Urban planning in Swiss cities has been slow to think about climate change: why and what to do?

Gilles Desthieux; Florent Joerin

doi:10.1007/s13412-022-00767-9

Urban planning in Swiss cities has been slow to think about climate change: why and what to do?

Desthieux, Gilles; Joerin, Florent 2022-12-01 00:00:00 Recent years have been marked by a strong popular and political mobilization around climate change. However, to what extent does this mobilization lead to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or the vulnerability of our society to the effects of climate change? This question is at the heart of the research presented, which sought to identify the barriers and levers to the integration of climate issues into urban planning of Swiss cities. The literature review first situates the integration of climate change in Swiss cities in relation to the evolution of practices at the international level. It emerged that Swiss cities have generally been late in integrating climate issues into their public policies. Practices still focus strongly on energy poli- cies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but adaptation measures in urban planning are poorly implemented. In order to better understand the reasons for this slow and late integration of climate change into urban planning of Swiss cities, a survey was conducted among more than 200 professionals. It showed that the evolution of practices is generally driven by “pioneering” actors who are strongly mobilized by personal values and who use specialized and scientific sources of information. Finally, two focus groups with representative professionals were organized in order to deepen the barriers and levers observed and to formulate sound recommendations for integrating the climate issue into urban planning. Two lines of action emerged: prioritization (strengthening legal frameworks and organizational structures) and support (training and involvement of climate experts at all stages of urban planning). Keywords Climate governance · Land use planning · Swiss climate policy · Stakeholder involvement Introduction the many institutional obstacles that were highlighted during the recent summit COP26 in Glasgow. Events related to climate change are increasingly evident Switzerland is particularly exposed to climate change. and have further accelerated in 2021. At the same time, If the temperature of the earth has globally increased of awareness at all levels of society is increasing, thanks in about + 1 °C since the preindustrial area, in Switzerland particular to the 6th IPCC report (July 2021), which fur- the increase is of about + 2 °C (FOEN 2020), mainly due ther highlights the state of emergency. The challenge is to to the particular mountainous context. However, until the move from awareness to concrete action, and to overcome early 2010’s Switzerland did not really develop any climate change policy, particularly in terms of adaptation. The 2013 CO Act is the basis for Switzerland’s current climate policy. It sets a greenhouse gas emissions reduc- tion target of at least 20% by 2020 compared to 1990 lev- * Gilles Desthieux gilles.desthieux@hesge.ch els; this target must be achieved through measures taken in Switzerland. According to Federal Office for the Environ - Institut du Paysage, d’Architecture, de La Construction Et du ment - FOEN (FOEN 2022), total equivalent CO2 emis- Territoire (inPACT) Haute Ecole du Paysage, d’ingénierie sions effectively decreased of 20% between 1990 and 2020, Et d’architecture de Genève (HEPIA), Rue de la Prairie 4, CH-1202 Geneva, Switzerland therefore achieving the target. Transportation represents the main source of CO emissions: 32% at national level, and Institut d’ingénierie du Territoire (INSIT) Haute Ecole d’Ingénierie Et de Gestion du Canton de Vaud (HEIG-VD), even more 39%, if international i fl ghts are considered. Emit - Route de Cheseaux 1, CH-1401 Yverdon-les-Bains, ted CO by inhabitant at national level is only of 5.5 tC O / 2 2 Switzerland 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 693 inhabitant. But this ratio increases until 14.2 tCO /inhabit- To sum up, it can be pointed out that in Switzerland, the ant, according to www. globa lcarb onatl as. ch, if we consider governance of climate issues, particularly on adaptation, has the energy consumption of imported goods, which makes only become a reality at the national level since around 2010 Switzerland the 36th emitter in the world (132nd by surface and is only beginning to be implemented at the local level. area). The C O Act was revised in September 2020 at the The starting point of this research is therefore a question- Swiss parliament. A major element under discussion is the ing of the reasons for a certain delay in the implementation achievement of carbon neutrality by 2050, involving, how- of concrete measures on the Swiss urban territories. In the ever, a significant part of compensation abroad. specific Swiss context, the general question is similar to the Until recently, Swiss energy and climate policy has one addressed by Lehman et al. 2015: “What are relevant mainly focused on mitigation aspect of climate change. A barriers to effective (adaptation) actions in cities and what study conducted in 2011 (Dupuis and Knoepfel 2011), based are possible opportunities for progress?”. on lexical analysis of policy makers’ discourses, demon- This research considers both mitigation and adaptation of strated that adaptation was still not perceived as an important CC, but it particularly focuses on the adaptation topic, which dimension of climate change policy: policy makers did not is central in land use planning for reducing the effect of see links between adaptation, the Swiss economy and the heat waves in urban areas or the exposure to natural hazard. energy supply. However, awareness on adaptations issues The rest of the article is organized in four main parts. First, has raised during the last years. Mountain areas being more it presents a brief state of the art (Section 2) of research and more exposed to natural hazard events, and cities to about the relationship between climate change and ter- summer overheating. In this context, the Swiss government ritory, followed by a presentation of the applied research adopted in 2012 (FOEN 2012) a general strategy on climate method (Section 3). The next part (Section 4) describes the adaptation followed in 2014 by the Action plan 2014–2019 results of the research, which consists of three sections: (FOEN 2014), and finally guidelines for support Cantons first, a portrait of the Swiss institutional and organizational in the elaboration of their Climate Plans (FOEN 2015). In mechanisms (actual and potential) that are implemented to order to implement the action plan, the Federal Office for the integrate climate change into land-use planning practices, Environment—FOEN launched a program to support pilot second the results of a survey of spatial planning actors in projects at regional and local levels: 31 projects supported French-speaking Switzerland that has been conducted that in the first stage (2013–2017) (FOEN 2017), 50 projects was conducted in order to better understand what facilitates supported in the second stage (2018–2022). Cantons (states or hinders the integration of climate change in professional in the Swiss federal system) and local communities are practice, and third, a set of operational recommendations now taking initiatives to develop regional and local climate for the consideration of climate change mitigation/adapta- actions on both aspect mitigation and adaptation. tion issues in urban projects resulting from group discus- The recent strengthening of Swiss climate governance is sions. The article ends with a conclusion and discussion partly the result of the population’s awareness toward cli- (Section 5). mate emergency that took to the streets in Switzerland, as elsewhere in the world, during 2019. On several occasions, youths and schoolchildren organized strikes for climate, and State of the art media widely covered climate issues. This certainly con- tributed to the historic score of the green party in the last Considering the recent literature, this section analyzes what federal election in October 2019, becoming the fourth party are the key climate change issues for urban planning in Euro- at national level. pean and North American cities and how climate change is Regarding land use planning, it can be noted that planners taken into account in land use planning, whether adaptation are also raising awareness of the importance to take into or mitigation is considered. account (adaptation) climate issues. For example, the 2019 national workshop of the Swiss Federation of Urban Plan- Adaptation and mitigation in urban planning ners (FSU) was dedicated to this topic (FSU 2019). How- ever, until recently, Swiss cities, like most cities in the world, The definitions of adaptation and mitigation are already well had not been very active on climate change issues (Lehmann given in the literature. Mitigation is “a human intervention et al. 2015). Yet, the municipal level is particularly decisive to reduce the source or enhance the sinks of greenhouse in transposing the different framework conditions for climate gases” (IPCC 2014, p. 4), while adaptation “primarily aims policy to the operational level (Scanu and Cloutier 2015; at moderating the adverse effects of unavoided climate McClure and Baker 2018; Harker et al. 2017). change through a wide range of actions that are targeted at the vulnerable system” (Füssel and Klein 2006). 