale Time period Forest type Ecosystem services Drivers of Trade-offs and Reference (years) change synergies Provisioning Regulating Cultural – Tunisia Yes L n.c Oak Cork production Climate regula- n.c Forest manage- No [153] Fodder produc- tion ment (thinning tion Erosion control and afforesta- tion of the shrub land) •• SORTIE-ND Spain No L 99 Pine Wood production Biodiversity n.c Forest manage- Trade-offs and [88 ] Edible mush- Climate regula- ment scenarios synergies rooms produc- tion (business- analysis tion Erosion control as-usual, Water provision- promotion of ing wood energy, promotion of carbon storage, reduction of forest vulner- ability) Climate change scenarios Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 243 combined the outputs with empirical and process-based to predict commercial harvesting and forest regeneration models to estimate changes for six different ES. Pearson’s investment decisions. correlations were used to evaluate trade-offs and synergies A method to spatially assess both trade-offs and synergies among ES. among ES, and their relationships with predictor variables •• More recently, a growing number of simulation models was proposed by Roces-Díaz et al. [82 ]. Such method have been used to produce scenario maps that can help to foresees the use of quantitative indicators of ES, the stand- advance the understanding of the influence of drivers of ardization of ES indicators to a common scale (0–1) using change on ES. the proximity-to-target methodology, and their aggregation LANDIS-II [101] is a grid-based model which includes at the municipality level, assuming that all indicators are variable time steps for ecological processes (e.g., woody bio- relevant and similarly important. Pearson correlations are mass and carbon dynamics) and a platform to incorporate used to investigate the trade-offs and synergies among nor - drivers of change. LANDIS-II was used at the landscape malized ES, and to explore their relationships with predic- scale to examine the impacts on grasslands of simulated sce- tors of ES supply. narios including climate change projections, forest manage- ment prescriptions, and fire disturbance [86]. The ecosystem Forest Types process model PnET-II was used to simulate growth and dispersal of tree and shrub species. Fire disturbance was The most frequently investigated forest types in the Mediter- simulated using the base fire extension [102]. The LANDIS- ranean are cork oak woodlands (20% of the selected docu- II output maps of the dynamics of the biomass of forest ments), pine stands (29% of the documents) (Pinus halepen- species were compared with the land-cover/land-use map sis, Pinus pinaster, Pinus pinea, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus to evaluate the potential impacts on ES (climate regulation brutia, and Pinus nigra re-/af-forestations), oak forests (11% and biodiversity). of the documents) (Quercus cerris, Quercus ilex, and mixed The Multiscale Mapping of ecoSystem services oak forests), and, at the landscape scale, the presence of both (MIMOSE) is a spatially explicit multi-scale approach which broadleaved and coniferous forests (32% of the documents). was developed to model the influence of alternative forest management scenarios on ES and their trade-offs [76, 87]. Cork Oak Forests It combines GIS-based model, scenario model, economic valuation, and the Integrated Valuation of Environmental Cork oak woodlands, a traditional part of Mediterranean Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model. MIMOSE allows landscapes and rural economies, have been traditionally to investigate the effects of forest management regimes on managed so as to provide multiple productions, mainly cork, ES provision at the operational level of the forest manage- wood, and fodder for livestock grazing. These traditional ment unit, and attempt to upscale results at a broader scale productions have been included in the current ES frame- (e.g., regional or national). The model requires qualitative work, which is increasingly adding other important func- (forest types) and quantitative (altitude, slope, forest age, tions such as water regulation, carbon storage, landscape standing volume, biomass) spatial data for each forest unit enhancement, cultural heritage value, which in turn leads to (polygon). Annual increment of wood volume is used to take trade-offs and synergies with traditional productions. into consideration forest growth. The InVEST model [103], Density management is an important tool in these tradi- partially modified to adapt input data and simulations to the tional woodlands, with a tangible impact on the relationship context of Mediterranean forest ecosystems, is used to assess between the different ES, with varying outcomes depending ES provision and their economic value. A trade-off analy - also on the scale and methods used in the analysis. High- sis based on the concept of equilibrium [104, 105] is used density management scenarios can provide an increase in to investigate the interaction between ES and management cork production and carbon sequestration, and a decrease in scenarios. fodder and water yield compared to low density scenarios, An environmental-economic forest management decision with a clear trade-off between the considered ES [68], while (EEFMD) model was developed to estimate spatially dis- a large-scale application of SADfLOR DSS ([77], see Mod- tributed effects of forest management scenarios on ES, and eling Approaches) using multiple-criteria forest ecosystem to simulate the potential effects of payments of ES, and of management planning scenarios in Alentejo in Southern trade-offs between ES, on forest management decisions and Portugal, showed that wood