Trafficability Prediction Using Depth-to-Water Maps: the Status of Application in Northern and Central European Forestry

Stephan Hoffmann; Marian Schönauer; Joachim Heppelmann; Antti Asikainen; Emmanuel Cacot; Benno Eberhard; Hubert Hasenauer; Janis Ivanovs; Dirk Jaeger; Andis Lazdins; Sima Mohtashami; Tadeusz Moskalik; Tomas Nordfjell; Krzysztof Stereńczak; Bruce Talbot; Jori Uusitalo; Morgan Vuillermoz; Rasmus Astrup

doi:10.1007/s40725-021-00153-8

Trafficability Prediction Using Depth-to-Water Maps: the Status of Application in Northern and Central European Forestry

Hoffmann, Stephan; Schönauer, Marian; Heppelmann, Joachim; Asikainen, Antti; Cacot, Emmanuel; Eberhard, Benno; Hasenauer, Hubert; Ivanovs, Janis; Jaeger, Dirk; Lazdins, Andis; Mohtashami, Sima; Moskalik, Tadeusz; Nordfjell, Tomas; Stereńczak, Krzysztof; Talbot, Bruce; Uusitalo, Jori; Vuillermoz, Morgan; Astrup, Rasmus 2022-03-01 00:00:00 Purpose of Review Mechanized logging operations with ground-based equipment commonly represent European production forestry but are well-known to potentially cause soil impacts through various forms of soil disturbances, especially on wet soils with low bearing capacity. In times of changing climate, with shorter periods of frozen soils, heavy rain fall events in spring and autumn and frequent needs for salvage logging, forestry stakeholders face increasingly unfavourable conditions to conduct low-impact operations. Thus, more than ever, planning tools such as trafficability maps are required to ensure efficient forest operations at reduced environmental impact. This paper aims to describe the status quo of existence and implementation of such tools applied in forest operations across Europe. In addition, focus is given to the availability and accessibility of data relevant for such predictions. Recent Findings A commonly identified me thod to support the planning and execution of machine-based operations is given by the prediction of areas with low bearing capacity due to wet soil conditions. Both the topographic wetness index (TWI) and the depth-to-water algorithm (DTW) are used to identify wet areas and to produce trafficability maps, based on spatial information. Summary The required input data is commonly available among governmental institutions and in some countries already further processed to have topography-derived trafficability maps and respective enabling technologies at hand. Particularly the Nordic countries are ahead within this process and currently pave the way to further transfer static trafficability maps into dynamic ones, including additional site-specific information received from detailed forest inventories. Yet, it is hoped that a broader adoption of these information by forest managers throughout Europe will take place to enhance sustainable forest operations. Keywords Depth-to-water · Remote sensing · Digital terrain models · European forestry · Precision forestry · Trafficability prediction Introduction harvester-forwarder systems unavoidably impacting the soil ecosystems due to high machine and payload weight trans- In Central and Northern European countries, ground- ported over sensitive forest grounds [1]. Such impacts occur based harvesting equipment accounts for the vast major- in various forms and include soil deformations such as ruts ity of commercially supplied roundwood. These predomi- [2, 3], or soil compaction, which increases bulk density due nantly cut-to-length operations are usually performed by to a decreasing pore space [4, 5], restricting the permeability of the soil [6]. The occurring degree of damage is a function of the traffic experienced, site conditions such as soil type, This article is part of the Topical Collection on Forest Engineering climate variables and machine operator skills [1, 7]. Historically, the primary timber logging season was * Stephan Hoffmann scheduled for the winter periods when the soils are frozen stephan.hoffmann@nibio.no [8, 9], making them relatively resilient to impacts due to Extended author information available on the last page of the article Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 56 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 their increased bearing strength [10]. Yet, the high own- treads [35], the utilization of traction-assist winches [36], ership costs of modern logging equipment and involving brush mats [37] and innovative steering concepts [38]. supply chains require these machines to work year-round However, an efficient utilization of technical soil preven - with the capability to increase their loads for cost reduc- tion measures relies upon the information of soil state in tion in an increasingly complex business environment with advance of scheduled operations. This enables the selection global competition [11]. Moreover, time periods of favour- of adequate equipment and sites to be operated in actual able operational conditions, in terms of frozen and thus instructions for machine drivers, as well as a sufficient sup- stable soils, are getting shorter and less frequent [5, 12]. port during the off-road navigation in forest stands. The On the other hand, periods of freeze and thaw cycles with potential avoidance of areas and sites possessing a currently wet or even water-saturated soil conditions are likely to be high vulnerability to machine impact implies the spatial pre- extended, resulting in vulnerable soils with restricted traf- diction of risks to severe damages—both, among extensive ficability [13]. This leads to a more significant potential for off-road traffic during clear-cut operations, as common in lasting site damages caused by heavy machinery in the form Nordic countries, but also among single-selection silvicul- of soil rutting or compaction [14] and is thus a major con- ture systems commonly practiced in Central Europe, where cern during sustainable impact assessment of forest opera- machine traffic is often confined to permanent machine tions and timber supply chains [15]. operation trails. There, next to the reduction of soil impacts The occurrence of severe soil impacts can be associated in general, the technical functionality and consequent per- with several negative effects, including both economic and manent accessibility into forest stands can be maintained ecological aspects. For instance, more machine power is if machine operators know which segments of a machine required when machines are driving on soft grounds, result- operating trail to avoid at a given time of operation. Field ing in increased fuel consumption, machine wear and tech- testing equipment such as penetrologger, penetrometer or nical failures [16 , 17]. Moreover, ongoing operations need vane testers are easy to handle tools, generating established to be stopped if the occurring rut depth exceeds degrees or indices about soil strength [39]. However, assessing an entire extents defined in contracts made between entrepreneurs and operation site with these tools is time consuming and rep- forest owners, resulting in high costs due to machine reloca- resents only the current situation at time of measurement. tions and downtime. Thus, there is an increasing role for planning software solu- In addition to economic drawbacks, various traffic- tions with predictive power for different conditions expected induced environmental consequences are of concern. The and demanded in harvesting preparations [40–42]. compaction of soil in a continuous linear pattern, such as A number of rut risk prediction tools have been devel- a wheel track, restricts the soil’s permeability and alters oped in the last decades: A simplified model was suggested hydrological conditions [18]. On steeper slopes, ruts can by O’Sullivan et al. [43], in which contact areas between result in channelling with increasing erosional energy, for- soil and tires, soil type, initial bulk density and water con- tifying the loss of valuable topsoil [19]. When exceeding tent profiles are considered for the selection of an appropri- a specific soil bulk density, negative effects on plant avail- ately equipped machine. A similar approach was invented able water [20] and plant growth [21, 22] can occur. Beyl- by Canillas and Salokhe [44], who added external variables ich et al. [23] report negative effects on various soil faunal like travel speed, axle loads and number of passes to tire groups related to the reduced macropore volume and the and soil variables, to develop a decision support system, altered hydrological conditions. In addition, soil disturbance providing recommendations for soil management practices through rutting has also been suspected of mobilizing heavy on agricultural areas. Still, a regular application of such metals, e.g. methyl-mercury, although the direct effect of soil systems in day-to-day forestry operations is pending. It can disturbance alone has not been quantified [24– 26]. be assumed that a reason for a lacking implementation of In consequence, it is critically noted that forestry predictive systems into forest management can be found in machines have increased in total weight over the last dec- the high demand of required input data, or time-intensive ades [27]. However, the pressure exerted by heavy forward- efforts for related in-field measurements [39]. Consequently, ers on the ground did not increase, as a result of likewise topical research emphasizes the utilization of openly acces- increased contact area between machine and soil [28]. Along sible data, as for example shown by the work of Lidberg with wider and optionally low inflatable tyres [29], numer - et al. [45 ], who generated wet area maps based on data from ous technological solutions aim to mitigate traffic-induced national inventories, fused with topographical information, site impact. Hereby, a focus is set on increasing machine including the topographic wetness index (TWI) and depth- •• flotation, traction and contact area, as for example through to-water (DTW) maps. Salmivaara et al. [46 ] developed bogie tracks [30], long-tracked bogie axles [31], triple-bogie an integrative tool to predict trafficability, using a spatial axles [32], auxiliary axles [33], rubber-tracked bogie axles hydrological model, inventory data, a wide range of spatial with support rollers [34], large radial tyres with alternative information and data derived from the operating machine. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 57 The increasingly available ALS (airborne laser scanning)- Science. Although this review approach facilitates a logical derived digital terrain models (DTM) have been verified by identification of publications assigned to a specific topic, the plethora of their various applications, both for practical it also often leads to hundreds of selections which are not and scientific purposes. Perhaps one of the most significant relevant for the review’s objective and need to be manually applications of ALS-derived DTMs in forest operations has eliminated through a time-consuming initial examination of been in facilitating the mapping of areas of anticipated high at least the title or the abstract. moisture and therewith potentially high vulnerability to soil This review on the DTW algorithm in the context of traf- damage by vehicle passes. The nowadays wide availabil- ficability mapping follows the snowball approach, where ity of high-resolution DTMs (i.e. 0.5–2 m grid cell size) the bibliography of a known recent key publication, in this •• allows for precise application of spatial parameters useful case Salmivaara et al. [46 ], is used as a starting point to to determine soil trafficability sensitivity, such as the TWI identify further publications. Subsequently, selected publica- developed by Beven and Kirkby [47]. This index quantifies tions were reviewed and those bibliographies used to iden- the influence of topography on hydrological processes based tify additional publications until no more new references of on slope and upstream contributing area. Researchers have relevance appeared. A priority was given to publications of evaluated TWI’s successfulness in predicting the groundwa- the last decade (2011–2021), following the wider promotion ter table [48], the effect of DTM resolution on its prediction of forest soil moisture modelling for operational purposes [49] and how it performs in comparison to a dynamic model in 2011 by Murphy et al. [52]. This approach was selected [50]. There are several possible methods to calculate the since in contrast to a purely keyword focused database contributing area, flow channels and slope out of a DTM for search, the snowball system considers all relevant references, the TWI index, partly with local alterations. including non-peer-reviewed early-stage research, as well as The cartographic DTW algorithm, developed by Murphy institutional and industry reports. Moreover, the authoring et al. [51, 52], has proven to be powerful in the prediction of team consists of experts on the topic, being involved in the soil state across different landscapes [ 52, 53]. This algorithm two multiyear EU projects TECH4EFFECT (grant number was evaluated to be more independent from the scale of the 720757) and EFFORTE (grant number 720712), which con- DTM provided, as compared to other topography-derived ducted intensive research in the field of trafficability predic- algorithms, such as the TWI [54]. This allows for reliable tion. Thus, additionally to the relevant state-of-the-art publi- results even when the calculations are based on input grid cations, latest findings from ongoing research and technical cells of different resolutions, thus having an asset over the implementation on national level could be incorporated into TWI. the review process. Through this rather open approach, 56 Due to the rising interest in the DTW-based trafficability peer-reviewed publications, 14 web resources and 8 insti- assessment by researchers and industry, our paper aims to tutional reports of relevance directly involving or related to give an overview and synthesizing the readiness level for forest site trafficability prediction with the DTW algorithm the implementation of national terrain simulations, applying could be identified and reviewed for the period of interest. the DTW algorithm. Relevant forestry countries in Northern and Central Europe have been selected to review the status of available terrain data derived from state-of-the-art air- Conception of the Depth‑toW ‑ ater Algorithm borne laser scanning (ALS) technologies—a fundamental and Its Application for Trafficability Mapping prerequisite to produce DTW maps. Further, already existing applications of the DTW algorithm or other means of spatial DTW uses flow lines derived from a DTM-based flow trafficability prediction to reduce the impact of ground-based accumulation, to calculate the anticipated vertical distance logging systems are presented among the selected countries, between any given grid cell of a DTM to a modelled water too. Hence, this paper provides an assessment of the status layer [55]. Each grid cell’s accumulated flow value is com- and the potential integration of such tools to support sustain- puted based on the size of the area, converging from the able forest management by improved operational planning adjacent cells. The accumulated area size is then used to and execution. initiate a flow line, depending on a defined threshold. This threshold of area size defines the flow initiation area (FIA, 2 2 m ). For example, if the FIA was set to 2,500 m , an accu- Literature Review mulated value of 2,500 m was sufficient to start a flow line, which continues until leaving the area of interest. If a large Review articles are commonly based on the screening of FIA is used to initiate a simulated flow line, a low level of scientific publications, identified through a search string soil moisture is represented in return. Contrarily, a small FIA of selected keywords in combination with Boolean opera- can be used to represent very wet or sensitive soil conditions, tors applied to a publication database such as the Web of as the network of flow lines expands. 