1 3 694 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 To sum up, Bertrand and Richard (2015) give a very help- texture, albedo, etc.), (2) urban form (height of buildings, ful synoptic view of both concepts. Climate policy was first street orientation, etc.), (3) natural cover and (4) building mainly based on mitigation in order to limit GHC emissions. architecture. Mitigation mainly involves technological and economic sci- ences and a more top-down oriented governance due the cen- Those examples show that adaptation is mainly carried tral role of authority for regulation and subsidies as observed out into sectoral activities. But adaptation has not yet been by Scanu and Cloutier (2015). Its impacts are relatively easy seen as really transversal program driving land use planning. to measure (GHC reduction, innovation) and the win–win for According to Cloutier et al. (2014), adaptation can become different actors is often obvious. Adaptation is more multi- a mean of innovation for planning process, which does not disciplinary oriented; its impacts and benefits are sometimes involve to initiate new actions or processes but to improve less measurable and uncertain. Its mode of governance is and orient the existing ones toward climate change issues. It more bottom-up oriented based on engagement and col- can even become a new gateway to sustainability science in laboration of many local actors (Scanu and Cloutier 2015). land use planning (Bertrand and Richard 2015). The priority consideration of both mitigation and adaptation In this perspective, new approaches should be proposed varies according to the cultural and institutional context as for land use planning instruments, dealing with municipal shown in the comparative study made by Scanu and Cloutier land use revision, new neighborhoods developments, open (2015) between Quebec City (Canada) and Genoa (Italy). spaces planning in existing neighborhoods. This involves An assessment of local climate plans from 885 cities in working on a global and transversal framework, and not the EU-28 (Reckien et al. 2018) showed that only 26% of only sectoral, and to investigate how far such integrated those plans deal with adaptation, and 17% with both miti- approaches could be transposed into the regulations at differ - gation and adaptation. Similarly, a worldwide study on 401 ent levels. Propositions in this matter will be made through municipalities (Araos et al. 2016) reported that only 18% of the article using the Swiss context. them set up planning toward adaptation policy. Therefore, cities still mainly focus on mitigation in order to seek carbon Levers and barriers of taking into account climate neutrality in the context of climate emergency (Salvia et al. change in urban governance 2021). If the need of human adaptation measures to climate action seems always more evident through the vast and fast- One of the main challenges is to modify land use planning growing on this topic, Berrang-Ford et al. (2021) as well practices in order to systematically consider climate change as Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021) state that adaptation issues. Different authors account for levers and barriers of is overall not effectively implemented. Local impacts and taking into account climate change in planning processes. effects of adaptation are limited; capacity to reduce vulner - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ability and risk is lacking. (IPCC) distinguishes between physical and ecological lim- While mitigation seems easier to achieve at local levels, its, technological limits, financial barriers, informational and because in synergy with energy constraints and orientations, cognitive barriers, and social and cultural barriers (IPCC adaptation requires more specific appropriation work, based 2007). Important works and surveys were carried out to on existing institutional mechanisms. The question is how to identify barriers and levers. For instance, Olazabal and De make territories resilient to climate change effects (Berdou - Gopegui (2021) studied planning in 59 cities worldwide, and lay and Soubeyran 2014). In the literature, many examples Simonet and Leseur (2019) conducted 75 semi-structured of adaptation measures can be found: interviews among 75 actors in 10 French cities. The following table (Table 1) gives a selection of frequent – Green infrastructure shape adaptation preferences among occurrences of barriers and levers classified into three main residents in Rotterdam (Derkzen et al. 2017), opportuni- topics: knowledge sharing, financial resources, organization ties and gaps for urban green infrastructures planning in and regulation: Europe (Davies and Lafortezza 2017). Faced with the observation of these barriers and levers, – Cartography of heat islands in Graz based on GIS indica- the question is how urban governance could evolve to facili- tors (Reischl et al. 2018) tate the consideration of climate change in the development – Land use planning related to sea level rise and extreme of cities (Bulkeley and Betsill 2013). weather events (McClure and Baker 2018) – Summer thermal comfort related to urban form and com- pactness in Berlin (Straka and Sodoudi 2019). Toward an urban governance for climate – Cloutier et al. (2014) organized in Quebec a design work- shop with professionals who identified 18 sectoral plan - In the specific field of adaptation, Henstra ( 2016) proposes ning measures of 4 types: (1) coating materials (color, a framework to structure climate governance in general. It 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 695 1 3 Table 1 Main barriers and levers for climate governance as referenced in the literature Barriers Levers Items Authors Items Authors Knowledge sharing Lack of actual data Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021), Set up adaptation monitoring, evaluation, Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021), on implementation and effectiveness reporting and learning in order to track how policy processes connect to adaptation success Low engagement of local actors: mispercep- Cloutier et al. (2014), Lemann et al. (2015), Reach out to a diversity of stakeholders, Cloutier et al. (2014), Burton and Mustelin tion of cause-and-effect linkages of climate Simonet and Leseur (2019) increase common knowledge and under- (2013), Simonet and Leseur (2019) change impacts, lack of awareness and standing of the issues, change in individual anticipation perception Lack of understanding among actors, deficit in Cloutier et al. (2014), Reischl et al. (2018) Use of external supports providing expertise, Henstra (2016), Richard (2014), Scanu and efficient communication between research- Eisenack and Stecker (2012 technical and cognitive resources (boundary Cloutier (2015) ers, policy makers and the public organizations) Lack of consideration of local knowledge and Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021) Use of social networks for improving informa- Cunningham et al. (2016) need of vulnerable groups tion sharing Financial resources Lack of financial resources, reduction of Henstra (2016) Eisenack and Stecker (2012), Financial incentives, subsidies, tax expendi- Henstra (2016) national subsidies Simonet and Leseur (2019) tures Scanu and Cloutier (2015) Green economic growth, innovation Organization and regulation Planning decisions not enough targeted to Cloutier et al. (2014), Mees et al. (2018) Systematic introduction of climate change Richard (2015) climate issues, difficulty of choosing the best issues (adaptation) in public policies: habitat strategy and urbanism, naturel hazard and water management, health, agriculture, biodiver- sity, etc Lack of integration of adaptation plans in Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021), Scanu Reorganization of public institutions for Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021), Simonet and current institutional, regulatory and financial and Cloutier (2015), Moser and Ekstrom’s implementing climate policies in order to Leseur (2019), framework, (2010) guarantee sustainable adaptation action McClure and Baker (2018) in the long-term and change in individual perceptions Identification of alternative authorities and rationale (boundary organizations) and action margin in existing capacities (land use planning) National/upper level regulation not compatible (Harker et al., 2017), (McClure and Baker Elaboration of Local Climate Action Plan Harker et al., (2017), with climate change issues 2018) Richard (2015) 696 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 classifies policy instruments, to which governments have et al. 2018; Scanu and Cloutier 2015; McClure and Baker access, in four main axes: 2018), emphasize the role of cities and local governments in climate policy implementation. However, the local actions – Nodality (information): Use of information dissemina- on climate should take place in the perspective of multi- tion, knowledge generation and knowledge mobilization level governance that considers articulations with the upper to inform responses levels: international, national and regional (Lehmann et al. – Authority: Use of the legitimate power of the state to 2015; Harker et al. 2017). The use of suitable governance permit, prohibit or command action and organizational instruments should therefore consider – Treasure: Use of public funds to (1) produce and main- whether states are centralized (unitary systems) or fed- tain public goods and services that contribute to improve eral. In the latter, local governments have more autonomy climate governance; (2) confer benefits to induce new in developing their own system of regulation, taxation and behavior; or (3) impose costs to discourage behavior that subsidies and thus their own climate policy. In some par- undermines new behavior ticular contexts, centralized governments may constitute – Organization: Use of government resources and person- institutional barriers when political parties and regulations nel to implement policy objectives are unfriendly with climate change issues. This has been the case for example in Italy (Scanu and Cloutier 2015), New Combining those instruments in complementary ways is Zealand (Harker et al. 2017) and Queensland in Australia the key to maximize the likelihood that objectives will be (McClure and Baker 2018). Those authors also show how realized. local governments and actors can deal with this kind of bar- Information and its different forms and the adaptation rier with the support of boundary organizations, and some of the regulation frameworks (related to authority axis) are action margin through developing specific regulations (land the necessary first steps that precede the action, whereas use planning related to natural hazards). In this context of institutional resources (related to organization axis), with lack of regulatory framework, the involvement of individual the support of financial means and incentives, enable to pass motivations and beliefs of professionals is crucial for engag- from the knowledge to the concrete action. ing local actions (McClure and Baker 2018). In comparison Concerning Nodality, bottom-up approaches based on with the mentioned above conservative federal systems, knowledge sharing among actors are central in order to over- Swiss national authorities promote an ambitious climate come institutional silos that split climate change knowledge, policy (see Section 3.1) and supports local implementation measures and responses into isolated and ineffective poli - actions. Even if cantons (states) and municipalities have a cies. They include participatory approaches through work- relative autonomy, such a federal impulsion enables to boost shops and forums like in Quebec City (Cloutier et al. 2014), local actions. social networks for engaging local communities in climate The framework proposed of Henstra is one among others adaptation policy like in Australia (Cunningham et al. 2016), proposed in the literature. For instance, Lubell and Morrison questionnaires and interviews gather perceptions of decision (2021) developed a framework for institutional navigation makers or residents on climate impacts in cities like in Graz, they applied to climate change adaptation based on four ele- Austria (Reischl et al. 2018) or in Rotterdam, Netherlands