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/lp/springer-journals/mitochondrial-dysfunction-and-autism-comprehensive-genetic-analyses-of-JdUS2hBiSL
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- Springer Journals
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- 2018 The Author(s)
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- 1744-9081
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- 10.1186/s12993-018-0135-x
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Abstract
Background: The etiology of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is very heterogeneous. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been described in ASD; however, primary mitochondrial disease has been genetically proven in a small subset of patients. The main goal of the present study was to investigate correlations between mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) changes and alterations of genes associated with mtDNA maintenance or ASD. Methods: Sixty patients with ASD and sixty healthy individuals were screened for common mtDNA mutations. Next generation sequencing was performed on patients with major mtDNA deletions (mtdel-ASD) using two gene panels to investigate nuclear genes that are associated with ASD or are responsible for mtDNA maintenance. Cohorts of healthy controls, ASD patients without mtDNA alterations, and patients with mitochondrial disorders (non-ASD) har- bouring mtDNA deletions served as comparison groups. Results: MtDNA deletions were confirmed in 16.6% (10/60) of patients with ASD (mtdel-ASD). In 90% of this mtdel- ASD children we found rare SNVs in ASD-associated genes (one of those was pathogenic). In the intergenomic panel of this cohort one likely pathogenic variant was present. In patients with mitochondrial disease in genes responsible for mtDNA maintenance pathogenic mutations and variants of uncertain significance ( VUS) were detected more frequently than those found in patients from the mtdel-ASD or other comparison groups. In healthy controls and in patients without a mtDNA deletion, only VUS were detected in both panel. Conclusions: MtDNA alterations are more common in patients with ASD than in control individuals. MtDNA dele- tions are not isolated genetic alterations found in ASD; they coexist either with other ASD-associated genetic risk factors or with alterations in genes responsible for intergenomic communication. These findings indicate that mito - chondrial dysfunction is not rare in ASD. The occurring mtDNA deletions in ASD may be mostly a consequence of the alterations of the causative culprit genes for autism or genes responsible for mtDNA maintenance, or because of the harmful effect of environmental factors. Keywords: Autism, Mitochondrial dysfunction, mtDNA deletion, ASD associated genetic alterations, Intergenomic communication Background current studies reporting a prevalence of 1% [1]. ASD In recent years, the number of patients diagnosed with shows extreme clinical heterogeneity; however, the diag- autism spectrum disorders (ASD) has increased with nosis of ASD according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edition) is based on def- icits in two areas—social communication and restricted, repetitive behaviour or interests. The patient must have *Correspondence: molnar.mariajudit@med.semmelweis-univ.hu Institute of Genomic Medicine and Rare Disorders, Semmelweis deficits in both areas, and symptoms must be present University, Tömő Str. 25-29, Budapest 1083, Hungary from early childhood [2]. The genetic architecture of ASD Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2018. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/ publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 2 of 14 is very diverse consisting of a variety of genetic altera- Damage to the OXPHOS system was found in individ- tions, such as chromosomal abnormalities, copy number uals with ASD by Napoli et al. [17] and reviewed by Val- variations, rare single nucleotide variants (SNVs), com- enti et al. [11]. Oliveira et al. [14] found that 7% (7/100) of mon polymorphic variations, and epigenetic modifica - children with ASD, who were clinically indistinguishable tions; however, only 6–15% of children with ASD have from other affected children with ASD, exhibited a mito - well-defined genetic syndromes [3]. Because of the devel - chondrial respiratory chain disorder. Weissman et al. [18] opment of high-throughput sequencing methods, many proposed that defective mitochondrial OXPHOS may be highly penetrant genetic causes of ASD have been iden- an additional underlying pathogenic mechanism in a sub- tified, but the underlying genetic background of 70% of set of individuals with autism. cases remains unexplained [4]. Despite evidence of altered mitochondrial function Mitochondrial disease (MD) is presently one of the in some individuals with ASD, it is not known whether most recognized metabolic diseases caused by the failure mitochondrial dysfunction is a cause or an effect of of both nuclear and/or mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). ASD. Although a mitochondrial subgroup in ASD could The prevalence of mtDNA mutations responsible for MD be identified [19], findings from review articles, such is 1 in 5000, whereas that of nuclear mutations is 2.9 per as those of Palmieri and Persico [19] and Rossignol and 100,000 cases [5]. Although MD frequently results in a Frye [9], found that even in this subgroup the causative spectrum of disorders with multisystemic presentations, genetic factor could be identified in a proportion of cases neurological symptoms are common because tissues with (23%). In cases of non-syndromic ASD, mitochondrial high-energy demands, such as neural tissue, are often dysfunction without mtDNA alterations has been fre- the most strongly affected by mitochondrial dysfunc - quently observed [8, 9]. In a systematic review and meta- tion. Even though the diagnosis of MD is increasing and analysis, Rossignol reported that MD was present in 5% becoming more frequent, the exact genetic background of children with ASD [9], and in this ASD/MD subgroup, in many cases remains unconfirmed. Mitochondrial dys - mtDNA abnormalities were found in 23% of patients [9]. function can be caused by either primary MD or second- These findings demonstrate that primary MD may be ary mitochondrial damage [6]. Primary MD is because of present in a subgroup of children with ASD. genetic defects in mtDNA or a defect in a nuclear gene Some studies have reported mtDNA deletions in indi- that is important for mitochondrial