1 3 58 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 The flow lines created in this way are added as a dichoto- unit. Zimbelman and Keefe [59] demonstrated the use of mous value to the respective DTM. The combination of both geofencing tools to notify workers of high hazard zones in flow lines and DTM can be used to compute the vertical forestry activities. Similar activities could be developed that difference between each grid cell and the nearest flow line— integrate the mapping of soft soils and actively inform the defining the DTW index. Therefore, a least cost function is operator when they approach those areas. However, it would applied to estimate the least slope gradients between the grid also require additional training to ensure that the operators cells and the flow lines, minimizing Eq. (1 ): can quickly implement this information to improve forest management’s sustainability. dz Recent studies reveal a possible fusion of DTW maps DTW[m] = a x (1) dx with further data sources, including openly accessible spa- tial information and hydrological modelling, to be used for dz where is the slope between a cell i and adjacent cells, a is dx √ • •• i the prediction of forest soil’s trafficability [45 , 46 ] and 1 in case of parallel drainage and 2 in case of diagonal improve the o- ff road navigation of forest machines [60 , 61]. drainage and x is the grid cell size (m). Such approaches profit vastly from open and cross-border For enhanced utilization of the DTW concept, the proce- availability of spatial data [62]. In particular, the European dure was described in detail and made openly available by Community INSPIRE Directive implemented public avail- Schönauer and Maack [56]. The DTW index can be inter- ability of manifold data sets [63]. Through the INSPIRE pro- preted as a relative measure of soil drainage condition, which gramme, 34 spatial data themes needed for environmental approximates the tendency of a saturated landscape point. applications, such as elevation, are compiled and organized Cells with a small DTW value show a trend of surface water in a standardized infrastructure for sharing among public or water containing layers in the soil [51]. In return, high organizations, but also providing public access on a Euro- values of DTW are assumed to indicate dryer soils (Fig. 1). pean scale, aiming towards an enhanced land-use policy- Since the susceptibility of soils to deformations is deeply making across boundaries [64]. attributed to the soil moisture content [57], DTW maps are increasingly used to assess the risk of causing machine traf- fic-induced rutting and compaction [39, 58]. DTW maps Country Overview and Readiness for DTW can be adopted by the forest industry to plan operations and guide machine traffic. Such a planning approach can be used Countries are collecting spatial data from regional to for instance to identify and avoid potential wet areas, streams national level, characterized by differences in survey tech- which are not visible due to a snow cover, or to optimize the nology, processing and provision to users (Table 1). In con- delineation of a machine operating trail across forest stands. sequence, this determines the DTW readiness for operational An integrated on-board navigation system in harvester and purposes within a specific country. Therefore, a detailed forwarders could then be used to identify and warn opera- overview of national ALS mapping campaigns and derived tors when approaching sensitive areas within a harvesting DTM accessibility shall be given for selected key forestry Fig. 1 The depth-to-water index (DTW) indicates the vertical prox- tions, whereas values greater than 1 m should possess sufficient traf- imity to the nearest simulated water layer, which is based on flow ficability for heavy forest machines. B Thus, areas with a high risk for lines or areas saturated by water. Particularly, this metric index is cal- soil damage can be shown on maps, as indicated by the blue colour- culated for each cell of a digital terrain model (DTM). A Values less ing than 1 m indicate wet areas with high susceptibility for soil deforma- 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 59 Table 1 Overview of the availability and quality of digital terrain models in selected European countries Country Grid cell size Data acquisition Year of national ALS resolution Source Costs campaign Austria 10 m National ALS cam- 2013 4 pts/mwww. data. gv. at Open access paign 1 m (0.5 m) State-individual ALS Varying between states campaigns Finland 2 m National ALS cam- Accomplished 2020 0.5 to 1 pts/mwww. paitu li. csc. fi Open access paign France National ALS campaign in progress 25, 75 and 250 m Various sources Not applicable Open access down according to to 75 m, 25 m with regional acquisition costs approaches Germany 200 m Various sources Update based on Diversewww. bkg. bund. de Open access according to regional data and www. geopo 5 m Individualized regional acquisition provisionrtal. de licensing scheme approaches 1 m Varying between states Latvia 20 m National ALS cam- 2013–2019 4 pts/mwww. lgia. gov. lv Open access paign Norway 10 m (national National ALS cam- Updating campaign Min. 2 pts/m www. hoyde data. no Open access level, locally paign and regional 2016–2022 (locally higher) higher) orthophotos Poland 0.5 m (1 m) National ALS cam- Since 2011–2014 4, 6 and 12 pts/mwww. gugik. gov. pl Open access paign Sweden 2 m National ALS cam- 2009–2016 (new 0.5–1 pts/mwww. lantm ateri et. Free access for paign campaign since se and www. geoda research and 2018)ta. se education, yearly subscription fee for commercial applications 50 m Various sources Not applicable Open access according to regional acquisition approaches countries. Namely, the Nordic countries Finland and Sweden non-DTW-based trafficability prediction in the selected were selected due to its high degree of mechanized opera- countries is surveyed within this review. tions with heavy logging equipment, as well as a consid- erable share of sensitive operation sites such as peatlands. Norway, with its more mountainous landscapes, completes State of Operational Moisture‑Driven the boreal forest biome of the Nordic countries. In Cen- Trafficability Modelling tral Europe, Germany and France are representing diverse temperate forest regions of major timber-producing coun- Finland tries, applying a wide range of silvicultural and operational systems. Austria, following similar forestry approaches, is Forest owners in Finland can estimate forest soil trafficabil- included to represent the high mountain regions of Central ity with two alternative methods: with the DTW maps or Europe. East-Central Europe is represented by Poland as with the static trafficability maps developed by Arbonaut Oy. an important timber producer with vast forest areas shaped The DTW maps are based on 2 m DTMs practically avail- by continental climate conditions. Furthermore, Latvia was able for the whole country. Various stream networks are cal- added to represent the specific Baltic conditions with sea- culated by using 0.5 ha, 1 ha, 4 ha and 10 ha threshold on sonally waterlogged plains. the flow accumulation raster. The DTW is finally calculated Next to the acquisition and provision of terrain data, the based on these stream networks and slope with cost accu- current availability or implementation of DTW maps and mulation per watershed, which is conducted by Luke, and 1 3 60 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 the maps are available in the national spatial data download application. Elevation data, grid 50, is another terrain model service (www. paitu li. csc. fi). available at the Swedish Mapping, Cadastral and Land Reg- The static trafficability map presents the classification of istration Authority. This model is built based on either the forests in 6 different trafficability classes. The map product, (1) national terrain model or (2) the elevation data bank developed by Arbonaut Oy, combines classic topographic (from the 1980s) and are used in more general applications, DTW information to tree volume and soil type (peatland or e.g. height contours generations and correction of satellite mineral soil). The trafficability classes are based on seasonal images. changes in bearing capacity of forest floor in Finland. The A new nationwide LiDAR campaign with higher point map provides information about the season when harvesting density (1–2 pts/m ) has just started in spring 2018, mainly operations may take place with standard logging machinery to update the forest estimations, e.g. tree volume, height, (i.e. a harvester and a forwarder) without causing substan- average diameter and biomass. The product will be prepared tial damages on forest soil. The mapping unit is a pixel of for areas of 2.5 × 2.5 km [67] and produces DTMs with 1 m 16 m size compatible with the forest resource information resolution. provided by the Finnish Forest Centre. Each pixel is classi- DTW maps were prepared by the Swedish forest agency fied in one of the following classes: 1, operations possible over the whole country since 2014 and were freely available in all seasons; 2, operations possible in summer, mineral through their online map services. The maps had been used soils; 3, operations possible in summer during dry season, by majority of forestry companies since about 5 years and mineral soils; 4, operations possible in summer, peatlands; contributed to improve planning of different forest opera- 5, operations possible in summer during dry season, peat- tions [66]. lands; and 6, operations possible only during frost or thick A new version of soil moisture maps has been developed layer of snow [65]. at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) The trafficability maps are available for the whole coun- and is available at online map services of the Swedish for- try. The data is distributed as open access data by the Finnish estry agency since beginning of 2021. There, Artificial Intel- Forest Centre. The data can be accessed via a map applica- ligence (AI) information from various (24) data layers, e.g. tion and a web map service WMS. Also, the raster maps soil type, topography and climate, is combined to estimate a can be downloaded from the Finnish Forest Centre’s www moisture index representing a yearly average of soil moisture site (https://ainei s tot.me tsaan. fi/ a voinme tsatie to/K orjuuk elp in raster layers of 2 × 2 m resolution [45 ]. oisuus) as tif files. In addition, forest owners can access the data in www. metsa an. fi service portal. Metsaan.fi is a ser - Norway vice for forest owner to easily access the information of their own forest and to use digital forest services. The trafficabil- The Norwegian Mapping Authority (Kartverket), in con- ity maps are today widely used in Finnish forestry by forest junction with partner organizations, collects, systemizes, operation managers and forest machine operators [66]. processes, manages and disseminates national geographical information. In 2016, a national programme was started to Sweden generate a new detailed terrain model based on ALS, for areas with vegetation/forest cover, and image matching for The Swedish Mapping, Cadastral and Land Registration mountain areas with little to no vegetation. The new terrain Authority, Lantmäteriet, scanned the entire country with model is scheduled to be completed for the whole country high-resolution ALS technology between 2009 and 2016 (325,000 km ) by 2022 [68]. Private vendors were awarded to provide detailed terrain model required for climate project wise to conduct the scanning campaigns with a cov- change adaptation programmes and other environmental erage of at least 2 pts/m , delivering classified point clouds programmes [67]. The scanning was performed from air- to the Norwegian Mapping Authority. Classes vary between planes at an altitude of 1,700–2,300 and up to 3,500 m in ALS projects but always include the class “ground points”. the mountains, on areas of 25 × 50 km, and collect data in In addition to the contracted deliveries, existing regional the form of point clouds. The point intensity in scanning ALS data of higher quality, but also photogrammetric image varies between 0.5 and 1 per m . It has an average error of matching for high mountain plateaus, is used by the Nor- 25 cm planar direction in the reference system SWEREF wegian Mapping Authority to generate the latest national 99 TM and 5 cm in elevation in the reference system RH DTM. The density of the point cloud behind the updated 2000. Using triangular irregular network (TIN) interpola- national DTM can therefor regionally differ but is constantly tion, the point data is transformed to a 2-m elevation grid updated if higher quality data is available. The latest data with a precision that is better than 10 cm in height and 30 cm sets can be visualized with a variety of web map services at in planar [67]. The data set is freely available for research the portal “hoydedata.no”. Both the ALS point cloud data and education but requires subscription fee for commercial and a 1 m resolution DTM can freely be downloaded. A 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 61 second acquisition of a national ALS data set at a later point focused on and instrumented for these topics. Monitoring in time is not planned so far. The digital elevation data will of experimental sites for the long-term productivity shows be updated using photogrammetry based on aerial images that after two of the routing cycles of a forwarder, the sensi- that are acquired in regular intervals (5–10 years) [69]. tive forest soils are quickly degraded, and their restoration Based on the DTM availability, two DTW maps (Mark- takes longer than 7 years [73]. Moreover, active restoration fuktighetskart) presenting the soil moisture in a grid either as through e.g. mechanical loosening or ecological engineer- classes or in centimetre towards the soil surface are openly ing practices such as exudation and providing substrates available on national level (www . kilden. nibio. no ). The DTW to promote biotic processes of soil recovery following soil maps are to varying degree used by