ments: knowledge (similar to the Nodality axis of Henstra), (Derkzen et al. 2017), and boundary organizations. relationships, strategies, decisions and implementation. This Boundary organization is particularly helpful platform, framework addresses both collective (institutional) and indi- which aims facilitating interaction or mediation between vidual goals. This latter distinction is important, because, science and policy (Gustafsson and Lidskog 2018). In as we will see through the survey in Section 4.2, profes- the field of climate policy, it makes available to the stake - sionals of urban planning intervene and decide not only in holders impartial, technical and cognitive knowledge and the name of the organizations they represent, but also and resources for guidance on how to respond to the threat of often according to their personal values. Therefore, interper- climate change (Henstra 2016; Richard 2015; McClure and sonal relationships are crucial to reach agreement on climate Baker 2018). This kind of organization acts as motivators by change actions. pushing local governments to take action and by translating experts’ jargon into understandable credible form for deci- sion makers and the civil society. The Ouranos nonprofit Methodology consortium based in Quebec is often cited. Created in 2002, it has the mandate to provide advices to its governmental, The methodological approach is structured into three main academic and private partners (Huard et al. 2014). stages which is introduced here in this section. The results of About the 3 others axes Authority, Treasure and Organi- each stage are then respectively presented in Sections. 4.1, zation, Harker et al. (2017), as many other authors (Mees 4.2 and 4.3. 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 697 The first stage deals with how far climate change issues Survey among the actors of regional planning have been considered or not in the Swiss context, par- ticularly about adaptation. Concretely, the content of the In a second phase, we wished to explore the reasons for the climate policy instruments and tools was analyzed from slow and partial integration of climate issues in the practice regional to local levels using the framework introduced of urban planning in Switzerland. For this reason, we car- below in Section 3.1. ried out a survey among (French-speaking) actors in this Secondly, a questionnaire was collected from about 200 professional field. professionals in the field of land use planning in order to The online survey was distributed and made available investigate how far they take into account climate issues from January 30 to March 8, 2019. The target audience con- in their practice, what are the barriers and levers for such sisted of professional actors in the field of spatial planning considerations (Section 3.2). in municipal and cantonal administrations, private offices Finally, two focus groups with a representative panel of (mainly urban planning, but also architecture and transport), professionals were organized in order to deepen observed associations and academics in the French-speaking part of barriers and levers and formulate sound recommendations Switzerland. for integrating the climate issue into land use policy prac- The survey was distributed directly by email to more than tices (Section 3.3). 500 people (professionals involved in the field of land use planning, selected from the authors’ professional network) and 231 responses were obtained. An invitation was also Analysis of governance instruments for climate sent to various professional mailing lists (associations of issues in Switzerland urban planners) for which the number of subscribers is not known. In addition, those who received the invitation mes- In order to draw up a critical overview of different prac - sage were also encouraged to pass it on to others concerned. tices of integration of climate issues in the field of spatial Therefore, this method of distribution does not allow for the planning in Switzerland, at different scales, the working measurement of a response rate. method consisted in collecting a set of documents repre- The survey consisted of 49 questions, structured into four sentative of the actions carried out and instruments elabo- main parts: rated in the field of climate governance in Switzerland by different organizations (public, academic, private). These 1) Professional practices: specifies the field of activity, documents were then analyzed and compared according to describes how climate change is taken into account, a common analysis grid. and the factors that are favorable (levers) or unfavorable The instruments considered (presented in the table in (barriers) to considering it. Appendix 1) are classified in four categories that cover the 2) Climate Change Information: describes the knowledge areas of action in climate governance: of climate change and its effects and the uses of the available information. 1. Local projects and initiatives, 3) Individual practices: explores the consideration of cli- 2. Regulation and climate action plan, mate change in individual practices (mobility, housing, 3. Land-use planning instruments, food, etc.). 4. Labels and evaluation processes. 4) Personal profile: professional affiliation, age, education, political beliefs. Several programs and projects referenced in connec- tion with these instruments are part of the pilot projects The average response time was 17 min. supported by the Confederation and the Federal Office for As pointed out by Lehmann et al. 2015, it is important the Environment—FOEN (see Section 1). The aim of this to go beyond the identification of barriers and levers to also selection is not to be exhaustive by referencing the whole study their interactions. Thus, the analysis of the survey set of the known instruments, but to provide a representa- results is largely based on statistical tests aimed at high- tive overview of the initiatives in Switzerland up to 2019 lighting interdependencies between the different responses when the study was conducted. collected. The analysis framework is structured under 14 rubrics as presented in Table 2. For each rubric, it is indicated to Focus groups which axis of climate governance it mainly belongs (infor- mation, authority, treasury, organization), as presented in In order to follow up on the results of the survey and to Section 2.3. open up paths for action, we organized a process in two focus groups bringing together actors in the field of urban 1 3 698 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Table 2 Analysis grid structured in 14 rubrics that was applied to the Swiss instruments Rubric Analyzed content/questions Policy instrument type (Henstra 2016) 1. Abstract What it is about in broad outline, articles/chapters/part explicitly N.A related to climate change 2. Mitigation vs, Adaptation Does the analyzed document address these two pillars of climate Information change in a balanced way, or is one of the two preponderant? 3. Objectives of the instrument What are the objectives, the intentions of the instrument that is the Information subject of the document under review? Is the issue of climate change central (explicit) or secondary (implicit)? The objectives are often also multiple (multi-functionality): do the measures have effects on areas other than climate change? Vice versa, do measures that do not directly address climate change have indirect impacts? 4. Topics addressed by the instrument What topics does the action address and to what extent those topics Information a more or less strongly concerned? Level of coordination (between thematic areas): are the instruments and actions concerned imple- mented in an integrated and coordinated (multi-sectoral) manner, or in a sectoral, non-integrated (juxtaposed) or even ad hoc manner? 5. Regulation actors List of concerned actors and the nature of their involvement (In Organization charge, Associated, Concerned) 6. Scale of action What scale(s) in particular does the area of action cover? Organization How territorialized are the instruments (general principles vs. spatial and geographic impacts)? 7. Funding Are financial resources made available to implement the measures/ Treasury actions? What is the distribution between the private and public sectors? 8. Degree of intervention To what extent the instruments are binding for concerned people? Authority Are they informative (diagnosis), organizational (e.g., willingness of authorities but without regulatory translation), regulatory or incen- tive (subsidy or taxation) in their nature? 9. Format of the medium and degree of concreteness What is the format of the instrument? What level of knowledge? Is it Information a global diagnosis study report? Or does the instrument materialize into an action/measure plan? 10. Degree of territorial coordination How coordinated are the actions/instruments with the measures Authority (plans, regulations) established in the same portion of the territory (internal, or intra-territorial coordination) and with the higher and lower territorial levels (external, or extra-territorial coordination)? 11. Temporality of deployment Is the temporality of the instruments defined? If so, what are the main Authority steps? 12. Monitoring of implementation strategy Are qualitative or quantitative targets set for climate change objec- Information tives? According to which monitoring system (indicators)? 13. Degree of technicality To what extent do the suggested instruments involve more or less Information sophisticated/specific tools? 