function. These viduals with ASD [12, 20–22]. Single mtDNA deletions mutations usually affect proteins involved in reactions of have a role in different paediatric and adult onset pri - oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). However, many mary MDs such as Kearns–Sayre syndrome, Pearson disorders show similar effects in terms of mitochondrial syndrome, and progressive ophthalmoplegia externa [23]. dysfunction, but are elicited by mutations in other genes Multiple mtDNA deletions occur mostly because of path- not related directly to normal mitochondrial function [7]. ogenic mutations in genes responsible for intergenomic In other cases environmental factors, associated disor- communication; however, they are often related to age- ders or ageing are resulting in secondary alterations. ing or harmful environmental factors as well because Several authors have proposed that mitochondrial dys- mtDNA has a poor DNA repair system [6, 24]. function may be one of the most common medical con- The aim of the present study was to investigate the ditions associated with autism [8, 9]. Lombard et al. [10] presence of the most common pathogenic mtDNA alter- proposed that ASD may be a condition with abnormal ations in patients with ASD and to elucidate the etiology mitochondrial function. Clinical and biochemical stud- of these mtDNA alterations by analysing their co-occur- ies have uncovered an emerging link between mitochon- rence with both known ASD-associated genes and genes drial dysfunction and neurodevelopmental disorders, responsible for mtDNA maintenance and by comparison including intellectual disability [11], childhood epilepsy, the targeted NGS data (ASD associated genes and genes and ASD [9]. Furthermore, mitochondrial dysfunction responsible for mtDNA maintenance) of cases with and has been associated with some forms of syndromic ASD without mtdel-ASD, patients with primary mitochondrial [8, 11]. In many of these studies, biochemical changes, disorders and healthy controls. such as elevated levels of creatine kinase, lactate, pyru- vate, carnitine, ammonia, and alanine were detected in Methods the serum of patients with ASD [11–14]. In other stud- Patients ies, altered respiratory chain enzyme activities [15] or Detailed clinical examinations consisting of a general decreased expression of OXPHOS genes were detected medical examination and neurological assessment were in autistic brain [16], findings which indicate abnormal or performed. A diagnosis of ASD was made using the altered mitochondrial function. ADI-R (autism diagnostic interview—revised) and ADOS Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 3 of 14 (autism diagnostic observation schedule). Patients were Genetic analysis screened for minor physical abnormalities, which were DNA was isolated from peripheral blood samples from all selected based on the Méhes Scale [25]. Family history participants using the QIAamp DNA blood kit (Qiagen, and detailed environmental/societal data were collected Hilden, Germany) according to manufacturer’s instruc- from the first degree relatives of each patient. Any dis - tions. To identify single and multiple mtDNA deletions, orders present in the parents as well as environmental long range PCR was performed as described by Reme- factors were registered. Written informed consent was nyi et al. [27]. MtDNA single and multiple deletions were obtained from the parents of the patient. This study was screened with long PCR in 20 μl volume: 20 pmol prim- performed in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration ers Fw 5′-TAAAAATCTTTGAAATAGGGC-3′ and Rev of 1975 and was approved by the Hungarian Research 5′-CGGATACAGTTCACTTTAGCT-3′, 0.2 µl Phusion Ethics Committee (44599-2/2013/EKU). The diagnosis of DNA Polymerase (Finnzymes, Vantaa, Finland), 4 µl ASD was based on the standardized ADI-R in Hungarian, Phusion GC Reaction Buffer (Finnzymes, Vantaa, Fin - which was published by the Autism Foundation (Kapocs land), 0.4 µl dNTP and 12.4 μl water (qPCR grade water, Publisher), according to the following scores: A ≥ 10 AMBION). PCR program was the following: 98 °C 30 s, (social interaction), B ≥ 7 (communication), C ≥ 3 (repet- 30 cycles: 98 °C 10 s, 63 °C 10 s, 72 °C 3/8 min, then the itive stereotype manner), D ≥ 1 (abnormal development last synthesis at 72 °C 7 min. Amplificates were visual - under 36 months). Sixty children with ASD [6 females ised by ethidium-bromide (2% agarose) and determined and 54 males, median age = 7 years, interquartile range with QuantityOne Software (Bio-Rad Corp. Hertford- (IQR) = 7.25] were included in our study. Before patient shire, UK). The three most-frequent pathogenic mtDNA selection our ASD patients were screened for Fragile X point mutations were screened by PCR–RFLP using a syndrome and only negative cases were included in our GeneAmp PCR System 9700 (Applied Biosystems, MA, cohort. Of our 60 patients with ASD, 58 are of European USA) [20]. The most well-known ASD-associated genes descent and 2 are Roma. Our control group for mtDNA [28] and 51 genes responsible for intergenomic com- screening consisted of 60 European adults (26 females munication disturbances (Additional file 1: Table S1) and 34 males, median age = 28 years, IQR = 13.75) were investigated using NGS, which was performed on selected from our biobank [26]. All controls were healthy a MiSeq (Illumina, CA, USA) using the TruSight Autism individuals under 45 years of age and free from addiction Rapid Capture Kit (Illumina, CA, USA) and the SureSe- (alcohol, smoking, and drugs). For the interpretation of lect QXT Kit (Agilent Technologies, CA, USA) according our next generation sequencing (NGS) results, we com- to the manufacturer’s instructions. In the intergenomic pared data from the following cohorts: patients with ASD panel, 16/32 samples were multiplexed in one sequencing and without mtDNA deletion, labelled non-mtdel-ASD, run, whereas in the autism panel 24 samples were multi- (6 males and 1 female, median age = 8 years, IQR = 5.5), plexed in a single run using the MiSeq reagent kit v2 and patients with MD and mtDNA deletion, without ASD (4 300 cycles (Illumina, CA, USA). The mean read depth was males and 3 females, median age = 18 years, IQR = 19), 152 × in the intergenomic gene panel and 135 × in the and healthy control individuals (1 male and 5 females, ASD-associated gene panel. In both panels, 20 × cover- median age = 27 years, IQR = 2.25). The investigated age was achieved in a minimum of 90% of target regions. patients and controls were not related. All patients with- Pathogenic