foresters in the planning compaction is difficult [74]. of forest operations in Norway. Further developments of the DTW maps will include a dynamic approach for trafficabil- Germany ity mapping that combines weather data and DTW maps to predict trafficability, which will also lead to a better seasonal Owing to the federal organization in Germany, generation classification of operational sites. and provision of geodata is administered at different regional scales. The 16 individually organized state surveying offices France of Germany are responsible for their respective data acqui- sition, including ALS campaigns to create terrain models. In 2021, the first national French ALS campaign was ini- Although the resultant DTMs possess a high variability in tiated by the National Institute of Geographic and Forest terms of technology used and updating, they are available in Information (IGN = public administrative establishment all states with a grid cell size of 1 m, since the completion of placed under the joint authority of the Ministries in charge the state Saxony in 2020 [75]. Access and retail fees depend of ecology and forestry). In the course of this campaign, 10 on individual policies, ranging from open data DTMs, as pts/m based products will progressively be published as provided via a web coverage service for the area of North open data by 2025, starting from the Mediterranean region Rhine-Westphalia [76] to commercial products as available and upward [70]. Although no starting date finalized so far, for the area of Lower Saxony [77]. it is supposed to be implemented with countrywide coverage The Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy, BKG over a period of 5 years. Yet, sub-regions are identified as (Bundesamt für Kartographie and Geodäsie), in fulfillment priorities for EU CAP monitoring purpose and are expected of the Federal Geo-data Reference Act (BGeoRG), main- to be accomplished by 2023. The scanning campaign is tains geodetic reference systems and collects and provides envisaged to be conducted with a coverage of 10 pts/m , data for utilization by other national authorities and to fulfil and the data will be used to produce DTMs and DSMs, after its international obligations [78]. The BKG delineates and completion openly available through the national geoportal updates countrywide DTMs as soon as new data is submit- (https:// www. geopo r t ail. gouv . fr/). Additionally, an initia- ted by one of the 16 state surveying offices. The state-wide tive from the Ministry of Agriculture intends to update the DTMs are merged to countrywide DTMs with a grid cell spatial data on 3-year intervals through 25 cm IR photogra- size ranging from 5 to 1,000 m. A countrywide DTM with phy. But currently, the BD Alti, based on various regional a grid cell size of 200 m is openly accessible as part of data acquisition techniques, is the only nationwide available the INSPIRE programme [64], same applies to the digital DTM, with highest resolution of 25 m grids, only. CORINE land cover map “LCL5”, providing land-use clas- For forest soil trafficability assessment, a model devel- sification at 5 ha resolution. DTMs with a higher resolution, oped for agriculture (SoilFlex; developed by Keller et al. covering the whole area of Germany, are retailed as com- [71]) was also tested on two French forest sites. The pur- mercial products by the BKG. Among these, the “DGM5” pose of the model was to predict compaction risks and rut- (5 m grid cell size) has the highest resolution, with prices ting from a set of accessible parameters to practitioners for dependent on area size and type of utilization. either agriculture or forestry. Results were, for the most part, Despite of the availability of DTMs, trafficability of forest successful. The exception occurred for the inclusion of the management units in Germany is currently rather statically surface organic layer. This organic layer includes a high and non DTW-based evaluated, besides at a current regional organic carbon and moisture and a smaller deformation than research activity in North Rhine-Westphalia [79]. Site infor- predicted by the model [72]. During the last decade, experi- mation and terrain slope classifications, in combination mental plots were instrumented and monitored to document with the local forest manager’s experience on trafficability, hydric transfer phenomena and forest soil reaction after com- are a common way to select appropriate machine systems paction. Such fundamental research has been limited to few and schedule the most suited time of the forest operation. plots established on state-owned forest (two sites in Lorraine However, soil mapping has been conducted intensively region) or via the network F-ORE-T with two sites partially in Germany, and digital soil maps are available, although 1 3 62 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 highly varying between states [80]. Based on such soil maps, so far. Still, soil mappings and additional geospatial data for regional solutions were developed to support the common various topics such as forest, natural hazards, nature conser- practice for mechanized forest operations. For instance, the vation, flood, and aerial images are offered partially. state forest enterprise of Lower Saxony introduced traffica- bility risk maps, consisting of four risk levels [81] and made Poland available for forestry stakeholders through an internal online GIS (geographic information system). Another approach was In Poland, the data covering now whole country and first developed to evaluate operational systems according to tech- large acquisition is from one ALS campaign completed nical limitations by the site classification, and in addition to between 2011 and 2014. It was completed to fulfil obliga- observed stand development phases and weather conditions tions imposed on EU countries by the Directive 2007/60/EC during the scheduled harvesting period [82]. Going a step of the European Parliament and the Council on the Assess- further, the State Office for Environment, Agriculture, and ment and Management of Flood Risks (23 October 2007) Geology in the state of Saxony (LFULG) already provides [89]. To assess flood risk, the Polish Government decided a digital map showing soil’s sensitivity to compaction at to start the project entitled “IT System for the Country’s a scale of 1:50,000 [83]. It is based on the governmental Protection Against Extraordinary Threats” (in Polish: ISOK digital soil map “digBK50”, interfaced with monthly cli- – “Informatyczny System Osłony Kraju przed nadzwycza- matic water balance values recorded from 1993 onwards, jnymi zagrożeniami”). Under this project, 92% of the total and allows to consider soil compaction sensitivity accord- area was covered with ALS data, and based on DTM gener- ing to various soil features during the seasons for large area ated from ALS data, the flood risk assessment was deter - planning, such as agricultural or construction operations. mined. Before this period, there were obtained ALS data just Although this is one of the first attempts of a soil moisture- from single projects and covered relatively small areas. The driven trafficability modelling, the scale is too large to suit area scanned under the ISOK project was 288,806 km , from 2 2 individual forestry operations. which 267,403 km was completed with density of 4 pts/m ; 2 2 2 8,148 km with 6 pts/m , priority areas; and 13,769 km with Austria 12 pts/m , cities [89]. The derived DTMs are available with a grid cell size of 0.5 and 1 m. After 2014, new campaigns Based on the INSPIRE programme of the European Parlia- of ALS data acquisition were carried out, and now almost ment [63], and legally ratified through [ 84], a DTM with whole Poland is covered at least with one ALS data set. a grid cell size of 10 m is openly accessible for the whole The authority which hosts the national data is the Depart- area of Austria. This DTM has been retrieved from the first ment of Photogrammetry at the Geodesic and Cartographic cycle of scan flights by ALS, in 2013. Due to the country’s Documentation Centre in Warsaw. All data are freely avail- federalism, the geospatial data are managed individually by able for any purpose. But currently the data has not been the nine states. A second and third cycle was performed by used to implement a DTW or other spatial approach to pre- each state independently. The data density for the first cycle, dict forest trafficability. However, on a pilot site, DTW maps in general, was 4 pts/m , while the intended value for ongo- have recently been applied for trafficability prediction on ing measurements was 8–16 pts/m . research level [79]. Austria has an open geodata portal, operated by the gov- ernmental provider [85]. The availability of geospatial data Latvia varies between the states: For instance, in Upper Austria, all the data are made freely available by the state office and In Latvia, 50.1% of the territory is covered by forests; agri- contain DTMs with a grid cell size of 0.5 m or 1 m for each cultural land is covering 22.8%, grasslands 15.9%, wetlands municipality. A guidance for merging and processing the 6.2% and settlements 4.8% [90]. One-time coverage of ALS XYZ tiles, using open tools, is provided too [86]. In line data is provided for the whole territory of the country, and with this data organization, several Austrian states openly data collection has been organized by the Latvian Geospatial provide DTMs with a grid cell size of 1 m. However, for the Information Agency (LGIA) by hiring foreign companies. area of Burgenland, Tyrol or Lower Austria, freely accessi- ALS surveys were performed in the period from 2013 to ble DTMs show a lower grid cell size (5 m, or 10 m). For the 2019. The Leica ALS70, Riegl LMS-Q680i and Riegl LMS- area of Vorarlberg, contour lines are available only, either as Q780i scanners were used for scanning. ALS scanning was a shapefile or rasterized. performed on both the leaf-on and leaf-off periods. The total Although the DTMs available for a large area of Austria point density is at least 4 points per square meter, while the are sufficient and the country declared a mandatory con- density of ground points is at least 1.5 points per square servation of soils [87, 88], an implementation of machine- meter. The ALS point cloud is automatically classified by induced impacts through trafficability predictions is pending ground points, as well as low, medium and high vegetation 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 63 classes, but infrastructure and other objects are manually Discussion classified. The data is freely available on the LGIA website, as well as a generated DTM of 20 m resolution. Negotiations This review indicated that there is a potential to mitigate are underway for a second ALS campaign. impacts from ground-based harvesting by improved planning At the beginning of 2021, ALS data in Latvia were used aided by DTW-derived predictions of sensitive soil condi- to generate DTW maps nationwide in 5 m horizontal resolu- tions. The review of the country-wise status of trafficability tion, and individual map sheets can be downloaded from the predictions illustrated that basic requirements for applica- LSFRI Silava website (http:// www. silava. lv/ produ kti/ Karto tions in forestry industry are expanding throughout North- grafi skie- mater iali. aspx). In parallel, work is underway to ern and Central Europe with the increasing availability of develop a wet area map for the entire country according to highly accurate ALS-derived DTMs (Fig. 2A). However, it is the methodology described by Ivanovs and Lupikis [91]. merely in the Nordic countries that national DTW maps are Wet area mapping uses various indices obtained by process- publicly available with close to national coverage (Fig. 2B). ing DTM, such as depression maps, normalized elevation Since most European countries have initiated national index, slope, TWI, DTW and other indices. These maps are ALS flight campaigns, country- or state-wide DTMs are planned to be popularized in forestry industry seminars and available, enabling the creation of DTW maps for practical put into practice in forest management planning. and scientific purposes. The creation of countrywide DTW (A)(B) no high resolution DTMavailable no DTW-maps available partly openly availablehighresolutionDTM DTW-maps regionally existfor research openly availablehighresolutionDTM DTW-maps areopenly available Fig. 2 Availability and accessibility of A high-resolution digital terrain models (DTM) and B depth-to-water (DTW) maps among the European countries included in the review about current state of trafficability prediction 1 3 64 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 maps has already been facilitated by specific public or pri- DTMs with a sufficient resolution as well as to remaining vate institutions in the Nordic countries such as Sweden, geospatial data would support and promote both practical Norway, Finland, and Latvia. In order to actually enable applications and purposes, as confirmed by Melander et al. the widespread use of high-resolution DTW maps in forest [17]. operations, the maps will very likely have to be produced by Regardless of the origin of DTW maps, an enhanced soil a central organization as it seems unrealistic that small- and conservation through cartographic material requires a user- medium-sized individual organizations are able to execute specific interface. Modern forest machines are capable to the acquisition of openly available data or the commercial read and display geospatial grids, such as DTW maps. Apart purchase of DTMs from governmental providers. The avail- from that, the “TECH4EFFECT Mapping App” [93] is a ability of DTMs ranges between openly accessible DTMs good example following the open geospatial information with a grid cell size of 0.5 m to complex hybrid business philosophy, by providing such an interface through a no- models requiring the purchase of DTMs with such a high cost Android OS mobile application. The app is conceived spatial resolution. For instance, in the case of large areas of primarily as a visualization tool for machine operators to Austria and Germany, a fee is required for high-resolution be able to adopt their path of travel in accordance with the DTMs. There, only DTMs with a grid cell size of 5 m, 10 m geo-referenced location and displayed DTW maps. Addi- or 200 m, respectively, are made openly accessible accord- tionally, such apps usually allow for incorporating further ing to the INSPIRE programme [64]. Although the applica- spatial information about additional “no-go areas”, such as tion of the DTW algorithm is generally robust to DTMs protected areas, with the option to prompt the user with a of different size [54], best results are achieved with DTM signal when approaching these. resolutions not exceeding 5–10 m, and ideally be even less Displaying DTW maps by machine’s on-board comput- than 5 m [92]. Thus, DTW modelling is technically also pos- ers, integrated into mobile GIS applications, can provide sible on DTMs with a low resolution of e.g. 200 m, but the