14. Overall appreciation of the instruments How original and innovative are the suggested instruments in terms Organization of: goals/objectives pursued, topics addressed, actors involved, instruments used (in an integrated way), steering and monitoring? planning. These aimed to progressively define priority action in energy and climate issues. A dozen people participated in sheets. The participants were selected from the authors’ pro- each of the two focus groups. The majority of participants fessional network so as to cover the following topics: the were able to attend both sessions, but about 1/3 of them were realization of climate plans for two large cities (300,000 only available for one of them. to 500,000 inhabitants), the urban planning of a medium- The first focus group was held on October 8, 2019 in sized city (23,000 inhabitants), the urban development of Geneva. It began with the presentation of the research pro- an agglomeration, within a large real estate development ject, followed by the presentation of the state of the art (Sec- company, or in urban planning consultancies or specialized tion 2), the analysis of the Swiss context (Section 4.1) and 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 699 finally the presentation of the results of the survey (Sec - Land use planning is gradually becoming a major axis of tion 4.2). Afterward, sequences of work in pairs and then action in relation to climate change, both on the mitigation jointly allowed the participants, including the research team side (reducing CO2 emissions in terms of mobility, con- (both authors), to formulate their point of view on the block- struction and rational use of energy) and on the adaptation ing factors (barriers) to the integration of climate change side (urban development in relation to natural risks, adapted into urban planning. Finally, the participants were asked to urban forms). The successive Climate Plans of the Canton identify, in pairs and then jointly, a first set of courses of of Geneva (2015, 2017, 2021) is one of the first significant action and levers to address the identified obstacles. illustrations of how climate issues can be taken into account The second focus group, which took place on October in a spatial planning instrument. This evolution at the can- 17, 2019 in Lausanne, started with a reminder of the results tonal level (region) is to be underlined but it is still only obtained in the first session. Afterward, participants were slowly reflected at the lower levels. asked to select one or two courses of action (called “Meas- ure”) in order to describe in more detail their content and Objectives and topics of the instruments (see rubrics 3 implementation process. Appendix 2 provides an example and 4 in Table 2) of a form completed by one of the groups on one of the identified action lines. Overall, the climate issue is still rarely mentioned explicitly Each focus group was designed to produce diversified in the objectives of the urban plans. It appears rather implic- and directly exploitable results (factsheet, schemes). It was itly and indirectly through the various disciplines concerned therefore not necessary to transcribe the discussions between with climate and in particular adaptation: green and public participants; however, during each focus group a notetaker spaces, urban climate, health, energy and mobility. This was present to produce a summary note which was returned interdisciplinary framework highlights apparent conflicts, to the participants for validation. in particular between adaptation and urban density. Indeed, high urban densities, which are encouraged by urban plan- ning policies in Switzerland, constitute particular challenges Results in terms of heat islands or vulnerability to climatic hazards. This delicate link between urban planning and climate policy Climate change instruments and tools (Xu et al. 2019, Biesbroek et al. 2009) is well illustrated in Switzerland in Zurich where a wind map shows that light winds and breezes, especially at night from nearby forests and moun- The analysis of the documentation collected and processed tains, have difficulty circulating in dense urban areas, thus according to the grid presented above (Table 2) provides accentuating night-time warming (Stoiber 2019). useful lessons on the implementation of territorial and cli- Thus, planners are becoming increasingly aware of the mate governance in Switzerland at the local level. The main importance of integrating climate measures into the con- results are presented below, using the headings of the analy- struction and densification process. For example, the Cli - sis grid. mate plan of Geneva highlighted the benefits of climate action in all three areas of sustainable development (echoing Mitigation vs. Adaptation (see rubric 2 in Table 2) the link observed by Bertrand and Richard 2015, between sustainability science and adaptation). At the social level, the Until recently, climate policy in Switzerland was closely measures envisaged can contribute to improving air quality, linked to energy policy and mainly focused on the mitigation fighting sedentary lifestyles or strengthening food security. of GHG emissions. This focus on mitigation is probably due From the environmental point of view, they contribute to to the direct and logical link between efficient use of renew - preventing floods, strengthening biodiversity, increasing able energies and emission reductions. Thus, more than 400 soil fertility or preserving natural resources. As for the eco- municipalities (in 2019), supported by the Confederation, nomic effects, these measures contribute to supporting the have committed themselves to establish an exemplary energy local economy, developing new skills or reducing material policy through the Energy City label (Swiss contribution to damage. the European Energy Award program). Recently, mitigation and adaptation seem to be more Regulatory actors (see rubric 5 in Table 2) closely linked in Swiss climate policy. One example is the new criteria catalog of the “Cité de l'énergie” label, which The coordination and arbitration of public policies, in close integrates requirements relating to quality of life and the partnership with economic and civil society actors, appears fight against global warming in public spaces and buildings, to be a central component in the implementation of climate as well as adaptation measures accordingly. governance measures. In the Mitteland region (canton of 1 3 700 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Lucerne), a pilot project consists of establishing a region- the situation is changing: the Climate Plan of the Canton wide climate change adaptation strategy and encouraging of Geneva recommends, for example, adapting the Geneva political actors to take into account the possible conse- legalization to further limit fossil fuels in new or converted quences of climate change when making future regional buildings, or adapting regulations and standards relating to development decisions and projects. This involves conduct- (grey) energy in construction, and changing the guidelines ing a broad discussion based on the available information, for municipal development plans, environmental impact developing a catalog of measures and providing support to studies and energy concepts to better take climate issues into municipalities for the implementation of the strategy. account. From now on, any local development plan (munic- ipality) in this Canton will have to refer explicitly to the Degree of territorial coordination (see rubric 10 in Table 2) measures of the Climate Plan and specify the contributions of the municipalities in this area. At the level of cities and The interdisciplinary and multisector approach required for municipalities, Sion is the best-known example in Switzer- climate governance confronts the actors involved with the land of integrating climate change adaptation measures into issue of coordination between planning instruments. The local planning and building regulations and plans (the City institutional frameworks analyzed indicate three forms of of Sion being one of the most affected in Switzerland by heat response. Some, such as the cantons, develop integrated and islands). In a more sectoral manner, the City of Lausanne autonomous climate plans, others, more often at the com- imposes the greening of roofs in urban planning regulations munal level, include climate-related issues in all existing as compensation for the loss of green surfaces on the ground. planning instruments, and still others develop the climate topic in sectoral plans (environmental impact study, energy Financing (see rubric 7 in Table 2) concept, mobility study, etc.). Although the issue of financing measures is central to their Scale of action (see rubric 6 in Table 2) implementation, the documents analyzed make little mention of this aspect. On the mitigation side, it is relatively easy to The instruments analyzed show that actions are gradually calculate the cost of the measures and also to evaluate the being implemented at all spatial scales: the Climate Plan in returns on investment, which generally involves the renova- Geneva and the Mitteland at the regional level (with meas- tion of buildings and the development of renewable energy. ures creating favorable framework conditions for operational The adaptation component is much less clear-cut, both in achievements), local initiatives in Bern (study on the role terms of the cost of the measures (is it already integrated into of trees in urban climate), Lausanne (green roofs), Zurich sectoral or additional measures) and in terms of the induced (mapping of microclimatic phenomena), Sion (climate- benefits, which are often indirect and difficult to perceive. related planning of public spaces) and very recently an Furthermore, as mentioned by Lehmann et al. 2015, costs of acceleration in the development of the climate plans at the adaptation arise in the short term while benefits often in the municipal level. long term. The climate plan for the Zürich region describes examples of synergies between different measures that make Format and degree of concretization (see rubric 9 it possible to reduce the overall cost of their implementation. in Table 2) Another area of savings consists in developing preventive measures rather than emergency measures in response to Climate issues are mainly addressed in reports, studies or climatic hazards. For example, according to the latter docu- diagnoses. They thus take the form of directives, general and ment, it is much cheaper to make people at risk aware of the indicative principles, and guides to good practice: Lausanne dangers of heat waves than to have to treat them afterward, concerning green roofs, in Sion for the planning of spaces, or, for example, it is cheaper to identify and regulate areas in Zurich concerning the urban forms of constructions to be at risk of flooding or other natural hazards than to have to favored in relation to the climate. These principles are still deal with the numerous damages caused by high exposure rarely translated into concrete measures. to hazards. Very often, the implementation of actions requires pub- Degree of intervention (see rubric 8 in Table 2) lic financial assistance (Lehmann et al. 2015). This is the case at the national level through pilot projects supported Our study shows that, in Switzerland, there are still gener- by the Federal Office for the Environment—FOEN or at the ally few or no legal obligations to consider climate change, local level, with the cities of Sion and Lausanne provid- nor are there any sustainable subsidy mechanisms. At the ing financial support for initiatives. An active and financial municipal and neighborhood levels, the topic of climate is involvement of public actors thus still seems essential to take rarely mentioned in spatial planning guidelines. However, concrete account of climate change on the (Swiss) territory. 