and likely pathogenic mutations from NGS out a mtDNA deletion were considered to have non-syn- data were validated by Sanger sequencing, and segrega- dromic ASD. The study design is illustrated in Table 1. tion analysis was performed within individual families. Table 1 The design of the study Cohorts M.3243 A > G, m.8993 T > C/G, mtDNA deletion IG NGS (51 genes) ASD NGS (101 genes) m.8344 A > G ✔a ✔a ASD cases (n = 60) ✔ ✔ ✔b ✔b Healthy controls (n = 60) ✔ ✔ mtdel-MD (n = 7) ✔ ✔ ✔ – The investigated cohorts and the performed genetic analysis are shown in the Table 1. NGS testing for intergenomic panel and ASD panel has been performed in the cohort of the 10 mtdel ASD cases and in subgroup of 7 non-mtdel ASD cases and a subgroup of healthy controls (N = 6). Patients with primary mitochondrial disease (N = 7) served as further control group. All investigated person were Caucasian except 2 non-mtdel ASD cases ASD autism spectrum disorder, MD mitochondrial disease, mtDNA mitochondrial DNA, IG NGS next generation sequencing for genes responsible for intergenomic communication, ASD NGS next generation sequencing for autism associated genes The 10 mtdel-ASD cases and 7 non-mtdel ASD were investigated 6 cases were investigated Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 4 of 14 Statistical and bioinformatics analysis (from simplex families) and their family histories were Chi square test with Yates correction/Fisher exact test negative for other neurodevelopmental disorders and were used to determine significant differences between major psychiatric or neurological disorders. The dis - patient and control groups [29]. Raw sequences were tribution of the relevant symptoms for mitochondrial filtered with Picard tools (version 2.1.0) [30] and quality disorders in mtdel-ASD and idiopathic ASD group are filtered reads were aligned to the hg19 reference genome shown in Fig. 1. There were some differences between with BWA-mem [31] using default parameters. Vari- ASD cases with and without mtDNA deletion regarding ant calling was performed using GATK HaplotypeCaller the clinical phenotype. Developmental regression, mus- (version 3.3-0) [32] and VCF files were annotated with cle hypotonia, and additional neurological signs were SnpEff (version 4.1) [33]. We analysed only those vari - most common in the mtdel-ASD cases. Multisystemic ants that were found in the canonical transcript of the abnormality appeared also more frequently. Referring to gene. To identify potentially causal genetic variations, seizures no major differences has been observed between we used VariantAnalyzer, which is an in-house software these two groups. Family history was not available in two developed by András Gézsi from the Budapest Univer- cases because these children were not living with their sity of Technology and Economics [34]. This software biological parents. A positive family history was found in application annotates SNPs and short indels with several 48% of cases, of which 20 cases (33.3%) had a family his- types of annotations, such as their predicted function on tory for psychiatric disorders (bipolar disorder, depres- genes using SnpEff, observed allele frequencies in several sion, and schizophrenia). In four cases (6.7%), visual and genomic projects including the 1000 Genomes Project hearing impairments, ataxia, complex endocrine disor- and the ESP6500 Project, conservation scores based on ders, or a combination of these factors was noted. The PhyloP or PhastCons, predicted function of non-synony- co-occurrence of these symptoms is an indicator for MD mous SNPs using dbNSFP, and disease associations with according to mitochondrial disease criteria (MDC) [36]. HGMD and ClinVar. By creating filter cascades based on In five cases (8%), we found a positive family history for these annotations and other information (e.g., genotypes psychiatric disorders and some MDC-related symptoms and variant quality annotations), the software can eas- were also noted. ily be used to filter the variants through a user-friendly Minor physical anomalies were identified in 44 chil - graphical interface. Analysis and variant calling of Sure- dren. All children were diagnosed with ASD based on Select libraries was performed with SureCall software ADI-R, and in most cases, with ADOS as well. We found (Agilent, CA, USA). First, we filtered for variants known that serum lactate levels and/or the lactate:pyruvate ratio to be disease-causing, using human gene mutation data- supported the presence of mitochondrial dysfunction in base (HGMD) Professional 2015.1 edition [35]. Second, four patients. we filtered for rare variants based on the minor allele fre - quency and frequency of the mutation in our NGS data Genetic investigation—mtDNA mutation screening repository. Since large-scale genomic data of the Hun- Mitochondrial deletions were identified in 16.6% (10/60) garian population is not available, a mutation with a low of our patients with ASD. Two children had multiple minor allele frequency may also be population-specific. deletions, whereas a single major deletion was detected in We labelled a variant as a rare mutation if it was present the range of 2.4–7.9 kb in eight children. Detailed clinical in one or two samples within our cohort and the minor and family history data as well as associated phenotype allele frequency in Europeans from the 1000 Genomes of the patients harbouring mtDNA deletions are shown and ExAC databases was less than 0.5%. It is important in Table 2. An evaluation of clinical phenotype, fam- to note that a limitation of this method is that it may ily history, and laboratory data suggested MD in seven exclude identification of founder mutations and disease- cases with mtDNA deletion. None of the investigated associated polymorphisms. Finally, mutations were prior- families had a previous diagnosis of primary MD. In all itized based on their predicted effects. Exonic frameshift cases, the rate of heteroplasmy (HP) was > 20% in blood and stop mutations were considered always damaging, samples (Table 2). In the 60 healthy control individuals, whereas the effects of missense mutations were predicted a mtDNA deletion was found in two cases. Based on our using Polyphen2, SIFT (Sort Intolerant From Tolerant), statistical analysis, there was a significant difference in or MutationTaster (MT). the frequency of mtDNA deletions between our ASD and control cohorts (χ with Yates correction = 4.5; p = 0.03; Results odds ratio = 5.8; 95% CI 1.21–27.72). Further analysis Sixty children with ASD (6 females and 54 males, median of mtDNA mutational “hotspot” regions (m.3243 A > G, age = 7 years, IQR = 7.25) were investigated. In our ana- m.8993 T > C/G, and m.8344 A > G) did not detect any lysed cohort of 60 patients, 29 patients were sporadic alterations in our ASD cohort. Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 5 of 14 Clinical differences between mtdel-ASD and ASD paents Developmental SeizureMuscle Mulsystemic Neurological regression hypotonia abnormality signs mtdel-ASD ASD Fig. 1 The distribution of symptoms which are common in mitochondrial disorders in the patients with mtdel-ASD and in ASD without mtdel Genetic investigation—nuclear DNA mutation screening Comparing the intergenomic NGS panel results for of genes responsible for intergenomic communication our different cohorts, we found no significant difference Next, we focused on those patients with mtDNA dele- between mtdel-ASD cases and healthy controls with tions (mtdel-ASD) and performed nuclear DNA (nDNA) one tailed Fisher exact test (p: 0.4890 odds: 0.5, CI 0.05– mutation screening to investigate genes involved in 4.97); and mtdel-ASD and ASD without mtDNA dele- intergenomic communication. In this subgroup, we tion groups (p:0.55882, Odds: 0625 CI 0.06–5.96). Likely found one rare likely pathogenic variant and one vari- pathogenic variant and VUS were identified in higher ant with uncertain significance (VUS). The rare variants number in MD patients with mtDNA deletion and with- identified in two patients were both present in only one out ASD (p = 0.013, Odds: 0.04 CI 0.003–0.5743), in a allele, however the mode of inheritance of these disor- heterozygous form (Table 3). ders is autosomal recessive (Table 3). In Patient 5 (P5), the likely pathogenic heterozygous T265I mutation in Genetic investigation—nDNA mutation screening the mitochondrial genome maintenance exonuclease 1 of ASD‑associated genes (MGME1) is responsible for mtDNA integrity [37]. In Using the TruSight Autism NGS panel, we detected rare Patient 9 (P9), we found a de novo VUS mutation (Clin- SNVs in 90% (9/10) of our affected children with mtDNA Var ID203970) in succinate-CoA ligase alpha subunit deletion. Syndromic ASD was identified in a single case, (SUCLG1) in a heterozygous form. Patient 3 (P3), from our mtdel-ASD cohort. A heterozy- In our cohort of seven patients with MD (without ASD) gous pathogenic mutation in chromodomain helicase harbouring mtDNA deletions, we found a pathogenic DNA-binding protein 7 (CHD7) was found in this patient rare variants in two case, and rare VUS in five further as well as a heterozygous mutation of uncertain signifi - cases (Table 2). In one patient the compound heterozy- cance in tuberin (TSC2). The CHD7 rare variant regarding gous state of one pathogenic and one VUS in C10orf2 the ACMG guideline, fulfils the PVS1 and one PS2 crite - gene were detected. In cohorts without MD (patients ria [38] and based on this we evaluated it as pathogenic. with ASD lacking mtDNA deletion and healthy individu- The patient’s phenotype and the family segregation pat - als) we found two–two rare VUS in genes responsible for tern indicated this CHD7 mutation as a de novo mutation intergenomic communications (Table 3). resulting in CHARGE syndrome (OMIM 214800) [39]. Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 6 of 14 Table 2 Mitochondrial DNA deletion status and clinical data of children with ASD and mtDNA deletion Family history Associated diseases Minor anomalies Symptoms beside ASD Laboratory results mtDNA (HP) MS + FS: intellectual disability, epilepsy Chronic otitis + Hypoacusis, orofacial dyspraxia, intel- Lactate level: 3.6 mmol/l (norm: Multiple (> 20%) lectual disability, limb ataxia, tremor ≤ 1.6 mmol/l), low testosterone levels, high LDH level, normal CK MS: autoimmune hypothyreosis Gluten sensitivity + Attention deficit, intellectual disability, Lactate level: 0.6 mmol/l (norm: Major deletion (80%) Slight macrocephaly, constipation ≤ 1.6 mmol/l), elevated lactate/pyru- vate ratio, normal CK and LDH levels MS: epilepsy FS: anxiety Tooth problems + Multiple congenital anomalies, colo- Lactate level: 1.9 mmol/l (norm: Major deletion (20%) boma, visual problems, hypotonic ≤ 1.6 mmol/l). elevated progester- muscles, truncal ataxia, breathing one level, high LDH levels, low insulin difficulties levels Mother: panic syndrome Gastro-oesophageal reflux + Postnatal growth deficiency, failure to Lactate level: 1.3 mmol/l (norm: Major deletion (65%) thrive, intellectual disability ≤ 1.6 mmol/l) Negative Atopic dermatitis − No Lactate levelel: 0.9 mmol/l (norm: Major deletion (35%) ≤ 1.6 mmol/l) Previous foetus: aborted, FS: hydro- Neonatal jaundice, strabismus + Microcephaly, visual problems, hypo- Lactate level: 2.3 mmol/l (norm: Major deletion (20%) cephalus, anal atresia, MS: depression, tonic muscles ≤ 1.6 mmol/l), elevated LDH levels, anxiety, ptosis, OCD, carcinoma normal CK level Negative No + Mild truncal ataxia Lactate level: 1.2 mmol/l (norm: Major deletion (85%) ≤ 1.6 mmol/l) MS: bipolar disorder (3 relatives), sus- Atopic dermatitis, CMV, hepatitis + Sensorineural hearing loss, mild myo- Lactate level: 1.5 mmol/l (norm: Major deletion (85%) pected thyroid problems pathy, ptosis ≤ 1.6 mmol/l), elevated LDH, norm CK level. High anti-CMV antibody titer after birth, elevated liver enzymes MS + FS: PD, AD, intellectual disability; No + Mild truncal ataxia, calf hypertrophy Lactate level: 1.5 mmol/l (norm: Major deletion (90%) FS: suspicion of ASD ≤ 1.6 mmol/l). Elevated lactate/pyru- vate ratio, normal CK and LDH level Negative No + No Lactate level: 1.2 mmol/l (norm: Multiple (> 20%) ≤ 1.6 mmol/l) The detected mtDNA deletion, family history, clinical data as well as associated phenotype of the ASD patients harbouring mtDNA deletions are shown in Table 2 MS maternal side of the family, FS paternal side of the family, OCD obsessive–compulsive disorder, PD Parkinson’s diseases, AD Alzheimer’s disease, LDH lactate dehydrogenase, CK creatine kinase, CMV cytomegalovirus, mtDNA mitochondrial DNA, HP ratio of heteroplasmy Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 7 of 14 Table 3 Results of the intergenomic NGS panel Patient ID Gene Mutation Zygosity Inheritance Clinical relevance Polyphen2 SIFT MT dbSNP ExAC 1000 Genomes/EUR AF Patients with ASD and mtDNA deletion (N = 10) P5 MGME1 T265I HET AR Likely pathogenic [37] 0.95 0.25 D rs76599088 0.007875 0.0044/0.0139 P9 SUCLG1 G79D HET AR Uncertain significance 0.99 0 D n/d n/d n/d Patients with ASD and without mtDNA deletion (N = 7) C-ASD1 MTO1 K321E HET AR Uncertain significance 1 0.001 D rs148667065 0.0000908 n/d C-ASD2 EARS2 