the operator with site-specific information to choose the resulting DTW map would not be practical for operational extraction route that combines consideration for both ben- implementation to determine machine trafficability on a log- efits for soil conservation and operational efficiency. The ging site [54]. latest GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) receivers Generally, it can be stated that the availability and acces- are standard features on state-of-the-art logging equipment, sibility of high-resolution DTMs is not a major limitation setting the basis for such an approach. Yet, precise machine for the creation of DTW maps anymore. All surveyed coun- positioning, as through RTK (real-time kinematic) support tries already provide DTMs with a sufficient resolution, or [94], and in-field access to DTW maps, which could be pro- as in the case of France, are on the way to facilitate national vided as web map service, require mobile networks with ALS campaigns. The more fundamental bottleneck might be high data transmission standards, also in remote forest areas the actual calculation of the DTW algorithm for the appli- [95]. But in many European regions, the mobile network cation of such maps as tools to increase soil conservation. infrastructure does not meet these requirements yet [96]. It is Currently, DTW maps in most countries are produced by therefore the responsibility of the relevant government agen- researchers and individual authorities [54] for an intended cies of the individual countries to build up the demanded user, who covers the costs or possesses specific project standards. Until then, standalone applications, functioning funds. For a widespread practical application, supporting in off-line modes, will be the focus of intermediate solu- day-to-day forest operations, the maps should be generated tions [95]. on behalf of forestry stakeholders by dedicated experts, since Besides technical and administrative challenges, a full- entrepreneurs might not have the capability to create DTW range implementation of DTW-based trafficability maps maps. Although not solely DTW-based, the currently avail- would require a dynamic approach, accounting for seasonal able static trafficability maps in Finland are a good example variation of soil moisture [92, 97, 98]. Research activi- how information about trafficability can be made openly ties currently address this issue, for example by sequential accessible and support sustainable forest operations at small combination of DTW maps and additional, freely accessi- scale [65]. Another big asset of the Finish maps is also the ble weather data. This led to a recently conducted dynamic classification according to seasonal recommendations for the approach, integrating information about topography, soil execution of operations [65]. Such a feature current DTW and vegetation [99], used for trafficability prediction on pilot maps are generally lacking, since they just define an area as sites in Finland, creating suitable outputs with a grid cell • •• “wet” or “dry” [45 ], although attempts to further classic fi a - size of 16 m [46 ]. Including real-time weather forecasts tions into various wetness categories are in progress [66]. in the trafficability models would further enhance prediction Therefore, it would be a worthwhile endeavour to govern- quality at a dynamic level [92, 97, 98]. mentally provide comprehensive trafficability maps, cover - Further to dynamic information about moisture-driven ing European forests. In addition, the open accessibility to trafficability, operational information is required to optimize 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 65 quasi-instantaneous planning, the actual most efficient rout- international forest machine standard StanForD compiles ing of forestry equipment to ensure productive operations operational data for various components of forest machines with minimal impact. The “BestWay” decision support and can be used to determine the felled and loaded timber system [60 ] shows on a case study level in Sweden how on each machine; thus, the pile volumes can be constantly DTW maps, in combination with further detailed informa- updated as well as the gross weight of the vehicle. In addi- tion on operational site features, can be used for optimized tion, the CAN-bus (controller area network) system captures routing. Detailed information on forest volume, its density data from the engine and drive train, which are valuable for and concentration, position of landings and areas for natu- trafficability purposes, too. As soon as telecommunication ral conservation, as well as known unavoidable crossings in infrastructure will allow for improvements of accurate RTK- the terrain, are used in complementing the DTW maps. By supported positional data from the GNSS, wheel slip can this, the least cost extraction route with lowest expectable potentially be computed [104], based on machine internal soil damage can be identified. Despite its promising results, CAN-bus recordings [16 ]. The CAN-bus data therefore can evaluated under scientific settings, the “BestWay” system is contribute to computationally producing a mobility map for too complex and processing capacity demanding for practi- optimal routing of the forwarder, as rut formation after a har- cal applications [45 ]. However, principles of the “BestWay” vester pass has been a good predictor of the rut formation in decision system have been adapted to develop the more basic forwarding, both on mineral and on peatland soils [41, 105]. but operational commercial planning tool “Timbertrail”, In addition, forest machine-mounted LiDAR (light detect- which is well acknowledged by first user experiences [ 100]. ing and ranging) proved to be able to measure rut develop- This pinpoints on the relevance to further implement addi- ment during forwarder operations and can be used as another tional spatial and site-specific information to reach sufficient potential component to be integrated in an active routing • •• trafficability prediction systems. system of a forwarder [17, 45 , 46 , 106]. Site-specific information, such as information derived With GIS expertise nowadays in place in forestry insti- from forest inventories or soil mapping, are commonly gath- tutional and corporate settings, and the DTW algorithm ered by national institutions, but not always openly accessi- available through open access data repositories [56], the ble for every forestry stakeholder. National forest inventories corresponding maps can be easily created for regional were initiated in Europe already a century ago, providing applications, as long as access to a sufficient DTM is detailed information on the forest condition and other related granted. Thus, the required economic resources can be parameters for decision support, collected through sample considered moderate in comparison to the benefits of plots, but also remote sensing approaches, continuously improved operational planning and increased efficiency improving on the fine resolution of this data [101]. In addi- during timber harvesting. Moreover, since static DTW tion, soil mapping on national level has a long tradition in maps once created can easily be used on mobile devices or Europe too, and initiatives are in place to merge national standard forest machine map interfaces, no further running attempts to a digital and thematic soil map database—yet costs can be expected. Yet, further developments towards this is a long-term process, and the resulting spatial informa- a dynamic approach could demand additional services and tion will only be available at a coarse resolution [102]. The system infrastructure related to the more intensive data accessibility to various geospatial data gathered by national input, which can add new costs to the use of such systems. authorities and consequently the ability to integrate such However, any potential additional expenses should always data in topical trafficability predictions should be improved be offset against the multiple environmental benefits asso- by open access databases. ciated to higher consideration of soil conservation along Current research demonstrated already how openly avail- the timber supply chain. Further, it is also worth mention- able geospatial and temporal data can be used to improve ing that DTW maps can support multiple other application predictions of soil moisture and trafficability. Recent find- areas in forestry. DTW maps were reported as being prom- ings of Schönauer et al. [103] showed a method how infor- ising tools in enhancing water protection through a better mation of different origins and spatial resolutions was spatial knowledge of perennial and intermittent streams, an fused, in order to achieve a spatiotemporal prediction of important asset for the implementation of riparian buffer soil moisture on different forest sites in Europe. Moreover, zones as best management practice among sustainable for- spatial predictive systems can be merged with operation- est operations [107]. Even in winter months, when the specific information, captured in real-time through forestry surface was covered by snow, and streams were invisible, • •• machine-based sensors itself [17, 45 , 46 ]. Fully mecha- such maps helped to avoid machine passes in these sensi- nized harvesting operations are eminently suitable for such tive areas [108, 109]. Further, Bartels et al. [110] used an approach, since the forwarder extraction is invariably DTW maps to relate bryophyte assemblages to wet forest consecutive to the harvester traffic, allowing forwarder rout- areas, indicating the potential use of the algorithm to select ing to be adapted based on the previously captured data. The between harvest areas and sites relevant for biodiversity 1 3 66 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 bio-based industry—project (grant number 720712). The contributions conservation within a landscape management approach. In from the University of Göttingen were further financially supported by addition, DTW maps were recently used to monitor site the Eva Mayr-Stihl Stiftung. indices. A variation in productivity was adequately por- trayed in a survey by Bjelanovic et al. [111], who reported Declarations a potential application to model forest growth and yield. Finally, a combination of DTW maps with data of annual Conflict of Interest Stephan Hoffmann, Marian Schönauer, Joachim precipitation was used to delineate drought-prone areas Heppelmann, Antti Asikainen, Emmanuel Cacot, Benno Eber- hard, Hubert Hasenauer, Janis Ivanovs, Dirk Jaeger, Andis Lazdins, during periods of low moisture conditions [108, 109, 112]. Sima Mohtashami, Tadeusz Moskalik, Tomas Nordfjell, Krzysztof Stereńczak, Bruce Talbot, Jori Uusitalo, Morgan Vuillermoz and Ras- mus Astrup declare that there are no conflicts of interest to declare. Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent This article does not Conclusions contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors. DTW maps are eligible to support forest management towards a mitigation of trac- ffi induced soil impacts, by iden - Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- tifying sensitive areas that should be avoided during mecha- bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- nized operations. It is therefore supportive during the plan- tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long ning phase, but also during the execution of operations. The as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes creation of practicable DTW maps relies on the availability were made. The images or other third party material in this article are of high-resolution DTMs. Most of the European countries included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated have programmes to capture ALS data and produce high- otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in resolution DTMs with increasing data quality or are on the the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will way to do so. However, the DTMs and other spatial informa- need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a tion is not always openly available, or just in lower resolu- copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . tions. 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Towards optimiz- Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to ing riparian buffer zones: ecological and biogeochemical impli- jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. cations for forest management. For Ecol Manage. 2014;334:74– 84. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. foreco. 2014. 08. 033. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 71 Authors and Affiliations 1,2 2 1 3 4 Stephan Hoffmann · Marian Schönauer · Joachim Heppelmann · Antti Asikainen · Emmanuel Cacot · 5 5 6 2 6 7 Benno Eberhard · Hubert Hasenauer · Janis Ivanovs · Dirk Jaeger · Andis Lazdins · Sima Mohtashami · 8 9 10 11 12 Tadeusz Moskalik · Tomas Nordfjell · Krzysztof Stereńczak · Bruce Talbot · Jori Uusitalo · 13 1 Morgan Vuillermoz · Rasmus Astrup Marian Schönauer Morgan Vuillermoz marian.schoenauer@uni-goettingen.de Morgan.Vuillermoz@fcba.fr Joachim Heppelmann Rasmus Astrup joachim.heppelmann@nibio.no rasmus.astrup@nibio.no Antti Asikainen Division of Forest and Forest Resources, Norwegian Institute antti.asikainen@luke.fi of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Ås, Norway Emmanuel Cacot Department for Forest Work Science and Engineering, emmanuel.cacot@unisylva.com University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany Benno Eberhard Natural Resource Institute of Finland (Luke), Joensuu, benno.eberhard@boku.ac.at Finland Hubert Hasenauer Forestry Cooperative UNISYLVA, Limoges, France hubert.hasenauer@boku.ac.at Institute of Silviculture, University of Natural Resources Janis Ivanovs and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria janis.ivanovs@silava.lv Latvian State Forest Research Institute (Silava), Salaspils, Dirk Jaeger Latvia dirk.jaeger@uni-goettingen.de The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Andis Lazdins Uppsala, Sweden andis.lazdins@silava.lv Department of Forest Utilization, Warsaw University of Life Sima Mohtashami Sciences (SGGW), Warsaw, Poland sima.mohtashami@skogforsk.se Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish Tadeusz Moskalik University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Umeå, Sweden tadeusz_moskalik@sggw.edu.pl Forest Research Institute, Sękocin Stary, Poland Tomas Nordfjell Tomas.Nordfjell@slu.se Department of Forest and Wood Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa Krzysztof Stereńczak K.Sterenczak@ibles.waw.pl Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Bruce Talbot bruce@sun.ac.za Technological Institute (FCBA), Champs-sur-Marne, France Jori Uusitalo jori.uusitalo@helsinki.fi 1 3 http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Current Forestry Reports Springer Journals http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/springer-journals/trafficability-prediction-using-depth-to-water-maps-the-status-of-AJmJ1YX5dA