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 701 Summary and natural sciences, and finally management (Table 3). The respondents’ activities are mainly related to issues related to Table 3 summaries the main findings from the Swiss instru - the management of public services, spatial and urban plan- ments in regard with the structure presented in Table 2. ning, environmental protection, transportation or mobility On the basis of these analyses, the hypothesis that Swit- (Table 4). zerland has presented until recently a slow integration of Slightly more than half of the respondents (52%) declared climate change into territorial governance instruments and a political values close to environmentalist parties, whereas weak concrete implementation of the recommendations can be confirmed. This slow and weak implementation can be seen in regard to climate urgency that was already acknowl- Table 4 Profile of respondents on field of training edged in the early 2010s in Switzerland, and in comparison Fields of training Count % with some other European and North American cities as presented in Section 2. The validation of this hypothesis is Engineering 66 29% Territorial sciences (geography, urbanism, planning, 54 23% mainly revealed by the following findings: etc.) Natural, biological and earth sciences 50 22% Survey of levers and barriers to changing land use Management and administration 46 20% planning practices Other humanities and social sciences (political science, 31 13% economics, sociology, etc.) Introduction and general profile respondents Architectures 17 7% Law studies 7 3% The online survey (see 3.2) received 231 responses. The Physical and mathematical sciences 7 3% respondents’ e fi lds of training are mainly in engineering, ter - Others 32 14% ritorial sciences (geography, urban planning, development) Table 3 Main findings fr om the Swiss climate change instruments Rubric Outcomes 1. Abstract - 2. Mitigation vs, Adaptation Climate policy is still closely linked to energy policy and mainly focused on the mitigation of GHG emissions until recently Land use planning is becoming a major axis of action in relation to climate change, both on the mitigation side 3. Objectives of the instrument Climate issue is still rarely explicitly mentioned in the objectives of the urban plans Awareness is raising about integrating climate measures into the urban planning process 4. Topics addressed by the instrument and their multisector benefits 5. Regulation actors Importance of coordination and arbitration of public policies, in close partnership with economic and civil society actors for the implementation of climate governance meas- ures 6. Scale of action Instruments are not limited to general intentions but progressively being implemented at local scales through emerging climate municipal plans 7. Funding Financial aspects are generally considered for mitigation measures, but more rarely for adaptation measures: indeed, the benefits related to risk management are revealed in the long term 8. Degree of intervention Still few legal obligations address climate change. But the situation is rapidly evolving through the climate commitments made at all levels 9. Format of the medium and degree of concreteness Climate issues are mainly addressed in reports, studies or diagnoses and until recently rarely translated into concrete measures 10. Degree of territorial coordination Climate policy is expected to become a bridge between planning instruments, but in prac- tice it is still often developed in a sectoral manner 11. Temporality of deployment Temporality mainly considers progress toward zero carbon. Monitoring is implemented to track carbon emission reduction but still few about adaptation progress 12. Monitoring of implementation strategy 13. Degree of technicality This issue is not explicitly carried out in the analyzed instruments, but it logically addresses technical measures to reduce carbon emissions 14. Overall appreciation of the instruments The study revealed some pilots project that are original and innovative, to be spread out and generalized 1 3 702 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 these parties received in Switzerland (in September 2019) responses should be interpreted with caution since, as just under 20% of the citizen votes. It will therefore be a previously mentioned, the sample of respondents pre- question of interpreting the results of this survey bearing sents a profile that is particularly sensitive to environ- in mind that respondents often show a prior sensitivity to mental issues. It may also be the result of a time lag climate change issues. between a relatively recent change in practice that was While the analysis of the literature and territorial gov- not yet very present when the documents or instruments ernance instruments shows that climate change issues analyzed (see 4.1) were written or developed. are still only partially integrated, a strong majority of respondents (84%) say they take climate change into Levier and Barriers account in their professional activities, implicitly or explicitly (Table 5). Of these, the majority of respondents Two questions in the survey addressed the levers or barriers (56%) say they take climate change into account implic- to integrating climate change issues into respondents’ pro- itly, which means that they do so through pre-existing fessional practice (Table 6). The responses obtained place measures, that were not made specifically to address the commitment of the institution (public or private) as the issues of climate change. As an illustration, one might most important lever (almost 50% of respondents). Then we find in this category a person working in public transport find, with relatively equal importance, regulatory change, development. On the other hand, 38% of them say that access to subsidies. Then, but for 1/5 of the respondents, they do so explicitly, which means by setting objectives we note that a particular climatic event can also constitute to be achieved or actions to be carried out directly related a trigger (Table 7). to climate change. With regard to barriers, the one most often chosen was This first result could be seen as a discrepancy the existence of issues associated with a higher priority. This between, on the one hand, the respondents’ perception result is linked to the lack of financial resources, which is of the integration of climate change into their activities almost as often chosen. It can also be noted that lack of skills and, on the other hand, the results of our analysis of the is identified as a barrier by more than 1/3 of respondents. literature and institutional instruments in Switzerland Among those least often selected, it is interesting to note the (Section 4.1), which only very partially reflect the sys- feeling of being powerless (The limited impact your activi- tematic consideration of climate change. However, these ties…) or the controversies on climate change. Finally, 11% of respondents chose the “other” category, among which some mentioned that work routine is sometimes also a Table 5 Profile of respondents on field of activities barrier. Activity focus Count % Interdependences analysis between answers Public service management or administration 107 46% Spatial planning or urbanism 97 42% In order to try to understand what leads respondents, who Biodiversity and environmental protection 65 28% are actors in land-use planning, to integrate climate change, Transport or mobility 60 26% explicitly or implicitly, into their professional activities, Energy production and distribution 36 16% independence tests (Chi-square) were carried out to high- Climatic changes 33 14% light the absence or presence of associations between the Others 25 11% answers collected. Teaching and research 24 10% Figure 1 presents all the independence tests carried Agricultural sector 23 10% out. The questions are organized into four main blocks Economic development 17 7% exploring: 1) how CCs are integrated into professional Natural risk and hazards 14 6% practices, 2) the level of knowledge and the use of avail- Public health 9 4% able information, 3) how CCs are integrated into private Digital sector 9 4% practices, 4) personal characteristics. Two questions can Table 6 Degree of In your professional activity, is climate change taken into account? consideration of climate change in professional activity (several Results % possible choices) and main Explicitly, through the setting of objectives to be achieved or actions to be taken 38,1 results Implicitly, through already existing measures (risk management, planning, project sizing, etc.) 55,8 There is no consideration of climate change in my professional activities 18,6 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 703 Table 7 Results on barriers and Levers % levers from the survey Commitment of a department, a team, an employee 46,3 Political commitment from the elected representatives of your territory 46,3 Public subsidies 24,5 Private initiative project(s) 23,9 Change in the legal or regulatory framework 23,4 Significant climatic events in your area 20,2 Collaboration with a third-party specialist 18,6 Consequences for activities in your region 18,6 Others 9,6 Barriers % Other higher priority issues 48,5 Lack of financial resources (to work on) 43,7 The cost of the required actions (to implement) 35,9 Lack of human resources or skills 34,2 Limited or unknown consequences of CC effects 24,7 Lack of interest from your managers, colleagues, funders 23,8 The limited impact your activities could have on the climate change issues… 19,9 Others 11,3 Climate change controversies 6,5 Fig. 1 Table of dependency relationships between the answers to the questions asked in the survey be observed which present several significant dependency (Q29 to Q31), age and education (Q45, Q46) and personal relationships: question 3, already mentioned, which deals choices (Q35). with the consideration of climate change and question 37 The presence of a cross indicates that the independ- on the consideration of climate change in private leisure ence test has been completed. The use of colors expresses activities. the degree of significance of the test (p < 1%, p < 5%, The analysis presented here focuses on the statistically p < 15%). For example, a p value = 1% means that there significant interdependencies between the consideration of is a 99% probability that the variables are dependent. The climate change in professional activities (Q3) and variables white boxes (with a cross) are not significant. in three main themes: knowledge and access to information 1 3 704 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Profile of respondents toward integration of climate This result confirms that the information availabil- change into professional practices ity (related to the Nodality axis as presented in Sec- tion 2.3) is a determining factor in the change of pro- At the date of the survey, February 2019, which is impor- fessional practices (Lehmann et al. 2015). However, it tant to remember because the political context of climate also shows that availability of information is not suf- change is changing rapidly, the analysis of the results ficient in itself since only the most motivated actors seems to highlight a group of committed actors who take seem to know, use and appreciate the available