R99Q HET AR Uncertain significance n/d 1 D n/d n/d n/d Patients with MD and mtDNA deletion, without ASD (N = 7) C-MD1 WARS2 H151R HET AD/AR Uncertain significance 0.1 0.02 D rs150022801 0.001779 0.0008/0.003 C-MD2 APEX1 R202P HET n/d Uncertain significance 0.6 0.01 P n/d 0.000008242 n/d C-MD3 ATP5A1 I173 V HET AR Uncertain significance 0.02 0.1 D n/d n/d n/d C-MD4 MTO1 V517 M HET AR Uncertain significance 0.03 0.1 D n/d n/d n/d C-MD5 C10orf2 N399S HET AR Pathogenic [38] 0.896 0.09 D n/d n/d n/d C10orf2 A453Q HET AR Uncertain significance 0.053 0.27 D n/d n/d n/d C-MD6 MRPL3 S75 N HET AR Pathogenic [56] 0.8 0.34 D rs151331067 0.001606 0.0008/n/d Healthy controls without mtDNA deletion (N = 6) C-H3 EARS2 S482 N HET AR Uncertain significance n/d 0.28 D n/d n/d n/d C-H4 SLC25A3 V219F HET AD Uncertain significance 0.62 0.001 D n/d n/d n/d Pathogenic, likely pathogenic, and rare variants of uncertain significance detected in the 10 mtdel-ASD cases and different comparison groups are presented (benign variations are not shown) P mtdel-ASD patient, non-mtdel-ASD ASD patient without mtDNA deletion, MD patient with mitochondrial disease, H healthy control individual, HET heterozygous, AR autosomal recessive, AD autosomal dominant, n/d no data, SIFT sorting intolerant from tolerant prediction database, MT mutation t@ster prediction database, D disease causing according to mutation t@ster prediction, P polymorphism according to mutation t@ ster prediction, ExAC allele frequency data from exome aggregation consortium, 1000 Genomes allele frequency data from 1000 Genomes project, EUR AF allele frequency in the European Super Population of the 1000 Genomes project Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 8 of 14 In Patient 8 (P8), we found a pathogenic nonsense of prolonged neonatal jaundice, highly elevated liver mutation in 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR7), enzymes, low prothrombin level, and high IgM and IgG which was present in only one allele. type anti-cytomegalovirus (CMV) antibodies led to the In Patient 2 (P2) a rare mutation was detected in autism diagnosis of a congenital CMV infection-induced hepatic susceptibility candidate 2 (AUTS2), which previously was lesion. She had congenital sensorineural hearing loss, associated with syndromic ASD form. The significance of mild myopathic facies, mild ptosis, and atopic facial der- the missense mutation identified in our study is uncer - matitis. A brain MRI identified several T2 hyperintense tain; during segregation analysis the same mutation was supratentorial lesions (5–10 mm in size), which were present in the healthy mother, however we do not know suggested to have an infectious etiology. A heterozygous exactly the penetrance of the genetic defects of AUTS2. nonsense mutation in DHCR7 and a major large single This rare AUTS2 variant coexisted with a rare variant in deletion in mtDNA were found. The healthy mother also retinoic acid induced gene 1 (RAI1) (Table 4). harbours the detected heterozygous mutation. Choles- Using in silico analysis, alterations of uncertain sig- terol and 7-dehydrocholesterol levels of the child are in nificance were detected in ASD-associated genes in 60% the normal range. Homozygous or compound heterozy- (6/10) of the mtdel-ASD cases and 71% (5/7) of non- gous mutations in DHCR7 result in Smith–Lemli–Opitz mtdel-ASD cases (Table 4). In the six control individu- (SLOS) syndrome, which is an autosomal recessive dis- als only four rare VUS were detected in genes associated ease. However, human CMV infection may lead to altered with ASD. The rare variant in zinc finger protein 804A mitochondrial biogenesis [40]. We believe that this case (ZNF804A) was found in two healthy controls, indicating demonstrates a direct interaction between genetic and a variant that is likely population-specific (Table 4). environmental risk factors in some forms of ASD. Detailed phenotype of a patient with mtDNA deletion Discussion and CHARGE syndrome (CHD7 mutation) In this study, we provide for the first time a comprehen - An 11-year-old male patient (P3) had multiple congeni- sive genetic analysis of patients with ASD that inves- tal anomalies, such as coloboma of the eyes, oxyceph- tigates co-occurrence of the most frequent mtDNA aly, epicanthus, convergent strabismus, mild bifid nose/ alterations, intergenomic communication disturbances broad nasal tip, low settled cup ears, mild facial asymme- (51 genes), and 101 genes previously associated with try, dental dysgenesis, asymmetric chest, macroglossia, ASD. We found co-occurrence of mtDNA deletions with cryptorchidism, testicular hypoplasia, and atrial septal ASD-associated genetic alterations, which supports the defect. He began walking at 3 years of age and suffers previous observation that mitochondrial alterations are from obsessive hand movements, erratic behavior, and frequently associated with ASD. In one patient with ASD sleep disturbance. Aside from his developmental abnor- (P3), we found a mtDNA deletion with CHARGE syn- malities, neurological investigation detected pes varus, drome caused by a de novo mutation in CHD7. These severe visual impairment, bilateral ptosis, chewing diffi - genetic alterations in P3 were also accompanied by a culties, mild atrophy and weakness in the distal muscles TSC2 mutation of uncertain significance. Autistic symp - of the extremities, and truncal ataxia. High lactate lev- toms are present in approximately 30% of patients with els were detected in both serum and cerebrospinal fluid, CHARGE syndrome [39], and lactic acidosis is a rare and decreased levels of serum melatonin, calcium, and alteration. Based on the phenotype, we conclude that vitamin D3 were measured. A brain MRI detected hypo- the driving genetic alteration in this patient is the CHD7 plastic vermis and transverse sinus on the right side. An mutation, and the mitochondrial gene defect may not EEG found generalized irritative signs, and VEP found be the true causative factor in the etiology of the dis- an increased P100 on the left side. Brainstem auditory ease; however, CHD7 function is strongly ATP-depend- evoked potentials was normal. Family history identified ent [41]. In addition, the associated heterozygous TSC2 arrhythmia, diabetes mellitus, and colon polypomatosis mutation is likely a modifying gene. CHD7 is a member on the maternal side, and diabetes mellitus, arrhythmia, of the chromo-domain helicase DNA-binding (CHD) and dementia on the paternal side. protein family and plays a role in transcription regula- tion through chromatin remodelling. Mutations in