production directly competes their environmental consequences [83 ]. The EEFMD model with carbon stock and cork supply. Both over-use and aban- integrates detailed forest, hydrological, and economic data, donment of traditional management practices can affect the and includes functions to predict forest growth, yield, and provision of ES from cork oak savannahs [25]. Overuse structure at the forest management unit level. The manage- causes soil degradation, which together with drought ham- ment model is combined with an economic decision module pers tree regeneration and increases tree mortality, reducing 1 3 244 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 ecosystem carbon stocks, while abandonment favors shrub that stands growing on good sites should be managed using encroachment which shifts soil carbon from below- to rather short rotations aiming at timber production, while in aboveground plant biomass, increasing the risk of carbon medium- and poor-quality sites longer rotations take advan- losses through wildfires or other disturbances [25]. tage of the joint production of pine honey and timber. An interesting aspect of the relationship between biodi- versity and the overall functioning of the cork oak system is Oak Forests the impact of livestock grazing on the biocrust cover (i.e., lichens, bryophytes, and cyanobacteria living on topsoil), Most oak forests in the Mediterranean area have a century- which contribute to key ecosystem processes by fixing car - long history of coppicing for firewood production and often bon and nitrogen, protecting soil surface from erosion forces, characterize traditional rural landscapes. Conversion to high promoting soil formation and stability, and taking part in forest is a possible alternative between forest abandonment, hydrological cycles and biotic interactions [66]. According largely present in many Mediterranean areas where coppic- to these authors, changes in topsoil-soil surface microcli- ing is not commercially profitable, and intensification of mate may have a notable effect on cork-oak regeneration forest utilization, with larger felled areas, whole tree har- processes, which is one of the main concerns in cork oak vesting, and other methods which have a heavy impact on woodland management. The contribution of biocrusts to ES soil conservation and landscape quality [17]. An important is thus traded-off by livestock grazing. research and operative question in these forests is the impact of coppicing vs. high forest on the trade-offs and synergies Pine Forests between wood production, biodiversity, and other regulating and cultural ES. Coppice management in Mediterranean oak Pines are typical of the Mediterranean area, with different forests can pose a threat to the conservation of important species participating in different ecosystems, from low - organisms with a regulating role in forest ecosystems, such land and coastal forests to mountain forests. Silvicultural as Lobaria pulmonaria, a macrolichen which can increase tools such as thinning and regeneration methods have an the water storage capacity in forest canopies and positively impact on the provision of different ES, causing trade-offs influences their hydrology: retaining unlogged forest-patches and synergies. Wood production and biodiversity are often in a Mediterranean oak coppice increases the availability of compared in relation to different management options, e.g., microhabitats in Mediterranean oak forest, thus producing a Marchi et al. [69] in Pinus nigra plantations and Alonso- synergy between regulating services and biodiversity [84 ]. Ponce et al. [71] in Pinus sylvestris forests. In this second A trade-off evaluation between biodiversity and wood pro- case, ecological features and especially management systems duction using tree microhabitats (TreeMs) as proxy indica- interact to drive the evolution of diversity indices and, where tors of biodiversity in Mediterranean mixed forests (Quercus management maintains more than one age class, a synergy cerris and other broadleaves) showed that the retention of between timber production and structural diversity can be TreeMs hinders the maximization of the economic revenue obtained. The effect of management and thinning treatments during harvesting operations; the identification of TreeMs on mushroom yields (Lactarius deliciosus) in Pinus pinaster can help forest managers develop more informed decisions forests in Spain is an interesting example of the complex during tree marking operations, so that forest management relations that must be considered when targeting research can actively sustain the conservation of forest biodiversity to identify the links between forest management, ES, and enhancing the multifunctional role of forests [70]. Evidence the underlying ecological and functional processes [63, 65]. from a landscape scale expert evaluation exercise in South- Climate and site quality have been shown to have a greater ern Italy showed that the high forest management system impact than management on the annual income from wood, fulfilled the highest number of functions, thus the conver - nut, and carbon storage in Pinus pinea forests in the Spanish sions from coppice to high forest in the most fertile sites Northern Plateau [75], based on a simulation of three forest may increase the overall value by incrementing protective, management regimes—focus on timber, cones, and com- tourism and productive functions [73]. bined objectives—and five climate scenarios (see Modeling Approaches). An interesting case of joint production optimi- Broadleaved and Coniferous Forests zation on a modelling basis is presented by de-Miguel et al. [81], who analyzed the relationship between timber produc- Mediterranean landscapes are often characterized by the tion and pine honeydew honey, an economically important presence of patches of different forest types, which can pro- non-wood forest product in eastern Mediterranean countries duce diversified combinations of ES in relation to different produced by bees harvesting the honeydew caused by a scale management and planning strategies, such as, e.g., favoring insect, Marchalina hellenica Genn. in Pinus brutia forests. productive aspects vs. nature protection, or management vs. From a strictly economic point of view, the simulations show abandonment. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 245 In two study cases in Italian landscapes character- Discussion ized by broadleaved forests (coppices and high forests) and artificial conifer stands ([76, 87], see Modeling Our review shows that process-oriented research on driv- Approaches), management restrictions, longer rotation ers, response type, interactions, synergies, and trade-offs periods, a reduced harvesting intensity, and a close-to- between multiple ES in Mediterranean forests, based on nature forestry approach increased carbon sequestration field experiments and research protocols, is still at the and decreased wood production (and associated Total Net beginning. Instead, the growing ability in data process- Present Value), while the total ecosystem service value ing, coupled with increasing availability of remote sens- did not show substantial differences. Specifically, timber ing data, is promoting substantial progress in research provision and carbon sequestration came out as conflicting based on spatially explicit data and modeling at differ - services, i.e., biomass removal yielded high timber rev- ent scales, from local to regional/national. This approach, enues and low carbon stock at least in the short-term [87]. often implicitly, refers to an “ecosystem service bundle” The impact of active forest management continuation approach, where individual ES can be thought of as differ - or abandonment on carbon and water related ES was eval- ent elements of an interrelated whole [106] or, empirically, uated by Ovando et al. [83 ], using the EEFMD model as sets of ES that repeatedly appear together across space (see Modeling Approaches) in Andalusia (southern Spain) or time. The analysis of spatial patterns of ES can show in a landscape comprising many forest species (Quercus how services are distributed across the landscape, how ilex, Quercus suber, Pinus pinaster, Pinus halepensis, the distributions of different services compare, and where Pinus nigra, Pinus pinea, and Pinus sylvestris). Active trade-offs and synergies among ES might occur [107], but forest management generally implied a reduction in the these patterns cannot definitively determine whether or carbon sequestration potential, whereas abandonment not trade-offs or synergies are occurring over time [108]. was expected—at least in the medium term—to increase The analysis of forest ES and their relationships with carbon stocks due to shrub encroachment and tree densi- drivers of change, including management, is a complex fication. Conversely, forest abandonment was expected to task. Approaches based on one or few ES allow more flex- increase biomass stock and consequently evapotranspira- ibility in accounting for drivers of change but provide a tion, reducing water f low (total blue water), but Authors partial view of the multifunctional role of forest ecosys- caution on the fact that their carbon sequestration esti- tems. On the other hand, approaches that attempt to con- mates for the forest abandonment scenarios consider a sider a wide range of ES for a more complete assessment simplified model and assumptions which ignore the com- of forest functions most often rely on heterogeneous data, plex ecological succession dynamics in forest ecosystems. with differences regarding their sources, calculation meth- In Catalonia (North-eastern Spain), an area character- •• ods, spatial scales, and temporal mismatches [82 ], mak- ized by a variety of forest ecosystems from coastal to ing data combination more complex and less robust due to mountain areas with Pinus spp., Quercus spp., Fagus problems of uncertainty assessment [109–112]. •• sylvatica L., Abies alba Mill., Roces-Díaz et al. [82 ] Selection of ES indicators is frequently problematic. assessed the spatial relationships (trade-offs and syner- Some indicators may be somewhat simplistic since they gies) of a set of provisioning, regulating and cultural ES are constrained by data availability, and some potentially (Table 2). Land-based indicators and forest-based indica- important ES indicators are not considered because of the tors of the selected ES were compared. Biodiversity (par- lack of information, especially for regulating and cultural ticularly woody species richness) had a positive relation •• services [82 , 113]. In addition, some indicators that are with most of the investigated ES (provisioning, regulat- used to assess a specific ES could be related with more ing and cultural ES), while climatic conditions were the than one ES, e.g., in Mediterranean forests mushroom main determinants in the supply of the different ES, with production can be associated with cultural values or as an most indicators being positively associated with precipita- •• indicator of food provision [82 ]. Information regarding tion and negatively associated with temperature. Positive marketed services of forest ecosystems (e.g., ecological, associations were particularly strong among provision- biospheric, social, amenity, and other services) is still ing and regulating services, with highest values (r > 0.7) scarce, and large variations persist in monitoring