sources climate change explicitly into account in their profes- of information (Henstra 2016). sional activities. This group of actors, which we describe It is also noteworthy that these pioneers cite the as pioneers, is distinguished by two main factors. First, importance of subsidies as a lever for action slightly they also integrate climate change issue in their personal more often than others and, even more strongly, they choices. In particular, an interdependence is observed point to the lack of interest from their managers, col- between taking climate change into account in profes- leagues, funders or clients as a hindrance (Q37 and sional practices and personal mobility choices. Second, Q14). It can thus be assumed that they are faced with pioneers are making more than others an active use of (passive) resistance from their professional context, available sources of information on climate change and which could be interpreted as an enrolment issue. They its issues. These sources of information consist of con- would encounter difficulties in convincing their col- ferences, scientific publications, documents produced by leagues or superiors of the importance of better taking public administrations or training courses. It also seems climate change into account. that this group of pioneering actors is more often present Finally, in general, professional contexts or fields of in the lower age brackets (< 36 years) and in technical activity do not seem to play a determining role. In other training, in engineering or architecture, for example. It words, the implementation of concrete and targeted actions also seems that this group of pioneering actors is more on climate change would rather be driven by the personal often present in the lower age categories (< 36 years) commitments of individuals to these issues in their private and in technical training, in engineering or architecture, lives. The absence of significant dependencies between the for example. variables describing professional contexts and the con- At the same time, we observe a group of actors, less sideration of climate change allows us to hypothesize a involved, who take climate change into account through lack of institutional guidelines or objectives that could be pre-existing measures and who mainly inform themselves endorsed by the actors of these institutions, regardless of through the press. These people are generally older, inform their personal convictions or values. However, if an evolu- themselves through the press and have less technical train- tion of these institutions through the commitment of pio- ing, which suggests that climate change issues are still neering actors seems a natural progression, a more effec - perceived as having little to do with the social sciences or tive consideration of climate change in general practices humanities. of land use planning would require their rapid transposi- The table below (Table 8) summarizes the factors that tion into coherent and more widely applied institutional are favorable and unfavorable to the integration of climate strategies. These findings on the importance of pioneer - change into the respondents’ professional practices. ing actors are also consistent with the conclusions of the literature on the influence of the specific characteristics Table 8 Summary of the favorable and unfavorable factors for taking climate change into account Respondent characteristics Values associated with: “taking climate change into account” Values asso- ciated with: “not taking climate change into account” Considers CCs for personal mobility Yes No Training Technical training: engineering, architecture, natural sciences Land use planning, human sci- ences, law Source of information used Specialized sources and training on CC Press Age < 36 years > 50 years 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 705 of actors (Lehmann et al. 2015) and their individual moti- integration of climate change into the professional practice vations in the context of a lack of regulatory framework of land use and urban planning. Figure 2 presents a synthesis (McClure and Baker 2018) in relation with the Authority of these discussions. Barriers and levers are grouped into axis. main topics. This result gives a wide variety of opinions and proposals. However, issues of lack of information and legal Focus group: toward courses of action framework, and the need for arbitration between conflicting policies are the most prevalent. Outcomes from the focus groups Based on the identification of barriers and levers during the first focus group, the very rich exchanges that took place The first focus group allowed participants to share their during the second focus group enabled to highlight six major views on what facilitates (levers) or hinders (barriers) the priorities for action as presented in Fig. 3. Fig. 2 Main levers and barriers identified during the first focus group section. Black boxes: Barriers / White boxes: Levers Fig. 3 Priorities for action and connections that were discussed during the second focus group meeting. SIA and VSS refer to Swiss norms (SIA: Swiss soci- ety of engineers and architects, VSS: Swiss Association of Road and Transport Profes- sionals) 1 3 706 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 The arrows conceptually illustrate the interrelations permits). This is an organization-type action. Similar to between the priorities for action. Indeed, they are not inde- existing thematic commissions, such as the one present in pendent, the achievement of one can facilitate the achieve- some Swiss cantons on natural hazards, this commission ment of the other, but they can be carried out in parallel. would bring together representatives of different services Their presentation can be made by considering two struc- (health, safety, environment, nature, etc.). This commission turing axes: 1) the need to reinforce the weight of climate could, on one hand, guarantee that climate issues are taken change among the other issues and topics in urban planning into account and, on the other hand, be the place where decisions 2) the need to support the actors in the integra- interests are weighed between the different standards or tion of climate issues in their professional practices. The constraints that apply to the project concerned. However, proposed actions can also be easily associated with the four one limitation of this action is obviously to introduce an categories proposed by Henstra (2016): Nodality, Authority, additional stage in the authorization procedure for urban Treasure and Organization. projects. Finally, related to Treasury axis, participants considered Giving more weight to climate change that the low priority given to climate change is also due to the presence of technological, financial and legal risk. The first action described is of the Authority type. In order Indeed, the integration of climate change into urban projects to rebalance interests in favor of climate change, the par- often requires departing from usual and standardized (see ticipants considered it desirable to modify the legal bases of above) practices. Thus, project leaders are afraid of expos- urban or territorial projects by introducing a constitutional ing themselves to technical faults that may involve finan - (cantonal) article or a (cantonal) law requiring the considera- cial charges or legal proceedings as well as delivery delays tion of climate change in urban planning plans and projects. (involving penalties). These risks may arise, for example, Indeed, the participants particularly mentioned that once the from the use of new construction techniques or materials already existing legal constraints (that are not concerning (recycled concrete, wood, etc.) or from innovative, less climate change) have been respected, project designers have controlled and routine practices in urban planning and the neither the resources (time and money), nor the room for development of public spaces (choice of suitable coverings, maneuver to still integrate climate issues. However, they also for example), for which experience and know-how are less discussed the paradox that adding legal constraint concern- consistent. It would therefore be in the interest to reduce ing climate change would make the legislative framework these risks by setting up a system of public guarantee. In even more complex. So, some of them argued for giving other words, it would be a matter of making available to more latitude to the interpretation of legal constraints and project leaders a kind of public insurance offering coverage the balancing of interests, rather than adding new legal con- on the implementation of technological innovations. This straints further limiting the possibility of finding solutions could contribute, from their point of view, to getting profes- specifically adapted to the local context. sionals out of the routines of usual businesses (construction In the same vein, participants pointed out that the profes- sector in particular). sional standards and codes that apply to urban projects are not always or rarely compatible with a relevant and effec - Supporting the integration of climate issues tive consideration of climate change. For example, parking standards, which require a minimum parking rate per dwell- In order to accompany the actors of the regional planning ing based on distance from the urban center, can be an obsta- toward a modification of the professional practices in favor cle to the implementation of a strong soft mobility strategy of the climate stakes, the participants considered that it or the fight against the sealing of public spaces. In addition, would be necessary to train “climate integrators” interven- as with the findings on legal constraints, the application of ing in the urban project approaches. Indeed, the results of the the many existing professional standards also considerably survey showed that access to information on climate change reduces the room for flexibility needed to integrate climate and its relationship to the territory is a determining factor in change into territorial projects. The participants therefore the evolution of practices. Thus, there is a real challenge in suggested that a rapid review of standards and codes from a facilitating its appropriation by the presence of relay actors. climate change perspective (construction sector, urban plan- Through CAS (Certificate of Advanced Studies), Bach - ning) be undertaken to verify their consistency and open up elor’s or Master’s degrees, the aim would be to train urban areas for action. planners, developers, planners or builders specializing in cli- Another proposed course of action to reinforce the prior- mate change. These people could oe ff r specic fi skills related ity of climate issues is the creation of a cantonal climate to the climate and its consequences, as well as transversal commission whose mission would be to formulate advance skills