TSC2 Detailed phenotype of a patient with congenital are known to cause one syndromic form of ASD; how- cytomegalovirus infection and mtDNA deletion ever, our patient did not develop the classic symptoms The 5-year-old female patient (P8) was born at a ges - of tuberous sclerosis until recently. TSC2 mutations tational age of 39 weeks by Caesarean section with a may induce activation of mTORC1 leading to increased birth weight of 3000 g. The pregnancy was complicated mtDNA expression and mitochondrial density. mTOR is with a partial placental abruption at 11 weeks. Evidence a Ser/Thr kinase that forms complexes with numerous Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 9 of 14 Table 4 Results of the ASD-NGS panel Patient ID Gene Mutation Zygosity Inheritance Clinical relevance Polyphen2 Patients with ASD and mtDNA deletion (N = 10) P1 FOXP2 A280T HET AD Uncertain significance 0.99 P2 RAI1 V1565M HET AD Uncertain significance 0.845 AUTS2 L433P HET AD Uncertain significance 1 P3 TSC2 K22N HET AD Uncertain significance 1 CHD7 Fs HET AD Pathogenic [38] n/d P4 RELN L496P HET AD/AR Uncertain significance 0.98 KATNAL2 R1382S HET AR/AD Uncertain significance 0.99 P6 ZNF804A A1108T HET n/d Uncertain significance 1 P7 RAI1 G1070R HET AD Uncertain significance 0.99 P8 DHCR7 W119* HET AR Pathogenic n/d NHS R409Q HET XLD Uncertain significance 1 P10 PDE10A P477A HOM AR/AD Uncertain significance 0.99 Patients with ASD and without mtDNA deletion (N = 7) C-ASD1 SHANK2 A1129P HET n/d Uncertain significance 0.86 C-ASD2 PON3 S820N HET n/d Uncertain significance 1 NRXN1 S820N HET AR Uncertain significance 0 CNTNAP2 Y716C HET n/d Uncertain significance 0.9 C-ASD3 SCN2A L577I HET AD Uncertain significance 0 C-ASD4 NLGN4X Q89H HET XLD Uncertain significance 0.99 C-ASD6 GNA14 Y287C HET n/d Uncertain significance 1 Healthy controls (N = 6) C-H1 ZNF804A A1108T HET n/d Uncertain significance 1 NIPBL R765K HET AD Uncertain significance 0.001 C-H2 ZNF804A A1108T HET n/d Uncertain significance 1 C-H3 RELN A150V HET AD/AR Uncertain significance 0.974 Patient ID SIFT MT dbSNP ExAC 1000 Genome/ EUR AF Patients with ASD and mtDNA deletion (N = 10) P1 0.23 D n/d 0.000008278 n/d P2 0.02 P rs368106957 0.0001819 0.0002/0 n/d D n/d 0.0002025 n/d P3 0.42 P n/d n/d n/d n/d D n/d n/d n/d P4 0.02 D n/d n/d n/d 0.14 P rs148791504 0.0009651 0.0016/n/d P6 0.16 P rs112183442 0.02529 0.0158/0.0457 Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 10 of 14 Table 4 continued Patient ID SIFT MT dbSNP ExAC 1000 Genome/ EUR AF P7 0.01 D rs370633684 0.0004679 0.0004/0.00077 P8 0.12 P rs11555217 0.0007 n/d 0.31 P n/d 0.00002282 n/d P10 1 P rs61733392 0.004515 0.0024/0.006 Patients with ASD and without mtDNA deletion (N = 7) C-ASD1 0.29 D rs377255888 0.00004137 n/d C-ASD2 0 D rs139856535 0.002787 0.0016/n/d 0.33 D rs80293130 0.0002235 0.0002/n/d 0.18 D n/d 0.00008303 n/d C-ASD3 0.91 D n/d n/d n/d C-ASD4 0.1 D n/d n/d n/d C-ASD6 1 D rs61755085 0.001506 0.0014/0.004 Healthy controls (N = 6) C-H1 0.16 P rs112183442 0.02529 0.0158/0.0457 0.64 D rs185678374 0.0005529 0.0004/n/d C-H2 0.16 P rs112183442 0.02529 0.0158/0.0457 C-H3 0.01 n/d n/d 0.000008245 n/d The detected rare variants of the 10 mtdel-ASD cases, in ASD patients without a mtDNA deletion, and in healthy controls are presented (only pathogenic, likely pathogenic variations and variations with uncertain significance variations are shown) P mtdel-ASD patient, non-mtdel-ASD ASD patient without mtDNA deletion, MD patient with mitochondrial disease, H healthy control individual, HET heterozygous, AR autosomal recessive, AD autosomal dominant, n/d no data, SIFT sorting intolerant from tolerant prediction database, MT mutation t@ster prediction database, D disease causing according to mutation t@ster prediction, P polymorphism according to mutation t@ ster prediction, ExAC allele frequency data from exome aggregation consortium, 1000 Genomes allele frequency data from 1000 Genomes project, EUR AF allele frequency in the European Super Population of the 1000 Genomes project *The symbol of the non sense mutation in protein level Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 11 of 14 protein partners to regulate cell growth, mitochondrial disorders (OMIM 615084, OMIM 245400) [44]. The membrane potential, and ATP synthetic capacity [42]. importance of the presence of heterozygous mutations is In Patient 8, we found that the mtDNA deletion was not well understood. It is known in some genes respon- accompanied by a heterozygous pathogenic DHCR7 muta- sible for intergenomic communications heterozygous tion and a rare variant of uncertain significance in NHS mutations may result in a less severe phenotype than that actin remodelling activator (NHS). DHCR7 catalyses cho- found with the homozygous form [45]. lesterol production from 7-dehydrocholesterol, and defects The question has also been raised whether patients with in this protein cause SLOS. Furthermore, a high 7-dehydro- MD and ASD symptoms have special characteristics. In cholesterol level results in mitochondrial dysfunction [43]. a study by Rossignol and Frye [9], a cohort of ASD/MD However, the significance of a heterozygous mutation in children were compared to two comparison groups: chil- this gene is not known. We hypothesize that in the case pre- dren with general ASD and children with general MD. In sented here the co-occurrence of the DHCR7 heterozygous the ASD/MD group, increased lactate and pyruvate levels, mutation and CMV infection may play a role in changes of seizures, motor delays, and gastrointestinal abnormalities mitochondrial biogenesis and in the pathogenesis of autis- were significantly more prevalent compared to children tic features. The patient was tested for SLOS; both serum with general ASD. A more balanced male:female ratio was cholesterol and 7-dehydrocholesterol levels were normal, also detected in the ASD/MD group [9]. Our results con- which rules out the presence of typical SLOS. firm the observations by Rossignol and Frye; however, in Evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction in ASD was our ASD cohort with mtDNA deletion, elevated lactate first described 19 years ago [10]. Currently, it is the most levels and/or an elevated lactate:pyruvate ratio were found common metabolic abnormality known in ASD with a in only four cases, whereas most of our ASD patients with prevalence of 7.2% [14]. In a subgroup of the CHARGE mtDNA deletion had symptoms common to MD, such as (Childhood Autism Risk from Genes and Environment) hypoacusis, muscle weakness, hypotonia, delayed motor study, decreased NADH activity