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Publisher: Springer Journals
Copyright: Copyright © The Author(s) 2022. corrected publication 2022
eISSN: 2198-6436
DOI: 10.1007/s40725-021-00153-8
Publisher site: See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

Purpose of Review Mechanized logging operations with ground-based equipment commonly represent European production forestry but are well-known to potentially cause soil impacts through various forms of soil disturbances, especially on wet soils with low bearing capacity. In times of changing climate, with shorter periods of frozen soils, heavy rain fall events in spring and autumn and frequent needs for salvage logging, forestry stakeholders face increasingly unfavourable conditions to conduct low-impact operations. Thus, more than ever, planning tools such as trafficability maps are required to ensure efficient forest operations at reduced environmental impact. This paper aims to describe the status quo of existence and implementation of such tools applied in forest operations across Europe. In addition, focus is given to the availability and accessibility of data relevant for such predictions. Recent Findings A commonly identified me thod to support the planning and execution of machine-based operations is given by the prediction of areas with low bearing capacity due to wet soil conditions. Both the topographic wetness index (TWI) and the depth-to-water algorithm (DTW) are used to identify wet areas and to produce trafficability maps, based on spatial information. Summary The required input data is commonly available among governmental institutions and in some countries already further processed to have topography-derived trafficability maps and respective enabling technologies at hand. Particularly the Nordic countries are ahead within this process and currently pave the way to further transfer static trafficability maps into dynamic ones, including additional site-specific information received from detailed forest inventories. Yet, it is hoped that a broader adoption of these information by forest managers throughout Europe will take place to enhance sustainable forest operations. Keywords Depth-to-water · Remote sensing · Digital terrain models · European forestry · Precision forestry · Trafficability prediction Introduction harvester-forwarder systems unavoidably impacting the soil ecosystems due to high machine and payload weight trans- In Central and Northern European countries, ground- ported over sensitive forest grounds [1]. Such impacts occur based harvesting equipment accounts for the vast major- in various forms and include soil deformations such as ruts ity of commercially supplied roundwood. These predomi- [2, 3], or soil compaction, which increases bulk density due nantly cut-to-length operations are usually performed by to a decreasing pore space [4, 5], restricting the permeability of the soil [6]. The occurring degree of damage is a function of the traffic experienced, site conditions such as soil type, This article is part of the Topical Collection on Forest Engineering climate variables and machine operator skills [1, 7]. Historically, the primary timber logging season was * Stephan Hoffmann scheduled for the winter periods when the soils are frozen stephan.hoffmann@nibio.no [8, 9], making them relatively resilient to impacts due to Extended author information available on the last page of the article Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 56 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 their increased bearing strength [10]. Yet, the high own- treads [35], the utilization of traction-assist winches [36], ership costs of modern logging equipment and involving brush mats [37] and innovative steering concepts [38]. supply chains require these machines to work year-round However, an efficient utilization of technical soil preven - with the capability to increase their loads for cost reduc- tion measures relies upon the information of soil state in tion in an increasingly complex business environment with advance of scheduled operations. This enables the selection global competition [11]. Moreover, time periods of favour- of adequate equipment and sites to be operated in actual able operational conditions, in terms of frozen and thus instructions for machine drivers, as well as a sufficient sup- stable soils, are getting shorter and less frequent [5, 12]. port during the off-road navigation in forest stands. The On the other hand, periods of freeze and thaw cycles with potential avoidance of areas and sites possessing a currently wet or even water-saturated soil conditions are likely to be high vulnerability to machine impact implies the spatial pre- extended, resulting in vulnerable soils with restricted traf- diction of risks to severe damages—both, among extensive ficability [13]. This leads to a more significant potential for off-road traffic during clear-cut operations, as common in lasting site damages caused by heavy machinery in the form Nordic countries, but also among single-selection silvicul- of soil rutting or compaction [14] and is thus a major con- ture systems commonly practiced in Central Europe, where cern during sustainable impact assessment of forest opera- machine traffic is often confined to permanent machine tions and timber supply chains [15]. operation trails. There, next to the reduction of soil impacts The occurrence of severe soil impacts can be associated in general, the technical functionality and consequent per- with several negative effects, including both economic and manent accessibility into forest stands can be maintained ecological aspects. For instance, more machine power is if machine operators know which segments of a machine required when machines are driving on soft grounds, result- operating trail to avoid at a given time of operation. Field ing in increased fuel consumption, machine wear and tech- testing equipment such as penetrologger, penetrometer or nical failures [16 , 17]. Moreover, ongoing operations need vane testers are easy to handle tools, generating established to be stopped if the occurring rut depth exceeds degrees or indices about soil strength [39]. However, assessing an entire extents defined in contracts made between entrepreneurs and operation site with these tools is time consuming and rep- forest owners, resulting in high costs due to machine reloca- resents only the current situation at time of measurement. tions and downtime. Thus, there is an increasing role for planning software solu- In addition to economic drawbacks, various traffic- tions with predictive power for different conditions expected induced environmental consequences are of concern. The and demanded in harvesting preparations [40–42]. compaction of soil in a continuous linear pattern, such as A number of rut risk prediction tools have been devel- a wheel track, restricts the soil’s permeability and alters oped in the last decades: A simplified model was suggested hydrological conditions [18]. On steeper slopes, ruts can by O’Sullivan et al. [43], in which contact areas between result in channelling with increasing erosional energy, for- soil and tires, soil type, initial bulk density and water con- tifying the loss of valuable topsoil [19]. When exceeding tent profiles are considered for the selection of an appropri- a specific soil bulk density, negative effects on plant avail- ately equipped machine. A similar approach was invented able water [20] and plant growth [21, 22] can occur. Beyl- by Canillas and Salokhe [44], who added external variables ich et al. [23] report negative effects on various soil faunal like travel speed, axle loads and number of passes to tire groups related to the reduced macropore volume and the and soil variables, to develop a decision support system, altered hydrological conditions. In addition, soil disturbance providing recommendations for soil management practices through rutting has also been suspected of mobilizing heavy on agricultural areas. Still, a regular application of such metals, e.g. methyl-mercury, although the direct effect of soil systems in day-to-day forestry operations is pending. It can disturbance alone has not been quantified [24– 26]. be assumed that a reason for a lacking implementation of In consequence, it is critically noted that forestry predictive systems into forest management can be found in machines have increased in total weight over the last dec- the high demand of required input data, or time-intensive ades [27]. However, the pressure exerted by heavy forward- efforts for related in-field measurements [39]. Consequently, ers on the ground did not increase, as a result of likewise topical research emphasizes the utilization of openly acces- increased contact area between machine and soil [28]. Along sible data, as for example shown by the work of Lidberg with wider and optionally low inflatable tyres [29], numer - et al. [45 ], who generated wet area maps based on data from ous technological solutions aim to mitigate traffic-induced national inventories, fused with topographical information, site impact. Hereby, a focus is set on increasing machine including the topographic wetness index (TWI) and depth- •• flotation, traction and contact area, as for example through to-water (DTW) maps. Salmivaara et al. [46 ] developed bogie tracks [30], long-tracked bogie axles [31], triple-bogie an integrative tool to predict trafficability, using a spatial axles [32], auxiliary axles [33], rubber-tracked bogie axles hydrological model, inventory data, a wide range of spatial with support rollers [34], large radial tyres with alternative information and data derived from the operating machine. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 57 The increasingly available ALS (airborne laser scanning)- Science. Although this review approach facilitates a logical derived digital terrain models (DTM) have been verified by identification of publications assigned to a specific topic, the plethora of their various applications, both for practical it also often leads to hundreds of selections which are not and scientific purposes. Perhaps one of the most significant relevant for the review’s objective and need to be manually applications of ALS-derived DTMs in forest operations has eliminated through a time-consuming initial examination of been in facilitating the mapping of areas of anticipated high at least the title or the abstract. moisture and therewith potentially high vulnerability to soil This review on the DTW algorithm in the context of traf- damage by vehicle passes. The nowadays wide availabil- ficability mapping follows the snowball approach, where ity of high-resolution DTMs (i.e. 0.5–2 m grid cell size) the bibliography of a known recent key publication, in this •• allows for precise application of spatial parameters useful case Salmivaara et al. [46 ], is used as a starting point to to determine soil trafficability sensitivity, such as the TWI identify further publications. Subsequently, selected publica- developed by Beven and Kirkby [47]. This index quantifies tions were reviewed and those bibliographies used to iden- the influence of topography on hydrological processes based tify additional publications until no more new references of on slope and upstream contributing area. Researchers have relevance appeared. A priority was given to publications of evaluated TWI’s successfulness in predicting the groundwa- the last decade (2011–2021), following the wider promotion ter table [48], the effect of DTM resolution on its prediction of forest soil moisture modelling for operational purposes [49] and how it performs in comparison to a dynamic model in 2011 by Murphy et al. [52]. This approach was selected [50]. There are several possible methods to calculate the since in contrast to a purely keyword focused database contributing area, flow channels and slope out of a DTM for search, the snowball system considers all relevant references, the TWI index, partly with local alterations. including non-peer-reviewed early-stage research, as well as The cartographic DTW algorithm, developed by Murphy institutional and industry reports. Moreover, the authoring et al. [51, 52], has proven to be powerful in the prediction of team consists of experts on the topic, being involved in the soil state across different landscapes [ 52, 53]. This algorithm two multiyear EU projects TECH4EFFECT (grant number was evaluated to be more independent from the scale of the 720757) and EFFORTE (grant number 720712), which con- DTM provided, as compared to other topography-derived ducted intensive research in the field of trafficability predic- algorithms, such as the TWI [54]. This allows for reliable tion. Thus, additionally to the relevant state-of-the-art publi- results even when the calculations are based on input grid cations, latest findings from ongoing research and technical cells of different resolutions, thus having an asset over the implementation on national level could be incorporated into TWI. the review process. Through this rather open approach, 56 Due to the rising interest in the DTW-based trafficability peer-reviewed publications, 14 web resources and 8 insti- assessment by researchers and industry, our paper aims to tutional reports of relevance directly involving or related to give an overview and synthesizing the readiness level for forest site trafficability prediction with the DTW algorithm the implementation of national terrain simulations, applying could be identified and reviewed for the period of interest. the DTW algorithm. Relevant forestry countries in Northern and Central Europe have been selected to review the status of available terrain data derived from state-of-the-art air- Conception of the Depth‑toW ‑ ater Algorithm borne laser scanning (ALS) technologies—a fundamental and Its Application for Trafficability Mapping prerequisite to produce DTW maps. Further, already existing applications of the DTW algorithm or other means of spatial DTW uses flow lines derived from a DTM-based flow trafficability prediction to reduce the impact of ground-based accumulation, to calculate the anticipated vertical distance logging systems are presented among the selected countries, between any given grid cell of a DTM to a modelled water too. Hence, this paper provides an assessment of the status layer [55]. Each grid cell’s accumulated flow value is com- and the potential integration of such tools to support sustain- puted based on the size of the area, converging from the able forest management by improved operational planning adjacent cells. The accumulated area size is then used to and execution. initiate a flow line, depending on a defined threshold. This threshold of area size defines the flow initiation area (FIA, 2 2 m ). For example, if the FIA was set to 2,500 m , an accu- Literature Review mulated value of 2,500 m was sufficient to start a flow line, which continues until leaving the area of interest. If a large Review articles are commonly based on the screening of FIA is used to initiate a simulated flow line, a low level of scientific publications, identified through a search string soil moisture is represented in return. Contrarily, a small FIA of selected keywords in combination with Boolean opera- can be used to represent very wet or sensitive soil conditions, tors applied to a publication database such as the Web of as the network of flow lines expands. 