and between water storage and mushroom production or water reporting the value of marketed forest services [114]. exported. Forest-based indicators better ref lect the intrin- Forest management is one of the major drivers of sic properties of forests and therefore appear more appro- change impacting on ES, and in our review several stud- priate than land-based indicators when the aim of the ies investigated the influence of management on multiple study is to identify the fundamental trade-offs between ES supply from Mediterranean forests. To this end, inno- different ES. vative forest modeling techniques have been developed to 1 3 246 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 enhance decision making in forest management. Especially among the different ES in relation to the considered driver spatial models have gained attention in the last decade is not an easy task. as they provide ES maps that have many potential uses In Table 3, we attempted an analysis of the relationships for decision-makers and planners. For example, ES maps that link forest management, Mediterranean forest ecosys- provide spatial tools than can help to consider synergies tem processes, and the related products and benefits. Our •• and trade-offs of forest management [82 , 87] and could analysis is necessarily a simplification but we believe it can be overlayed with predicted future land-use and climate be useful for highlighting the complexity of the connections changes to understand the influence of drivers of change involved and for highlighting research gaps. The green area on ES into a dynamic planning perspective. However, in the table shows synergies, the yellow area trade-offs. We approaches based on forest modeling rely on assumptions separated modelling approaches, experimental trials/field that management prescriptions, such as, e.g., thinning data, and literature reviews. intensity and interval, remain constant over the considered As can be seen from the table, there is a variety of out- time period, which is not likely especially in long-time comes, the same driver can produce synergies or tradeoffs, interval analysis (cfr., e.g., [76]). Thus, modeling complex which depend not only on forest type but also on many other forest dynamics, e.g., forest growth, changes in species factors, starting from the aim of the different papers, which composition, and competition between trees, shrubs, and consequently conditions the methods applied and the type •• grasses, is still a challenge for future research [88 , 115, of research approach, e.g., field trials usually refer to a lim- 116]. ited time and space scale which may capture only a lim- This reflects a general shortcoming in ES research: ited picture of the actual interactions [69] while modeling according to Bürgi et al. [117], the long-term dynamics approaches usually consider a larger space and time scale, are quite relevant and important to estimating future ES but are based on standardized parameters which might not because (a) ecosystem properties (structures and pro- grasp the real complexity of the effects. cesses) change, by natural or human-induced processes Interactions among the services themselves can cause (e.g., succession or land use), and (b) demands for ES also changes in one service to alter the provision of another [9]. change because of factors such as population dynamics, Thinning is an interesting example of what Bennett et al. [9] technological innovations, and socioeconomic changes. have termed a shared driver in relation to the provision of There are also varied time-lags between the effects of multiple ES, causing different types of responses and inter - management and service provision: for example, carbon actions among ES. For example, moderate thinning in Medi- sequestration following a forest plantation will begin terranean evergreen oak coppices has been shown to increase within 5–10 years of planting, but landscape, recrea- water availability by reducing stand evapotranspiration and tion, and biodiversity values may take several decades to soil water depletion while at the same time increasing car- emerge [118]. Generally, in natural or semi-natural eco- bon assimilation [122, 123 ]. In this case, thinning acts as a systems, with complex and long-term dynamics, such as shared driver with a similar positive response which is unidi- forests, the full consequences of management decisions rectional (increased water availability for the remaining trees can be evaluated only over decades [119]. Furthermore, is expected to increase their water status and hence their research generally focuses a set of ES that is currently carbon assimilation) but individual growth does not in turn considered important by the stakeholders or the research- increase water availability. Similarly, increased edible mush- ers, but it is not certain that this set of ES will remain the room production (Lactarius spp.) in Pinus pinaster stands 2 −1 same in the future because several factors may contribute thinned with low intensity (removal of 10 m ha irrespec- to long-term changes in ES, including scientific insights tive of pre-thinning density) has been attributed to reduced that bring new ES to light, and emerging concerns, such water interception by standing trees and an increased water as climate change [117]. availability at the soil level [63]. Conversely, thinning can One of the main challenges when managing for multiple be considered as a shared driver resulting in a synergy but ES is that they are not independent of each other and the with no interaction among the considered ES, as for example relationships between them may be highly non-linear [120]. in the case of thinning in conifer afforestations which