was found in lympho- development, and movement disorder (Fig. 1). Signifi - cytes in 8 of 10 cases. In this cohort, only 2 of the 10 cant difference between mtdel-ASD and non-mtdel-ASD patients had mtDNA deletions and 5 patients had altered group was found regarding clinical phenotypes (devel- mtDNA copy numbers [12]. However, the genetic back- opmental regression, muscle hypotonia, additional neu- ground was not clarified in 79% of the patients with rological signs and multisystemic alterations were more ASD-MD [9]. Therefore, the possibility of secondary common in cases mt-delASD). Interestingly, the phe- damage to mitochondria cannot be excluded. A small notypes of classic mitochondrial deletion syndromes, pilot study examining 12 patients with ASD described 8 such as Pearson syndrome, progressive ophthalmoplegia mitochondrial deletions [21], which could be the result externa, and Kearns–Sayre syndrome, were not detected of intergenomic communication disturbances, environ- in any of our patients. The family histories of mtdel-ASD mental factors, or other gene–gene interactions. As is the children in our cohort differed from the family histo - case for many other disorders, it is still not clear whether ries of the ASD cohort without a mtDNA deletion, since the detected mitochondrial dysfunction in ASD is a pri- various psychiatric disorders were common among fam- mary or secondary event either having a key role in dis- ily members of mtdel-ASD cases both on maternal and ease pathogenesis or is simply a downstream effect. paternal side. However none of the parents reached the In our study, mtDNA deletions were identified in 16.6% MDC scoring cut-off value for definitive MD, which could of evaluated patients with ASD. During mtDNA hotspot not be independently verified because none of the family screening and NGS analysis, no concomitant primary members agreed to perform muscle biopsy. MtDNA dis- MD was detected. To examine whether mtDNA deletion orders are usually inherited maternally, however single is a primary or secondary event in ASD in our cohort, we mtDNA deletions are considered sporadic events with used different comparison groups to screen the nDNA low inheritance risk, whereas multiple mtDNA deletions background of the mtDNA deletion. Pathogenic or likely are the result of primary nuclear defects in genes respon- pathogenic variants were detected in both mtdel-ASD sible for mtDNA maintenance or nucleoside metabolism and MD without ASD cases, all in heterozygous form. and follow Mendelian inheritance patterns [46]. A high number of VUS in intergenomic communica- Mitochondrial haplogroups were also investigated in tion genes were detected in the MD without ASD cohort association with ASD. Chalkia et al. found that individu- (4/6), and a few rare variants were identified in patients als with European haplogroups designated I, J, K, X, T with ASD that lacked mtDNA deletion and in healthy and U (55% of the European population) had significantly controls (Table 3). Homozygous or compound heterozy- higher risks of ASD compared to the most common gous mutations in MGME1 and SUCLG1 have been pre- European haplogroup, HHV. Asian and Native American viously correlated with severe early-onset mitochondrial haplogroups A and M also were at increased risk of ASD Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 12 of 14 [47]. In Hungary it is not rare that a person has ancient comprehensive analysis, we found examples of both but European haplotype such as T, K, and U haplotype, and in most cases we did not find the causative genetic muta - rarely Asian haplotype such as B can occur as well. In tion that accounts for the mitochondrial dysfunction. some Hungarian patients the mtDNA deletion was coex- In the examined children from the general ASD cohort isting with ancient haplotype [48]. (without mtDNA deletion), we found several VUS, In 90% (9/10) of children from the mtdel-ASD cohort, most of which were identified in genes without previ - we found rare SNVs in ASD-associated genes (Table 4). ous correlation to mitochondrial dysfunction. Based on A rare mutation was detected in AUTS2 in which dele- our findings, we conclude that the detected mitochon - tions are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner drial DNA deletions in patients with ASD in our cohort and are associated with neurological symptoms including are a secondary effect. By investigating the most com - intellectual disability and developmental delay [49]. In a mon mtDNA alterations and the most common nuclear modest study of 13 cases of ASD associated with AUTS2 genes responsible for intergenomic communications, we alterations, only one patient had a nonsense mutation; all did not identify the clear genetic etiology in most of our the other patients had a deletion [49]. The significance of cases. Therefore, further investigation and characteriza - the missense mutation identified in our study is uncer - tion is warranted. tain (her mother harbours the mutation as well); how- ever, clinical symptoms of the patient correlate with the Limitations phenotype of previously published AUTS2 mutations. We identified certain limitations in our study. We focused This rare AUTS2 variant coexisted with a rare variant our investigation to analyse mutational hotspots and in retinoic acid induced gene 1 (RAI1). The gene–gene large mtDNA deletions and did not sequence the entire interaction of these two alterations are hypothesized. mitochondrial genome. The mtDNA mutations were In addition, we found that patients had mutations of analysed from blood samples; postmitotic tissue was not uncertain significance in forkhead box P2 (FOXP2), RAI1, available. The used long PCR method detects deletions phosphodiesterase 10A (PDE10A), katanin catalytic sub- in the mtDNA with high sensitivity and low specificity. unit A1 like 2 (KATNAL2), and reelin (RELN). Most of Deletions under 10% of heteroplasmy could be missed these genes play a role in cell regulation, signal transduc- due to technical barrier, overestimation of the HP ratio tion, and various signalling pathways, which could influ - is not expected. The detection of mtDNA deletion from ence mitochondrial function. FOXP2 is an evolutionarily NGS data will be in the future a new perspective, but conserved transcription factor that regulates the expres- today it is not in the everyday praxis. We used targeted sion of a variety of genes. Mutations in this gene cause NGS panels comprised of the most important genes speech-language disorder 1 (OMIM 602081), which associated with intergenomic communication