related to the project approach. However, the partici- notice of urban projects (neighborhood plan and building pants were aware that this is a medium-term perspective, 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 707 requiring nearly ten years between the definition of edu - address climate change issues. Moreover, many of the pro- cational programs and the entry into the market of climate jects that do so are still pilot projects subsidized by public integrators. institutions. Another form of accompaniment could be the one offered However, the analysis of the Swiss situation also shows, by a center of competences (boundary organization). Like in the case of a federal-type system, a good articulation the Ouranos consortium in Quebec (see Section 2.3), this between the federal, cantonal and local levels according to center of expertise could produce targeted studies, make rec- the principles of subsidiarity. Thus, an ambitious climate ommendations, promote exemplary projects, but also answer policy will at the federal level has been undertaken to give questions or provide more general support to project leaders impetus and encourage the implementation of actions at in integrating climate change. the cantonal and local (municipal) levels. This top-down By facilitating access to urban climate expertise, it would approach could preserve Switzerland from the problems be possible to reduce the observed erosion of intentions and observed in other federal contexts (Harker et al. 2017 in motivations, which are often strong in the early stages of New Zealand and McClure and Baker 2018 in Australia) projects, but become residual at the implementation stage. where local action is often hampered by a lack of ambition Moreover, the positive effects of facilitated access to the at the higher level. necessary skills are not limited to the design and implemen- The study also showed that federal initiatives are slowly tation of urban projects, but could also contribute to achieve (and recently) being taken up at the lower political scales better environmental performance in the operational phases. (cantons), which are the most decisive in spatial planning The participants thus evoked the interest in developing skills practice. However, given the lack of clear and sustained in the area of climate issues not only in the form of assis- guidelines from these cantonal or municipal institutions, tance to the project owner, i.e., a person who supports the the evolution of professional practice is strongly linked to project manager, but also in the form of a user manager, this the personal motivations of individual actors. There is thus time supporting the users of the project, once it has been certainly a step to be taken to institutionalize and perpetuate, carried out. Indeed, it is often observed that the expected in spatial planning practices, the importance of meeting the performance in terms of energy consumption, for example, challenges posed to urban and territorial systems by climate is not finally achieved due to inadequate user behavior. change. All the actions proposed concerning the support of the Although the courses of action that were identified in integration of climate issues are in the Nodality type as pro- focus groups are partly specific to the Swiss context, they posed by Henstra (2016), aiming at mobilizing, reinforcing nevertheless easily fit into the four categories proposed and sharing knowledge. by Henstra (2016), showing that the proposed conceptual framework is adapted to structure climate governance in various contexts. This result thus underlines the importance Discussion and conclusion of pursuing a strategy that combines these different fields of action. This article presents, step by step, the investigation of a It seems important to us to return to the central role of general question: how to help Swiss urban planning actors information. Indeed, our results show that, on the one hand, to better integrate climate change into their professional actors who are aware of the issue are more informed and practice? that, on the other hand, actors who are better informed act In addition to a review of scientific literature, data collec - more in favor of taking climate change into account. In other tion was carried out through Swiss case studies, a survey of words, feeling informed facilitates action, but access to professional circles and focus groups. information is still restricted to previously motivated actors. These approaches did not produce an exhaustive portrait We could thus assume the existence of a vicious circle that of climate practice in Switzerland, which was not the objec- restricts the group of actors who are ready to modify their tive; however, they did bring out very instructive insights professional practices: one should be motivated to gather with a view to strengthening and generalizing climate gov- information and one should be informed to be motivated. ernance in Switzerland. From our point of view, the key to this dynamic is there- This research shows that actors in the field of spatial plan - fore certainly easier access to (widely) available informa- ning in Switzerland have been slow to realize the need to tion. Fortunately, several public institutions are diversifying modify their practices to face climate change. This obser- their modes of communication (videos, discussion groups, vation and the reasons that we have put forward to under- participatory approaches, social networks, etc.). stand them are in many respects similar to elements already It should be noted that throughout this research, but also observed in other contexts. In Switzerland, as elsewhere, it is and especially since the distribution of the questionnaire, relatively recent that urban instruments or projects explicitly awareness of the climate emergency has accelerated in 1 3 708 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Switzerland through numerous street demonstrations (cli- the comparison with other countries, we are nevertheless mate strike) and the confirmation of a “green wave” in the convinced that the barriers and levers identified in this last federal elections (October 2019). The current COVID- study are transposable to other situations where changes 19 pandemic will certainly also have had an impact on in practices must be implemented in a short time. In Swit- motivations, either by reinforcing them in favor of climate zerland, as elsewhere, the integration of climate policies (since these events demonstrated the possibility of acting into spatial planning is underway, but many steps remain in emergency and the benefits of a society slowing down to be taken and these may present difficulties similar to its activities), or by leaving aside the climate theme in the those identified in this article. face of the importance given to other health and socioeco- nomic emergencies. The year 2021 has also been decisive in the awareness of the climate emergency through the climate hazards that have multiplied and the alarmist tone Appendix 1 of the latest IPCC report. This context, where climate phenomena, awareness and The table presents the detailed view of the instruments policy responses are evolving very rapidly, raises the ques- analyzed in the Swiss context. For each instrument, it is tion of the internal validity of the instruments presented in indicated whether it addresses Adaptation (A), Mitigation the article: analysis framework for climate policies in Swit- (M) or both. zerland, questionnaires and surveys, focus group framework. Tool Description Organism Scale A M The results presented in Section 4 for each instrument are representative of the current state of awareness and opin- 1.Local projects and initiatives ions during the research project period (2018–2019). We Urban green Study of the City of Bern Municipality x infrastruc- link between assume that if the instruments were being applied presently, tures & cli- climate the results would have been die ff rent. For example, the num - mate (Blaser change and ber of climate plans in cantons and cities has increased since et al. 2017) trees in cities. 2020. The questionnaire distributed 6 months later would Develop- ment of probably have put more emphasis on personal convictions methods and and the role of information, which has also greatly increased concepts for in recent months. The perception of priority actions (see sustainable Fig. 2) resulting from the focus group sessions would also urban tree management. probably be different now. While the validity period of Pilot project the results is short, we believe that the proposed structure supported of the instruments remains valid over a longer term. As a by FOEN perspective, it would be interesting to apply these same (phase 1) Green roofs The City owns City of Laus- Municipality x instruments on a regular basis to reflect the evolution of Lausanne some 3,000 anne climate policy implementation, professional practices and (www. lausa roofs and opinions. Concerning the external validity, which addressed nne. ch/ toitu is making the generability of the process, the question is particularly res- veget alise every effort es) to promote how far the sample of the involved people can be extended. the greening Indeed, both interviewees (survey) and participants of the of its own focus group were selected among professionals involved roofs. It also in climate-related fields in order to target climate policy encourages homeown- levers. But since it is acknowledged that climate is now a ers and concern for society as a whole and for every individual, professionals we believe that the proposed approach and tools could be to welcome applied to the entire professional spectrum and to the public nature on their roofs in general, with minor adaptations in the formulation of the questions. The focus groups could also be used to facilitate public forums in the neighborhoods. This would allow us to broaden the range of responses and proposals. Finally, if the picture of the situation described at the time of this study has indeed changed significantly in recent years and if, moreover, the Swiss situation presents certain specificities (economic and political) which limit 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 709 Tool Description Organism Scale A M Tool Description Organism Scale A M AcclimataSion The City of City of Sion Municipality x Climate plan Studies carried State and city State, region x x (Ville de Sion Sion carried Zurich (Bättig out at dif- of ZH and city 2017) out urban et al. 2013) ferent scales development integrating projects that the analysis give priority of the effects to vegetation of climate and the water change in cycle, devel- different oped a guide fields and for profes- the proposal sionals, and of priority guidelines for actions and construction measures. and develop- Elaboration ment projects. of thematic Pilot project maps of supported by heat islands the FOEN and winds (phase 