1 3 58 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 The flow lines created in this way are added as a dichoto- unit. Zimbelman and Keefe [59] demonstrated the use of mous value to the respective DTM. The combination of both geofencing tools to notify workers of high hazard zones in flow lines and DTM can be used to compute the vertical forestry activities. Similar activities could be developed that difference between each grid cell and the nearest flow line— integrate the mapping of soft soils and actively inform the defining the DTW index. Therefore, a least cost function is operator when they approach those areas. However, it would applied to estimate the least slope gradients between the grid also require additional training to ensure that the operators cells and the flow lines, minimizing Eq. (1 ): can quickly implement this information to improve forest management’s sustainability. dz Recent studies reveal a possible fusion of DTW maps DTW[m] = a x (1) dx with further data sources, including openly accessible spa- tial information and hydrological modelling, to be used for dz where is the slope between a cell i and adjacent cells, a is dx √ • •• i the prediction of forest soil’s trafficability [45 , 46 ] and 1 in case of parallel drainage and 2 in case of diagonal improve the o- ff road navigation of forest machines [60 , 61]. drainage and x is the grid cell size (m). Such approaches profit vastly from open and cross-border For enhanced utilization of the DTW concept, the proce- availability of spatial data [62]. In particular, the European dure was described in detail and made openly available by Community INSPIRE Directive implemented public avail- Schönauer and Maack [56]. The DTW index can be inter- ability of manifold data sets [63]. Through the INSPIRE pro- preted as a relative measure of soil drainage condition, which gramme, 34 spatial data themes needed for environmental approximates the tendency of a saturated landscape point. applications, such as elevation, are compiled and organized Cells with a small DTW value show a trend of surface water in a standardized infrastructure for sharing among public or water containing layers in the soil [51]. In return, high organizations, but also providing public access on a Euro- values of DTW are assumed to indicate dryer soils (Fig. 1). pean scale, aiming towards an enhanced land-use policy- Since the susceptibility of soils to deformations is deeply making across boundaries [64]. attributed to the soil moisture content [57], DTW maps are increasingly used to assess the risk of causing machine traf- fic-induced rutting and compaction [39, 58]. DTW maps Country Overview and Readiness for DTW can be adopted by the forest industry to plan operations and guide machine traffic. Such a planning approach can be used Countries are collecting spatial data from regional to for instance to identify and avoid potential wet areas, streams national level, characterized by differences in survey tech- which are not visible due to a snow cover, or to optimize the nology, processing and provision to users (Table 1). In con- delineation of a machine operating trail across forest stands. sequence, this determines the DTW readiness for operational An integrated on-board navigation system in harvester and purposes within a specific country. Therefore, a detailed forwarders could then be used to identify and warn opera- overview of national ALS mapping campaigns and derived tors when approaching sensitive areas within a harvesting DTM accessibility shall be given for selected key forestry Fig. 1 The depth-to-water index (DTW) indicates the vertical prox- tions, whereas values greater than 1 m should possess sufficient traf- imity to the nearest simulated water layer, which is based on flow ficability for heavy forest machines. B Thus, areas with a high risk for lines or areas saturated by water. Particularly, this metric index is cal- soil damage can be shown on maps, as indicated by the blue colour- culated for each cell of a digital terrain model (DTM). A Values less ing than 1 m indicate wet areas with high susceptibility for soil deforma- 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 59 Table 1 Overview of the availability and quality of digital terrain models in selected European countries Country Grid cell size Data acquisition Year of national ALS resolution Source Costs campaign Austria 10 m National ALS cam- 2013 4 pts/mwww. data. gv. at Open access paign 1 m (0.5 m) State-individual ALS Varying between states campaigns Finland 2 m National ALS cam- Accomplished 2020 0.5 to 1 pts/mwww. paitu li. csc. fi Open access paign France National ALS campaign in progress 25, 75 and 250 m Various sources Not applicable Open access down according to to 75 m, 25 m with regional acquisition costs approaches Germany 200 m Various sources Update based on Diversewww. bkg. bund. de Open access according to regional data and www. geopo 5 m Individualized regional acquisition provisionrtal. de licensing scheme approaches 1 m Varying between states Latvia 20 m National ALS cam- 2013–2019 4 pts/mwww. lgia. gov. lv Open access paign Norway 10 m (national National ALS cam- Updating campaign Min. 2 pts/m www. hoyde data. no Open access level, locally paign and regional 2016–2022 (locally higher) higher) orthophotos Poland 0.5 m (1 m) National ALS cam- Since 2011–2014 4, 6 and 12 pts/mwww. gugik. gov. pl Open access paign Sweden 2 m National ALS cam- 2009–2016 (new 0.5–1 pts/mwww. lantm ateri et. Free access for paign campaign since se and www. geoda research and 2018)ta. se education, yearly subscription fee for commercial applications 50 m Various sources Not applicable Open access according to regional acquisition approaches countries. Namely, the Nordic countries Finland and Sweden non-DTW-based trafficability prediction in the selected were selected due to its high degree of mechanized opera- countries is surveyed within this review. tions with heavy logging equipment, as well as a consid- erable share of sensitive operation sites such as peatlands. Norway, with its more mountainous landscapes, completes State of Operational Moisture‑Driven the boreal forest biome of the Nordic countries. In Cen- Trafficability Modelling tral Europe, Germany and France are representing diverse temperate forest regions of major timber-producing coun- Finland tries, applying a wide range of silvicultural and operational systems. Austria, following similar forestry approaches, is Forest owners in Finland can estimate forest soil trafficabil- included to represent the high mountain regions of Central ity with two alternative methods: with the DTW maps or Europe. East-Central Europe is represented by Poland as with the static trafficability maps developed by Arbonaut Oy. an important timber producer with vast forest areas shaped The DTW maps are based on 2 m DTMs practically avail- by continental climate conditions. Furthermore, Latvia was able for the whole country. Various stream networks are cal- added to represent the specific Baltic conditions with sea- culated by using 0.5 ha, 1 ha, 4 ha and 10 ha threshold on sonally waterlogged plains. the flow accumulation raster. The DTW is finally calculated Next to the acquisition and provision of terrain data, the based on these stream networks and slope with cost accu- current availability or implementation of DTW maps and mulation per watershed, which is conducted by Luke, and 1 3 60 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 the maps are available in the national spatial data download application. Elevation data, grid 50, is another terrain model service (www. paitu li. csc. fi). available at the Swedish Mapping, Cadastral and Land Reg- The static trafficability map presents the classification of istration Authority. This model is built based on either the forests in 6 different trafficability classes. The map product, (1) national terrain model or (2) the elevation data bank developed by Arbonaut Oy, combines classic topographic (from the 1980s) and are used in more general applications, DTW information to tree volume and soil type (peatland or e.g. height contours generations and correction of satellite mineral soil). The trafficability classes are based on seasonal images. changes in bearing capacity of forest floor in Finland. The A new nationwide LiDAR campaign with higher point map provides information about the season when harvesting density (1–2 pts/m ) has just started in spring 2018, mainly operations may take place with standard logging machinery to update the forest estimations, e.g. tree volume, height, (i.e. a harvester and a forwarder) without causing substan- average diameter and biomass. The product will be prepared tial damages on forest soil. The mapping unit is a pixel of for areas of 2.5 × 2.5 km [67] and produces DTMs with 1 m 16 m size compatible with the forest resource information resolution. provided by the Finnish Forest Centre. Each pixel is classi- DTW maps were prepared by the Swedish forest agency fied in one of the following classes: 1, operations possible over the whole country since 2014 and were freely available in all seasons; 2, operations possible in summer, mineral through their online map services. The maps had been used soils; 3, operations possible in summer during dry season, by majority of forestry companies since about 5 years and mineral soils; 4, operations possible in summer, peatlands; contributed to improve planning of different forest opera- 5, operations possible in summer during dry season, peat- tions [66]. lands; and 6, operations possible only during frost or thick A new version of soil moisture maps has been developed layer of snow [65]. at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) The trafficability maps are available for the whole coun- and is available at online map services of the Swedish for- try. The data is distributed as open access data by the Finnish estry agency since beginning of 2021. There, Artificial Intel- Forest Centre. The data can be accessed via a map applica- ligence (AI) information from various (24) data layers, e.g. tion and a web map service WMS. Also, the raster maps soil type, topography and climate, is combined to estimate a can be downloaded from the Finnish Forest Centre’s www moisture index representing a yearly average of soil moisture site (https://ainei s tot.me tsaan. fi/ a voinme tsatie to/K orjuuk elp in raster layers of 2 × 2 m resolution [45 ]. oisuus) as tif files. In addition, forest owners can access the data in www. metsa an. fi service portal. Metsaan.fi is a ser - Norway vice for forest owner to easily access the information of their own forest and to use digital forest services. The trafficabil- The Norwegian Mapping Authority (Kartverket), in con- ity maps are today widely used in Finnish forestry by forest junction with partner organizations, collects, systemizes, operation managers and forest machine operators [66]. processes, manages and disseminates national geographical information. In 2016, a national programme was started to Sweden generate a new detailed terrain model based on ALS, for areas with vegetation/forest cover, and image matching for The Swedish Mapping, Cadastral and Land Registration mountain areas with little to no vegetation. The new terrain Authority, Lantmäteriet, scanned the entire country with model is scheduled to be completed for the whole country high-resolution ALS technology between 2009 and 2016 (325,000 km ) by 2022 [68]. Private vendors were awarded to provide detailed terrain model required for climate project wise to conduct the scanning campaigns with a cov- change adaptation programmes and other environmental erage of at least 2 pts/m , delivering classified point clouds programmes [67]. The scanning was performed from air- to the Norwegian Mapping Authority. Classes vary between planes at an altitude of 1,700–2,300 and up to 3,500 m in ALS projects but always include the class “ground points”. the mountains, on areas of 25 × 50 km, and collect data in In addition to the contracted deliveries, existing regional the form of point clouds. The point intensity in scanning ALS data of higher quality, but also photogrammetric image varies between 0.5 and 1 per m . It has an average error of matching for high mountain plateaus, is used by the Nor- 25 cm planar direction in the reference system SWEREF wegian Mapping Authority to generate the latest national 99 TM and 5 cm in elevation in the reference system RH DTM. The density of the point cloud behind the updated 2000. Using triangular irregular network (TIN) interpola- national DTM can therefor regionally differ but is constantly tion, the point data is transformed to a 2-m elevation grid updated if higher quality data is available. The latest data with a precision that is better than 10 cm in height and 30 cm sets can be visualized with a variety of web map services at in planar [67]. The data set is freely available for research the portal “hoydedata.no”. Both the ALS point cloud data and education but requires subscription fee for commercial and a 1 m resolution DTM can freely be downloaded. A 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 61 second acquisition of a national ALS data set at a later point focused on and instrumented for these topics. Monitoring in time is not planned so far. The digital elevation data will of experimental sites for the long-term productivity shows be updated using photogrammetry based on aerial images that after two of the routing cycles of a forwarder, the sensi- that are acquired in regular intervals (5–10 years) [69]. tive forest soils are quickly degraded, and their restoration Based on the DTM availability, two DTW maps (Mark- takes longer than 7 years [73]. Moreover, active restoration fuktighetskart) presenting the soil moisture in a grid either as through e.g. mechanical loosening or ecological engineer- classes or in centimetre towards the soil surface are openly ing practices such as exudation and providing substrates available on national level (www . kilden. nibio. no ). The DTW to promote biotic processes of soil recovery following soil maps are to varying degree used by foresters in the planning compaction is difficult [74]. of forest operations in Norway. Further developments of the DTW maps will include a dynamic approach for trafficabil- Germany ity mapping that combines weather data and DTW maps to predict trafficability, which will also lead to a better seasonal Owing to the federal organization in Germany, generation classification of operational sites. and provision of geodata is administered at different regional scales. The 16 individually organized state surveying offices France of Germany are responsible for their respective data acqui- sition, including ALS campaigns to create terrain models. In 