and ASD. is also known as autosomal dominant speech and lan- However, these panels do not include all currently associ- guage disorder with orofacial dyspraxia [50]. RAI1 acts ated genes and the number of these genes is continuously as a transcriptional regulator of chromatin remodel- increasing. Finally, our healthy control group was older ling by interacting with basic transcriptional machinery than our ASD cohort and had different gender ratios. [51]. RAI1 deletion is associated with Smith–Magenis However, we felt that ethically it was not appropriate to syndrome, whereas duplications are associated with obtain biomaterial from healthy children for genetic test- Potocki–Lupski syndrome [52]. Several heterozygous ing. Since somatic mtDNA deletion may occur in asso- mutations are also associated with Smith–Magenis syn- ciation with ageing, and we detected the mtDNA deletion drome [53]. In our case, we found that the typical symp- less frequently in the control group it had no impact on toms of Smith–Magenis syndrome were not present. our data. Mitobreak Database [55] supports or presump- Mutations in PDE10A can affect cyclic nucleotide con - tion since deletion were present mostly only aged healthy centrations. This phosphodiesterase selectively catalyzes controls, otherwise they were associated or to sporadic the hydrolysis of 3′ cyclic phosphate bonds in cAMP and/ primary mitochondrial disorders (single deletion) or to or cGMP. The phosphodiesterase family of proteins regu - disorders due to intergenomial gene alterations (multiple lates cellular levels, localization, and duration of action deletions). of these second messengers by controlling the rate of their degradation. In addition, phosphodiesterases are Conclusions involved in many signal transduction pathways and are The aim of our study was to gain a better understand - implicated in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder [54]. ing of mitochondrial dysfunction in autism. We found Mitochondrial dysfunction may be associated with that mtDNA alterations were more common among our several forms of syndromic ASD, but is also frequently cohort of patients with ASD than in control individu- related to non-syndromic cases [8, 9]. During our als. In addition, we found that the mtDNA deletion was Varga et al. Behav Brain Funct (2018) 14:4 Page 13 of 14 statistical analyses. MJM designed the study, coordinated the research team, usually not the single genetic alteration identified in ASD, leaded the manuscript preparation, revised and corrected the manuscript. All but co-occurred in both syndromic and non-syndro- authors read and approved the final manuscript. mic forms of ASD with either ASD-associated genetic Author details risk factors and/or alterations in genes responsible for Institute of Genomic Medicine and Rare Disorders, Semmelweis University, intergenomic communication. Our findings indicate a Tömő Str. 25-29, Budapest 1083, Hungary. Department of Genetics, Cell- very complex pathophysiology of ASD in which mito- and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, Budapest 1089, Hungary. Vadaskert Foundation for Children’s Mental Health, Lipótmezei Str. chondrial dysfunction is not rare and can be caused by 1-5, Budapest 1021, Hungary. mtDNA deletion, which may be considered as de novo mutations or the consequence of the alterations of the Acknowledgements The authors thank Margit Kovács, Mariann Markó, and Mónika Sáry for their causative culprit genes for autism or genes responsible technical assistance, Lisa Hubers for language corrections, and the Metabolic for mtDNA maintenance. Laboratory of the I. Department of Pediatrics for performing the biochemical investigation. Additional file Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Additional file 1: Table S1. Investigated genes responsible for mtDNA Availability of data and materials maintenance (intergenomic NGS panel). All the datasets and/or analyses are available for reasonable from authors. Consent for publication Abbreviations All of the authors have agreed to publish this manuscript. ACMG: American College Medical Genetics; AD: autosomal dominant inherit- ance; AD: Alzheimer’s disease; ADI-R: autism diagnostic interview—revised; Ethics approval and consent to participate ADOS: autism diagnostic observation schedule; AR: autosomal recessive inher- The Hungarian Research Ethics Committee approved the study. Approval itance; ASD: autism spectrum disorder; ASD NGS: next generation sequencing Number is: 44599-2/2013/EKU (535/2013). The patient’s parents gave written for autism associated genes; ATP: adenosine-triphosphate; BWA: Burrows– informed consent. Wheeler alignment tool; C-ASD: control ASD patient; C-H: healthy control individual; CHARGE: coloboma, heart defect, atresia choanae, retarded growth Funding and development, genital-, ear abnormality; CHARGE: childhood autism risk This study was supported from Research and Technology Innovation Fund from genes and environment; CHD: chromo-domain helicase DNA-binding; BIOKLIMA KTIA_AIK_12-1-2013-0017 and Hungarian National Brain Research CK: creatine kinase; C-MD: control patient with MD; CMV: cytomegalovirus; D: Program KTIA_NAP_13_1-2013-0001. disease-causing according to mutation t@ster prediction; dbNSFP: database for nonsynonymous SNPs’ functional predictions; DNA: deoxyribonucleic Publisher’s Note acid; EEG: electroencephalography; ESP6500: NHLBI GO exome sequenc- Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- ing project; EUR AF: Allele frequency in the European super population of lished maps and institutional affiliations. the 1000 Genomes project; ExAC: exome aggregation consortium; FS: on father’s side; Fs: frameshift mutation; FS: father’s side of the family; HET: Received: 24 August 2017 Accepted: 16 January 2018 heterozygous; HGMD: human gene mutation database; HOM: homozygous; HP: heteroplasmy; IG NGS: next generation sequencing for genes responsi- ble for intergenomic communication; IQR: interquartile range; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; MD: mitochondrial disease; MDC: mitochondrial disease criteria; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; MS: on mother’s side; MS: mother’s side of the family; MT: mutation taster prediction; mtdel-ASD: ASD patients References with mitochondrial deletion; mtDNA: mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid; 1. 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Journal
Behavioral and Brain Functions – Springer Journals
Published: Dec 1, 2018
Keywords: neurosciences; neurology; behavioral therapy; psychiatry