can Attempts to optimize a single service often lead to reduc- increase tree biodiversity by favoring natural regeneration tions or losses of other services—in other words, they are of local broadleaved species and at the same time improve “traded-off” [121]. The interaction among different ES is a wood quality production [69], but the increase in biodiver- fundamental process that influences how the considered ES sity does not affect wood production, nor is the opposite true. responds to a driver of change [108]. Synergies arise when Table 3 shows that wood production is the most fre- multiple services are enhanced simultaneously, while trade- quently investigated ES in relation to other ES, as could offs occur when the provision of one service is reduced due be expected, while water provisioning and water holding to increased use of another. Detecting synergies or trade-offs capacity have been much less investigated in their relation 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 247 Table 3 Synergies (Syn) and trade-offs (Trad) between different eco- synergy. References in blue indicate modelling approaches, in black system services in Mediterranean forests. Synergies are reported in field data and experimental trials, in red literature reviews. Drivers: the green area, trade-offs in the yellow area. References in brackets * thinning intensity/type/stand density; ** regeneration method; *** () indicate that one ecosystem service is not directly investigated as evenaged/uneven aged; + traditional management; + + traditional such but appears in the discussion/conclusions as possible trade-off or management abandonment; + + + coppice/high forest; °long rotations ES Syn Wood Cork Pine nuts Edible HoneyFresh Fodder Carbon Biodiversity Water Provisioning Cultural Regulating Trad production production mushrooms water sequestration holding services services services (Blue capacity generic generic generic water) Wood - ([63])* [69]* [69]* [88]+ [71]** *** production [70] Cork [77]* - [68]* [25]+ production Pine nuts [75] - [75] Edible - [82] mushrooms Honey [81]° - Fresh water [68]* - (Blue water) Fodder [68]* - Carbon [75] [25]++ [83]++ - [69]* sequestration [76]+++ [86]*+++ [77]* [88]+ [87]*** +++ Biodiversity - [84]° Water - holding capacity Provisioning - [82] services generic [82] - Cultural services generic Regulating [82] - services generic to the provision of other ES, especially wood production. Projected impacts of climate warming in the Mediterranean The relationship between wood production, non-wood for- show a general reduction in the provision of regulating ser- est products like edible mushrooms and other ES, has also vices, a general increase in climate-related forest hazards, been scarcely investigated, despite the fact that mushroom and reductions in range extent and habitat suitability for the •• gathering, including truffles [124], is a popular practice in most drought-sensitive forest species [129 ]. However, our many Mediterranean countries. Similarly, cultural ES have review shows that only a limited number of studies consid- been only rarely considered in relation to other ES and to ered climate change as a driver in multiple ES provision. The the various drivers. Integrating genetic diversity into adap- potential impact of land abandonment on ES supply due to tive forestry practice may contribute to enhance the capacity changing socio-economic factors is still not fully understood • •• • •• of managed forests to respond to climate-driven changes; [83 , 130 , 131 , 132 ]. In addition, the added effects of however, the influence of silvicultural systems on gene flow climate change and land abandonment can increase the risk and pollen dispersal within Mediterranean forest is not of fire: due to global warming, fire danger and burned areas fully understood [125, 126]. Since all these functions will are expected to increase in Mediterranean areas and will increase their importance in the Mediterranean area in the be further exacerbated by ongoing changes in land use and near future, research should focus on them. management that increase fuel loads and continuity [133, Climate change is a growing global threat impacting on 134]. ES and human well-being [127], and is likely the main threat In addition to climate change, one of the biggest threats to the diversity and survival of Mediterranean forests [128]. to Mediterranean ecosystems and their ES provision is 1 3 248 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 biodiversity loss. The biodiversity crisis of the Mediterra- well. Overall, management should promote an increase nean terrestrial ecosystems is largely underestimated due in heterogeneity and adaptability of simplified and often to a lack of information. Most reported studies lack biodi- maladapted forest systems, such as extensive conifer affor - versity indicators. Studies have considered tree diversity or estation, in the face of changing conditions [17]. woody species diversity at most, while these woody spe- Research shows, e.g., that thinning is potentially ben- cies represent only a few percent of the 20,000 plant species eficial in terms of reducing the risk of fire hazard [135, in the Mediterranean area. By overlooking effects of land 136] or increasing the ground water supply [137, 138], but abandonment, afforestation, invasive exotics, eutrophication, may as well lead to a certain loss of forest microclimate. ruderalization, forest management, and climate change on Defining the optimal density for these combined benefits herbaceous species and associated invertebrates, a massive depends on the site, composition, and structure of each extinction is taking place unnoticed [43]. Clever forest man- specific situation [123 , 139]. agement techniques in synergy with water, fire, livestock, Research must therefore focus on more in-depth knowl- bioeconomy management could get a far end in taking bio- edge of the ecohydrology of Mediterranean forests and •• diversity more actively on board in management [60 ]. A their response to drought to ensure the best application of major obstacle to evaluate management measures beneficial these management practices [140]. to biodiversity conservation is the lack of taxonomic exper- From a general point of view, the growing interest for tise and monitoring efforts. The diversity is overwhelming, provision of multiple ES from Mediterranean forests can identification a serious challenge. But new citizen science be considered as a further evolution of the concept of mul- apps like plant@net and iNaturalist could help a lot to make tifunctionality, which has been a concern of forest manage- this more feasible than ever. Foresters taking the ES of plant ment for much longer time before the emergence of the ES diversity on board will have an extra asset for management, concept. In the conventional forest management approach, and will ascertain their role and recognize their ability to multifunctionality was based, explicitly or implicitly, on manage habitats for Natura 2000 goals. the “wake theory”, which states that if forests are effi- Because of the variety of experimental approaches and ciently managed for wood production, then all the other methods, time/space scales, and, above all, of the complex forest utilities will follow [141, 142]. In recent times, combination of different forest types in landscapes which this approach, based on a reductionist and deterministic have a long history of human impact, translating research paradigm [12], by ignoring dynamics and reactions from results in univocal operative guidelines for real life manage- other interacting systems, has caused and is still causing ment and planning of Mediterranean forests for the provision conflicts (e.g., between wood production, landscape and of multiple ES is not an easy task. nature conservation, recreation and related stakeholders, Nevertheless, some general insights can be identified, etc.) [12]. Furthermore, societal preferences and values some similar to those identified for other forest regions (e.g., can change very quickly, significantly altering the social temperate forests, boreal forests etc.), others which instead environment for forest management [143, 144]. are peculiar to the specific Mediterranean situation. Manag- A shift in the management paradigm is therefore neces- ing Mediterranean forests is a perfect example of the adagio sary. Mediterranean forests show many of the character- “think globally, act locally”. Globally, there is the urgency istics of complex adaptive systems [17] and are the result of guaranteeing forest resilience and adaptive capacity in of co-evolutionary processes between cultivation and face of an uncertain future both in the environmental and adaptation at various scales [18, 145]. This makes them socio-economic conditions, and the need for considering perfect examples of complex socio-ecological systems stakeholder perceptions and expectations as inevitable driv- [146] where management must strive to maintain overall ers. On the local level, Mediterranean forests face two main resilience not only from an ecological point of view but constraints: water limitation and fire risk, both of which are also taking into account the interacting social systems. In increasing due to climate change and socio-economic driven this context, a flexible approach is needed for capturing the land use changes. information and insights necessary to manage Mediterra- Mediterranean forests will probably undergo substan- nean forests not only for their instrumental value, but also •• tially stronger water limitations by the end of the twenty- for their biocultural [52 ] and intrinsic value [12], thus first century [123 ]. This points out the need for devising accepting the challenge coming from the development of forest management approaches that can promote a syn- an ethic of nature which is currently being debated in a ergy between fire prevention and water management both historical and evolutionary perspective of forest research •• at the stand and landscape scale, especially where land [147 ]. This also requires abandoning the use of the term abandonment is favouring a densification of forest stands. “service” when dealing with forest ecosystems, which This can produce further synergies with biodiversity con- should not be valued only for the services they provide servation and the development of circular bioeconomy as to humans. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 249 On the operational level, it is still unclear how fast the overcoming the ecosystem service approach. This implies transition from provisioning to multifunctionality is affect- an adaptable, flexible management and planning approach ing silvicultural and forest regulation methods applied in that sustains self-organization, adaptive capacity, and overall everyday practice. Although this question was outside the resilience of Mediterranean forests. scope of our review, we believe that further studies are This means promoting functionally diverse forests and needed to identify progress and trends in silvicultural meth- landscapes, which can act as insurance for the maintenance ods and management approaches actually used in multifunc- of key ecosystem functions such as, e.g., water conserva- tional forest management in the Mediterranean area, and on tion and regulation, carbon storage, resilience against distur- ways to introduce some level of management in new Medi- bances (fire, drought), and ecosystem productivity. terranean forests resulting from land abandonment. It can be Traditional Mediterranean forest landscapes, which are expected that Mediterranean forest management will become the product of a very long co-evolution of society and nature, more often part of overall landscape planning, where the should be maintained not only for their cultural and histori- conservation, restoration, or creation of mixed agro-silvo- cal importance, but also because they can contribute to keep- pastoral landscape mosaics serve multiple goals of resource ing more options open for adaptation to future climate and provisioning, biodiversity conservation, heritage and eco- other global changes. Human presence and involvement in •• tourism, and crucially, fire resilience [60 ], in a context Mediterranean forest landscapes is a safeguard against the of global change. Therefore, it is necessary to develop flex- negative consequences of rural abandonment: both research ible management strategies to promote adaptation to future and policymakers should contribute to finding sustainable changes [148] and the role of forests in providing important solutions for maintaining economically and environmentally services that can help people adapt to climate variability viable livelihoods in these precious environments. and change [149]. Finally, research on managing Mediterranean forests for Finally, research progress in managing Mediterranean multiple functions and benefits for the present and the future forests will also depend on the research potential of the requires moving toward a transdisciplinary approach, where countries facing the Mediterranean, and on the possibility of problems are approached from a diversity of points of view overcoming the unequal distribution of resources and infra- and where extended peer communities are involved not only structures which characterizes them [150]; specifically, for - in dissemination of research results, but also in the research est management research in the Mediterranean area should process itself. build on long-term research partnerships and networking Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- involving the use of participatory research and research tary material available at https://doi. or g/10. 1007/ s40725- 022- 00167-w . capacity building [151]. Acknowledgements We thank two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments which helped us improve the earlier version of Conclusions this paper. Funding Open access funding provided by Università degli Studi di Our review highlights that there are still many gaps in the Firenze within the CRUI-CARE Agreement. This work was funded by scientific literature regarding the interactions between ES the European Forest Institute Mediterranean Facility in support of a and drivers of change in Mediterranean forests, providing Mediterranean Forest Research Agenda 2030. opportunities for further research on synergies and/or trade- offs between ES in relation to management. Declarations From a conceptual point of view, research on multi- functionality of Mediterranean forests is still mostly con- Conflict of Interest Susanna Nocentini, Davide Travaglini, and Bart Muys declare that they have no conflict of interest. ceived following an ES-oriented approach, which is based on a deterministic view and leads to managing forests so Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent This article does not as to create the structure and composition that best meet contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any the desired output in terms of benefits for humans. The risk of the authors. of this approach is that it intrinsically reduces the ability of forest ecosystems to adapt to future, often unexpected Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- changes, while at the same time missing the connection with tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long the complexity and unpredictability of the socio-economic as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, environment. provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes There is therefore the need for a shift to a new para- were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated digm which considers Mediterranean forests as complex otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in adaptive systems and recognizes also their intrinsic value, 1 3 250 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:229–256 the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not 8.• van der Plas F, Ratcliffe S, Ruiz ‐Benito P, Scherer‐Lorenzen permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will M, Verheyen K, Wirth C, Zavala MA, Ampoorter E, Baeten L, need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a Barbaro L, Bastias C, Bauhus J, Benavides R, Benneter A, Bonal copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . 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Current Forestry Reports – Springer Journals

Published: Jun 1, 2022

Keywords: Forest functions; MFRA; Multi-functional forests; Multi-objective forest management; Multifunctionality; Trade-offs; Synergies

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Managing Mediterranean Forests for Multiple Ecosystem Services: Research Progress and Knowledge Gaps

Managing Mediterranean Forests for Multiple Ecosystem Services: Research Progress and Knowledge Gaps

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Managing Mediterranean Forests for Multiple Ecosystem Services: Research Progress and Knowledge Gaps

Managing Mediterranean Forests for Multiple Ecosystem Services: Research Progress and Knowledge Gaps

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