2021, the first national French ALS campaign was ini- Although the resultant DTMs possess a high variability in tiated by the National Institute of Geographic and Forest terms of technology used and updating, they are available in Information (IGN = public administrative establishment all states with a grid cell size of 1 m, since the completion of placed under the joint authority of the Ministries in charge the state Saxony in 2020 [75]. Access and retail fees depend of ecology and forestry). In the course of this campaign, 10 on individual policies, ranging from open data DTMs, as pts/m based products will progressively be published as provided via a web coverage service for the area of North open data by 2025, starting from the Mediterranean region Rhine-Westphalia [76] to commercial products as available and upward [70]. Although no starting date finalized so far, for the area of Lower Saxony [77]. it is supposed to be implemented with countrywide coverage The Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy, BKG over a period of 5 years. Yet, sub-regions are identified as (Bundesamt für Kartographie and Geodäsie), in fulfillment priorities for EU CAP monitoring purpose and are expected of the Federal Geo-data Reference Act (BGeoRG), main- to be accomplished by 2023. The scanning campaign is tains geodetic reference systems and collects and provides envisaged to be conducted with a coverage of 10 pts/m , data for utilization by other national authorities and to fulfil and the data will be used to produce DTMs and DSMs, after its international obligations [78]. The BKG delineates and completion openly available through the national geoportal updates countrywide DTMs as soon as new data is submit- (https:// www. geopo r t ail. gouv . fr/). Additionally, an initia- ted by one of the 16 state surveying offices. The state-wide tive from the Ministry of Agriculture intends to update the DTMs are merged to countrywide DTMs with a grid cell spatial data on 3-year intervals through 25 cm IR photogra- size ranging from 5 to 1,000 m. A countrywide DTM with phy. But currently, the BD Alti, based on various regional a grid cell size of 200 m is openly accessible as part of data acquisition techniques, is the only nationwide available the INSPIRE programme [64], same applies to the digital DTM, with highest resolution of 25 m grids, only. CORINE land cover map “LCL5”, providing land-use clas- For forest soil trafficability assessment, a model devel- sification at 5 ha resolution. DTMs with a higher resolution, oped for agriculture (SoilFlex; developed by Keller et al. covering the whole area of Germany, are retailed as com- [71]) was also tested on two French forest sites. The pur- mercial products by the BKG. Among these, the “DGM5” pose of the model was to predict compaction risks and rut- (5 m grid cell size) has the highest resolution, with prices ting from a set of accessible parameters to practitioners for dependent on area size and type of utilization. either agriculture or forestry. Results were, for the most part, Despite of the availability of DTMs, trafficability of forest successful. The exception occurred for the inclusion of the management units in Germany is currently rather statically surface organic layer. This organic layer includes a high and non DTW-based evaluated, besides at a current regional organic carbon and moisture and a smaller deformation than research activity in North Rhine-Westphalia [79]. Site infor- predicted by the model [72]. During the last decade, experi- mation and terrain slope classifications, in combination mental plots were instrumented and monitored to document with the local forest manager’s experience on trafficability, hydric transfer phenomena and forest soil reaction after com- are a common way to select appropriate machine systems paction. Such fundamental research has been limited to few and schedule the most suited time of the forest operation. plots established on state-owned forest (two sites in Lorraine However, soil mapping has been conducted intensively region) or via the network F-ORE-T with two sites partially in Germany, and digital soil maps are available, although 1 3 62 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 highly varying between states [80]. Based on such soil maps, so far. Still, soil mappings and additional geospatial data for regional solutions were developed to support the common various topics such as forest, natural hazards, nature conser- practice for mechanized forest operations. For instance, the vation, flood, and aerial images are offered partially. state forest enterprise of Lower Saxony introduced traffica- bility risk maps, consisting of four risk levels [81] and made Poland available for forestry stakeholders through an internal online GIS (geographic information system). Another approach was In Poland, the data covering now whole country and first developed to evaluate operational systems according to tech- large acquisition is from one ALS campaign completed nical limitations by the site classification, and in addition to between 2011 and 2014. It was completed to fulfil obliga- observed stand development phases and weather conditions tions imposed on EU countries by the Directive 2007/60/EC during the scheduled harvesting period [82]. Going a step of the European Parliament and the Council on the Assess- further, the State Office for Environment, Agriculture, and ment and Management of Flood Risks (23 October 2007) Geology in the state of Saxony (LFULG) already provides [89]. To assess flood risk, the Polish Government decided a digital map showing soil’s sensitivity to compaction at to start the project entitled “IT System for the Country’s a scale of 1:50,000 [83]. It is based on the governmental Protection Against Extraordinary Threats” (in Polish: ISOK digital soil map “digBK50”, interfaced with monthly cli- – “Informatyczny System Osłony Kraju przed nadzwycza- matic water balance values recorded from 1993 onwards, jnymi zagrożeniami”). Under this project, 92% of the total and allows to consider soil compaction sensitivity accord- area was covered with ALS data, and based on DTM gener- ing to various soil features during the seasons for large area ated from ALS data, the flood risk assessment was deter - planning, such as agricultural or construction operations. mined. Before this period, there were obtained ALS data just Although this is one of the first attempts of a soil moisture- from single projects and covered relatively small areas. The driven trafficability modelling, the scale is too large to suit area scanned under the ISOK project was 288,806 km , from 2 2 individual forestry operations. which 267,403 km was completed with density of 4 pts/m ; 2 2 2 8,148 km with 6 pts/m , priority areas; and 13,769 km with Austria 12 pts/m , cities [89]. The derived DTMs are available with a grid cell size of 0.5 and 1 m. After 2014, new campaigns Based on the INSPIRE programme of the European Parlia- of ALS data acquisition were carried out, and now almost ment [63], and legally ratified through [ 84], a DTM with whole Poland is covered at least with one ALS data set. a grid cell size of 10 m is openly accessible for the whole The authority which hosts the national data is the Depart- area of Austria. This DTM has been retrieved from the first ment of Photogrammetry at the Geodesic and Cartographic cycle of scan flights by ALS, in 2013. Due to the country’s Documentation Centre in Warsaw. All data are freely avail- federalism, the geospatial data are managed individually by able for any purpose. But currently the data has not been the nine states. A second and third cycle was performed by used to implement a DTW or other spatial approach to pre- each state independently. The data density for the first cycle, dict forest trafficability. However, on a pilot site, DTW maps in general, was 4 pts/m , while the intended value for ongo- have recently been applied for trafficability prediction on ing measurements was 8–16 pts/m . research level [79]. Austria has an open geodata portal, operated by the gov- ernmental provider [85]. The availability of geospatial data Latvia varies between the states: For instance, in Upper Austria, all the data are made freely available by the state office and In Latvia, 50.1% of the territory is covered by forests; agri- contain DTMs with a grid cell size of 0.5 m or 1 m for each cultural land is covering 22.8%, grasslands 15.9%, wetlands municipality. A guidance for merging and processing the 6.2% and settlements 4.8% [90]. One-time coverage of ALS XYZ tiles, using open tools, is provided too [86]. In line data is provided for the whole territory of the country, and with this data organization, several Austrian states openly data collection has been organized by the Latvian Geospatial provide DTMs with a grid cell size of 1 m. However, for the Information Agency (LGIA) by hiring foreign companies. area of Burgenland, Tyrol or Lower Austria, freely accessi- ALS surveys were performed in the period from 2013 to ble DTMs show a lower grid cell size (5 m, or 10 m). For the 2019. The Leica ALS70, Riegl LMS-Q680i and Riegl LMS- area of Vorarlberg, contour lines are available only, either as Q780i scanners were used for scanning. ALS scanning was a shapefile or rasterized. performed on both the leaf-on and leaf-off periods. The total Although the DTMs available for a large area of Austria point density is at least 4 points per square meter, while the are sufficient and the country declared a mandatory con- density of ground points is at least 1.5 points per square servation of soils [87, 88], an implementation of machine- meter. The ALS point cloud is automatically classified by induced impacts through trafficability predictions is pending ground points, as well as low, medium and high vegetation 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 63 classes, but infrastructure and other objects are manually Discussion classified. The data is freely available on the LGIA website, as well as a generated DTM of 20 m resolution. Negotiations This review indicated that there is a potential to mitigate are underway for a second ALS campaign. impacts from ground-based harvesting by improved planning At the beginning of 2021, ALS data in Latvia were used aided by DTW-derived predictions of sensitive soil condi- to generate DTW maps nationwide in 5 m horizontal resolu- tions. The review of the country-wise status of trafficability tion, and individual map sheets can be downloaded from the predictions illustrated that basic requirements for applica- LSFRI Silava website (http:// www. silava. lv/ produ kti/ Karto tions in forestry industry are expanding throughout North- grafi skie- mater iali. aspx). In parallel, work is underway to ern and Central Europe with the increasing availability of develop a wet area map for the entire country according to highly accurate ALS-derived DTMs (Fig. 2A). However, it is the methodology described by Ivanovs and Lupikis [91]. merely in the Nordic countries that national DTW maps are Wet area mapping uses various indices obtained by process- publicly available with close to national coverage (Fig. 2B). ing DTM, such as depression maps, normalized elevation Since most European countries have initiated national index, slope, TWI, DTW and other indices. These maps are ALS flight campaigns, country- or state-wide DTMs are planned to be popularized in forestry industry seminars and available, enabling the creation of DTW maps for practical put into practice in forest management planning. and scientific purposes. The creation of countrywide DTW (A)(B) no high resolution DTMavailable no DTW-maps available partly openly availablehighresolutionDTM DTW-maps regionally existfor research openly availablehighresolutionDTM DTW-maps areopenly available Fig. 2 Availability and accessibility of A high-resolution digital terrain models (DTM) and B depth-to-water (DTW) maps among the European countries included in the review about current state of trafficability prediction 1 3 64 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 maps has already been facilitated by specific public or pri- DTMs with a sufficient resolution as well as to remaining vate institutions in the Nordic countries such as Sweden, geospatial data would support and promote both practical Norway, Finland, and Latvia. In order to actually enable applications and purposes, as confirmed by Melander et al. the widespread use of high-resolution DTW maps in forest [17]. operations, the maps will very likely have to be produced by Regardless of the origin of DTW maps, an enhanced soil a central organization as it seems unrealistic that small- and conservation through cartographic material requires a user- medium-sized individual organizations are able to execute specific interface. Modern forest machines are capable to the acquisition of openly available data or the commercial read and display geospatial grids, such as DTW maps. Apart purchase of DTMs from governmental providers. The avail- from that, the “TECH4EFFECT Mapping App” [93] is a ability of DTMs ranges between openly accessible DTMs good example following the open geospatial information with a grid cell size of 0.5 m to complex hybrid business philosophy, by providing such an interface through a no- models requiring the purchase of DTMs with such a high cost Android OS mobile application. The app is conceived spatial resolution. For instance, in the case of large areas of primarily as a visualization tool for machine operators to Austria and Germany, a fee is required for high-resolution be able to adopt their path of travel in accordance with the DTMs. There, only DTMs with a grid cell size of 5 m, 10 m geo-referenced location and displayed DTW maps. Addi- or 200 m, respectively, are made openly accessible accord- tionally, such apps usually allow for incorporating further ing to the INSPIRE programme [64]. Although the applica- spatial information about additional “no-go areas”, such as tion of the DTW algorithm is generally robust to DTMs protected areas, with the option to prompt the user with a of different size [54], best results are achieved with DTM signal when approaching these. resolutions not exceeding 5–10 m, and ideally be even less Displaying DTW maps by machine’s on-board comput- than 5 m [92]. Thus, DTW modelling is technically also pos- ers, integrated into mobile GIS applications, can provide sible on DTMs with a low resolution of e.g. 200 m, but the the operator with site-specific information to choose the resulting DTW map would not be practical for operational extraction route that combines consideration for both ben- implementation to determine machine trafficability on a log- efits for soil conservation and operational efficiency. The ging site [54]. latest GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) receivers Generally, it can be stated that the availability and acces- are standard features on state-of-the-art logging equipment, sibility of high-resolution DTMs is not a major limitation setting the basis for such an approach. Yet, precise machine for the creation of DTW maps anymore. All surveyed coun- positioning, as through RTK (real-time kinematic) support tries already provide DTMs with a sufficient resolution, or [94], and in-field access to DTW maps, which could be pro- as in the case of France, are on the way to facilitate national vided as web map service, require mobile networks with ALS campaigns. The more fundamental bottleneck might be high data transmission standards, also in remote forest areas the actual calculation of the DTW algorithm for the appli- [95]. But in many European regions, the mobile network cation of such maps as tools to increase soil conservation. infrastructure does not meet these requirements yet [96]. It is Currently, DTW maps in most countries are produced by therefore the responsibility of the relevant government agen- researchers and individual authorities [54] for an intended cies of the individual countries to build up the demanded user, who covers the costs or possesses specific project standards. Until then, standalone applications, functioning funds. For a widespread practical application, supporting in off-line modes, will be the focus of intermediate solu- day-to-day forest operations, the maps should be generated tions [95]. on behalf of forestry stakeholders by dedicated experts, since Besides technical and administrative challenges, a full- entrepreneurs might not have the capability to create DTW range implementation of DTW-based trafficability maps maps. Although not solely DTW-based, the currently avail- would require a dynamic approach, accounting for seasonal able static trafficability maps in Finland are a good example variation of soil moisture [92, 97, 98]. Research activi- how information about trafficability can be made openly ties currently address this issue, for example by sequential accessible and support sustainable forest operations at small combination of DTW maps and additional, freely accessi- scale [65]. Another big asset of the Finish maps is also the ble weather data. This led to a recently conducted dynamic classification according to seasonal recommendations for the approach, integrating information about topography, soil execution of operations [65]. Such a feature current DTW and vegetation [99], used for trafficability prediction on pilot maps are generally lacking, since they just define an area as sites in Finland, creating suitable outputs with a grid cell • •• “wet” or “dry” [45 ], although attempts to further classic fi a - size of 16 m [46 ]. Including real-time weather forecasts tions into various wetness categories are in progress [66]. in the trafficability models would further enhance prediction Therefore, it would be a worthwhile endeavour to govern- quality at a dynamic level [92, 97, 98]. mentally provide comprehensive trafficability maps, cover - Further to dynamic information about moisture-driven ing European forests. In addition, the open accessibility to trafficability, operational information is required to optimize 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 65 quasi-instantaneous planning, the actual most efficient rout- international forest machine standard StanForD compiles ing of forestry equipment to ensure productive operations operational data for various components of forest machines with minimal impact. The “BestWay” decision support and can be used to determine the felled and loaded timber system [60 ] shows on a case study level in Sweden how on each machine; thus, the pile volumes can be constantly DTW maps, in combination with further detailed informa- updated as well as the gross weight of the vehicle. In addi- tion on operational site features, can be used for optimized tion, the CAN-bus (controller area network) system captures routing. Detailed information on forest volume, its density data from the engine and drive train, which are valuable for and concentration, position of landings and areas for natu- trafficability purposes, too. As soon as telecommunication ral conservation, as well as known unavoidable crossings in infrastructure will allow for improvements of accurate RTK- the terrain, are used in complementing the DTW maps. By supported positional data from the GNSS, wheel slip can this, the least cost extraction route with lowest expectable potentially be computed [104], based on machine internal soil damage can be identified. Despite its promising results, CAN-bus recordings [16 ]. The CAN-bus data therefore can evaluated under scientific settings, the “BestWay” system is contribute to computationally producing a mobility map for too complex and processing capacity demanding for practi- optimal routing of the forwarder, as rut formation after a har- cal applications [45 ]. However, principles of the “BestWay” vester pass has been a good predictor of the rut formation in decision system have been adapted to develop the more basic forwarding, both on mineral and on peatland soils [41, 105]. but operational commercial planning tool “Timbertrail”, In addition, forest machine-mounted LiDAR (light detect- which is well acknowledged by first user experiences [ 100]. ing and ranging) proved to be able to measure rut develop- This pinpoints on the relevance to further implement addi- ment during forwarder operations and can be used as another tional spatial and site-specific information to reach sufficient potential component to be integrated in an active routing • •• trafficability prediction systems. system of a forwarder [17, 45 , 46 , 106]. Site-specific information, such as information derived With GIS expertise nowadays in place in forestry insti- from forest inventories or soil mapping, are commonly gath- tutional and corporate settings, and the DTW algorithm ered by national institutions, but not always openly accessi- available through open access data repositories [56], the ble for every forestry stakeholder. National forest inventories corresponding maps can be easily created for regional were initiated in Europe already a century ago, providing applications, as long as access to a sufficient DTM is detailed information on the forest condition and other related granted. Thus, the required economic resources can be parameters for decision support, collected through sample considered moderate in comparison to the benefits of plots, but also remote sensing approaches, continuously improved operational planning and increased efficiency improving on the fine resolution of this data [101]. In addi- during timber harvesting. Moreover, since static DTW tion, soil mapping on national level has a long tradition in maps once created can easily be used on mobile devices or Europe too, and initiatives are in place to merge national standard forest machine map interfaces, no further running attempts to a digital and thematic soil map database—yet costs can be expected. Yet, further developments towards this is a long-term process, and the resulting spatial informa- a dynamic approach could demand additional services and tion will only be available at a coarse resolution [102]. The system infrastructure related to the more intensive data accessibility to various geospatial data gathered by national input, which can add new costs to the use of such systems. authorities and consequently the ability to integrate such However, any potential additional expenses should always data in topical trafficability predictions should be improved be offset against the multiple environmental benefits asso- by open access databases. ciated to higher consideration of soil conservation along Current research demonstrated already how openly avail- the timber supply chain. Further, it is also worth mention- able geospatial and temporal data can be used to improve ing that DTW maps can support multiple other application predictions of soil moisture and trafficability. Recent find- areas in forestry. DTW maps were reported as being prom- ings of Schönauer et al. [103] showed a method how infor- ising tools in enhancing water protection through a better mation of different origins and spatial resolutions was spatial knowledge of perennial and intermittent streams, an fused, in order to achieve a spatiotemporal prediction of important asset for the implementation of riparian buffer soil moisture on different forest sites in Europe. Moreover, zones as best management practice among sustainable for- spatial predictive systems can be merged with operation- est operations [107]. Even in winter months, when the specific information, captured in real-time through forestry surface was covered by snow, and streams were invisible, • •• machine-based sensors itself [17, 45 , 46 ]. Fully mecha- such maps helped to avoid machine passes in these sensi- nized harvesting operations are eminently suitable for such tive areas [108, 109]. Further, Bartels et al. [110] used an approach, since the forwarder extraction is invariably DTW maps to relate bryophyte assemblages to wet forest consecutive to the harvester traffic, allowing forwarder rout- areas, indicating the potential use of the algorithm to select ing to be adapted based on the previously captured data. The between harvest areas and sites relevant for biodiversity 1 3 66 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 bio-based industry—project (grant number 720712). The contributions conservation within a landscape management approach. In from the University of Göttingen were further financially supported by addition, DTW maps were recently used to monitor site the Eva Mayr-Stihl Stiftung. indices. A variation in productivity was adequately por- trayed in a survey by Bjelanovic et al. [111], who reported Declarations a potential application to model forest growth and yield. Finally, a combination of DTW maps with data of annual Conflict of Interest Stephan Hoffmann, Marian Schönauer, Joachim precipitation was used to delineate drought-prone areas Heppelmann, Antti Asikainen, Emmanuel Cacot, Benno Eber- hard, Hubert Hasenauer, Janis Ivanovs, Dirk Jaeger, Andis Lazdins, during periods of low moisture conditions [108, 109, 112]. Sima Mohtashami, Tadeusz Moskalik, Tomas Nordfjell, Krzysztof Stereńczak, Bruce Talbot, Jori Uusitalo, Morgan Vuillermoz and Ras- mus Astrup declare that there are no conflicts of interest to declare. Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent This article does not Conclusions contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors. DTW maps are eligible to support forest management towards a mitigation of trac- ffi induced soil impacts, by iden - Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- tifying sensitive areas that should be avoided during mecha- bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- nized operations. It is therefore supportive during the plan- tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long ning phase, but also during the execution of operations. The as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes creation of practicable DTW maps relies on the availability were made. The images or other third party material in this article are of high-resolution DTMs. Most of the European countries included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated have programmes to capture ALS data and produce high- otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in resolution DTMs with increasing data quality or are on the the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will way to do so. However, the DTMs and other spatial informa- need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a tion is not always openly available, or just in lower resolu- copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . tions. 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Towards optimiz- Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to ing riparian buffer zones: ecological and biogeochemical impli- jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. cations for forest management. For Ecol Manage. 2014;334:74– 84. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. foreco. 2014. 08. 033. 1 3 Current Forestry Reports (2022) 8:55–71 71 Authors and Affiliations 1,2 2 1 3 4 Stephan Hoffmann · Marian Schönauer · Joachim Heppelmann · Antti Asikainen · Emmanuel Cacot · 5 5 6 2 6 7 Benno Eberhard · Hubert Hasenauer · Janis Ivanovs · Dirk Jaeger · Andis Lazdins · Sima Mohtashami · 8 9 10 11 12 Tadeusz Moskalik · Tomas Nordfjell · Krzysztof Stereńczak · Bruce Talbot · Jori Uusitalo · 13 1 Morgan Vuillermoz · Rasmus Astrup Marian Schönauer Morgan Vuillermoz marian.schoenauer@uni-goettingen.de Morgan.Vuillermoz@fcba.fr Joachim Heppelmann Rasmus Astrup joachim.heppelmann@nibio.no rasmus.astrup@nibio.no Antti Asikainen Division of Forest and Forest Resources, Norwegian Institute antti.asikainen@luke.fi of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Ås, Norway Emmanuel Cacot Department for Forest Work Science and Engineering, emmanuel.cacot@unisylva.com University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany Benno Eberhard Natural Resource Institute of Finland (Luke), Joensuu, benno.eberhard@boku.ac.at Finland Hubert Hasenauer Forestry Cooperative UNISYLVA, Limoges, France hubert.hasenauer@boku.ac.at Institute of Silviculture, University of Natural Resources Janis Ivanovs and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, Austria janis.ivanovs@silava.lv Latvian State Forest Research Institute (Silava), Salaspils, Dirk Jaeger Latvia dirk.jaeger@uni-goettingen.de The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk), Andis Lazdins Uppsala, Sweden andis.lazdins@silava.lv Department of Forest Utilization, Warsaw University of Life Sima Mohtashami Sciences (SGGW), Warsaw, Poland sima.mohtashami@skogforsk.se Department of Forest Biomaterials and Technology, Swedish Tadeusz Moskalik University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Umeå, Sweden tadeusz_moskalik@sggw.edu.pl Forest Research Institute, Sękocin Stary, Poland Tomas Nordfjell Tomas.Nordfjell@slu.se Department of Forest and Wood Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa Krzysztof Stereńczak K.Sterenczak@ibles.waw.pl Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Bruce Talbot bruce@sun.ac.za Technological Institute (FCBA), Champs-sur-Marne, France Jori Uusitalo jori.uusitalo@helsinki.fi 1 3

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Current Forestry Reports – Springer Journals

Published: Mar 1, 2022

Keywords: Depth-to-water; Remote sensing; Digital terrain models; European forestry; Precision forestry; Trafficability prediction

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Trafficability Prediction Using Depth-to-Water Maps: the Status of Application in Northern and Central European Forestry

Trafficability Prediction Using Depth-to-Water Maps: the Status of Application in Northern and Central European Forestry

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Trafficability Prediction Using Depth-to-Water Maps: the Status of Application in Northern and Central European Forestry

Trafficability Prediction Using Depth-to-Water Maps: the Status of Application in Northern and Central European Forestry

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