1) contributing to cooling 2.Regulation and climate action plan Climate plan Analysis of the Region Region x x Energy law Requirements State of Geneva State (canton) x Mitteland effects of cli- Genève for the con- (Kholer and mate change struction and Kraus 2016) on a lowland renovation and medium of buildings mountain with regard region still to renew- little affected, able energy, adoption of efficiency; an adaptation energy plan- strategy, ning of neigh- mobilizing borhoods and the network municipalities of key actors. Climate plan Strategic, trans- State of Geneva State (canton) x x Pilot project Genève versal and supported (Genève 2018) operational by FOEN instrument (phase 1) structured 3.Land use planning instruments (Geneva) in two parts. Component Directive on Cantonal State of Geneva Municipality (x) x 1: inventory master munic- directive and strategies ipal land use concerning of the climate plan (Genève the updating policy via 6 2016) of communal axes. Part II: master plans, measurement with a sheets for chapter on each axis the climatic aspect but not very detailed. Climate is mainly dealt with through the com- munal energy plan and the fight against emissions 1 3 710 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Tool Description Organism Scale A M Tool Description Organism Scale A M Local urban Analysis State, builders Neighborhood x Site 2000 watts This label OFEN Neighborhood x (x) planning of a few (https:// www. rewards development 2000w att. neighbor- neighborhood swiss/ en/ engli hoods plans adopted sh. html) (planning, in 2017 transforma- and 2018 tion, opera- and related tion) that documents. conform to Climate the principles addressed of a 2000-W only with society. Cri- reference to teria mainly emissions of concern pollutants, attenua- GHGs and tion; others O depleting relate to the substances, quality of but explicit public spaces adaptation guarantee- measures ing thermal comfort 4.Labels and evaluation processes European The “Cité de OFEN Municipality x x energy award l'énergie” (https:// tool. label rewards europ ean- municipalities energy- award. that actively org) pursue a sustainable energy and climate pol- icy. The latest version of the Management Tool contains more climate- related criteria, particularly with regard to adaptation 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 711 Appendix 2 The figure below gives an example of a measure described by one of the groups during the second focus group meeting. 1 3 712 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Authors’ contributions All authors contributed to the study conception Bulkeley H, Betsill MM (2013) Revisiting the urban politics of climate and design and to writing the first draft. Florent Joerin mainly contrib - change. Environ Politics 22:136–154. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ uted to the Methodology (3), the Survey on barriers and levers (4.2), 09644 016. 2013. 755797 the Focus group results (4.3) and the Conclusion (5). Gilles Desthieux Burton P, Mustelin J (2013) Planning for Climate Change: Is Greater mainly contributed to the Introduction (1), the State of the art (2) and Public Participation the Key to Success? Urban Policy Res the Climate change instruments and tools in Switzerland (4.1) sections. 31:399–415. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 08111 146. 2013. 778196 Cloutier G, Joerin F, Dubois C, Labarthe M, Legay C, Viens D (2014) Planning adaptation based on local actors’ knowledge and par- Funding Open access funding provided by University of Applied Sci- ticipation: a climate governance experiment. Clim Pol 15(4):458– ences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO) The paper was written 474. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2014. 937388 in the framework of the GO CLIMAT project (Swiss climate govern- Cunningham R, Cvitanovic C, Measham T, Jacobs B, Dowd AM, Har- ance in land use planning) that was funded by the University of Applied man B (2016) Engaging communities in climate adaptation: the Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO) and co-funded by potential of social networks. Clim Pol 16(7):894–908. https://doi. the Energy Office of the State of Geneva. org/ 10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2015. 10529 55 Davies C and Lafortezza R (2017) Urban green infrastructure in Declarations Europe: is greenspace planning and policy compliant? Land Use Policy 69: 93–101. https://doi. or g/10. 1016/j. landu sepol. 2017. 08. Conflicts of interest Not applicable. 018 Derkzen ML, Van Teeffelen AJA, Verburg PH (2017) Green infra - structure for urban climate adaptation: How do residents’ views Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- on climate impacts and green infrastructure shape adaptation bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- preferences? Landsc Urban Plan 157:106–130. https:// doi. org/ tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long 10. 1016/j. landu rbplan. 2016. 05. 027 as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, Dupuis J, Knoepfel P (2011) Barriers to implementation of adapta- provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes tion policies to climate change: the case of Switzerland. Swiss were made. The images or other third party material in this article are Pol Sci Rev 17:188–219 included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated Eisenack K, Stecker R (2012) A framework for analyzing climate otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in change adaptations as actions. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not 17:243–260 permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will FOEN (2012) Adaptation to climate change in Switzerland - first part need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a of the Federal Council’s strategy. Adopted on 2 March 2012. copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1055-F. https:// www. bafu. admin. ch/ bafu/ en/ home/ topics/ clima te/ publi catio ns- studi es/ publi catio ns/ adapt ation- clima te- change- switz References erland- 2012. html. Accessed 9 June 2022 FOEN (2014) Adaptation aux changements climatiques en Suisse. Plan d’action 2014 –2019. Deuxième volet de la stratégie du Araos M, Berrang-Ford L, Ford JD, Austin SE, Biesbroek R, Conseil fédéral du 9 avril 2014. Federal Office for the Environ - Lesnikowski A (2016) Climate change adaptation planning in ment - FOEN ed., UD-1081-F. https://www .bafu. admin. c h/bafu/ large cities: A systematic global assessment. Environ Sci Policy fr/ home/ themes/ climat/ publi catio ns- etudes/ publi catio ns/ adapt 66:375–382. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. envsci. 2016. 06. 009 ation- chang ements- clima tiques- suisse- 2014. html. Accessed 9 Bättig M, Wegmann B, von Grünigen S, Rom N, Montanari D (2013) June 2022 Klimawandel im Grossraum Zürich. Was können wir tun ? Sudi- FOEN (2015) Adaptation aux changements climatiques. Stratégie enreihe « Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft » Zürcher Kantonalbank du Conseil fédéral: enjeux pour les cantons. Federal Office for ed. https:// www . econc ep t. c h/ media/ pr oje cts/ downl oads/ 2018/ the Environment - FOEN ed., UW-1509-F. https:// www. bafu. 01/klima w andel_g rossr aum_zuer ic h_Publi k umsversion. F ile.pdf . admin.c h/bafu/ fr/ home/ t hemes/climat/ publi catio ns- e tudes/publi Accessed 9 June 2022 catio ns/ adapt ation- chang ements- clima tiques. html. Accessed 9 Berdoulay V, Soubeyran O (2014) Adaptation, science de la durabilité June 2022 et pensée planificatrice. Nat Sci Soc 22:114–123. https:// doi. org/ FOEN (2017) Impulsions pour une adaptation de la Suisse aux 10. 1051/ nss/ 20140 24 changements climatiques. Conclusions de 31 projets pilotes Berrang-Ford L, Siders AR, Lesnikowski A et al (2021) A system- sur l’adaptation aux changements climatiques. Info Environne- atic global stocktake of evidence on human adaptation to climate ment, 2017. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., change. Nat Clim Chang 11:989–1000. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1038/ UI-1703-F. https:// www. bafu. admin. ch/ bafu/ fr/ home/ themes/ s41558- 021- 01170-y climat/ publi catio ns- etudes/ publi catio ns/ impul sions- pour- une- Bertrand F, Richard E (2015) La délicate existence locale de adap t ation- de- la- Suisse- aux- c hang ements- clima tiq ues. html. l’adaptation aux changements climatiques : avec, sans, ou à côté Accessed 9 June 2022 de l’atténuation. Développement durable et territoires. https:// FOEN (2020) Changements climatiques en Suisse. Federal Office for journals. opene dition. or g/de veloppem entdu r able/11048 . Accessed the Environment FOEN, Federal Office of Meteorology and Cli - 22 December 2015 matology, Meteoswiss ed., UZ-2013-E. https://www .bafu. admin. Biesbroek GR, Swart RJ, Van der Knaap WGM (2009) The mitigation– ch/bafu/ en/ home/ t opics/clima te/ publi catio ns- s tudies/ publi catio ns/ adaptation dichotomy and the role of spatial planning. Habitat clima te- chang eswit zerla nd. html. Accessed 9 June 2022 Int 33:230–237. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. habit atint. 2008. 10. 001 FOEN (2022) CO2-Emissionsfaktoren des Treibhausgas-inventars der Blaser J, Gardi O, Kern M, Mack S, Wiedemar M, Remund J (2017) Schweiz. https:// www. bafu. admin. ch/ bafu/ en/ home/ topics/ clima Urban Green & Climate Bern - Die Rolle und Bewirtschaftung te/ state/ data/ green house- gas- inven tory. html von Bäumen in einer klimaangepassten Stadtentwicklun. Final FSU (2019) Conférence centrale 2019 – L’aménagement du territoire report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate face à l’urgence climatique, Lucerne, 22 November 2019, https:// adaptation 2013–2017 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 713 www.f-s- u.c h/fr /ma nife statio ns/c onfer ence-c entra le/. Accessed 3 Reckien D, Salvia M, Heidrich O, Church JM, Pietrapertosa F, October 2021 De Gregorio-Hurtado S, D’Alonzo V, Foley A, Simoes SG, Füssel HM, Klein RJT (2006) Climate Change Vulnerability Assess- KrkoškaLorencová E, Orru H, Orru K, Wejs A, Flacke J, Olazabal ments: An Evolution of Conceptual Thinking. Clim Change M, Geneletti D, Feliu E, Vasilie S, Nador C, Krook-Riekkola A, 75:301–329. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10584- 006- 0329-3 Matosović M, Fokaides PA, Ioannou BI, Flamos A, Spyridaki NA, Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2016) Directives pour Balza MV, Fülöp O, Paspaldzhiev I, Grafakos S, Dawson R (2018) ème l’élaboration des plans directeurs communaux 2 génération, How are cities planning to respond to climate change? Assessment mars 2016. https:// www. ge. ch/ docum ent/ elabo ration- plans- direc of local climate plans from 885 cities in the EU-28. J Clean Prod teurs- commu naux- deuxi eme- gener ation. Accessed 9 June 2022 191:207–219. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jclep ro. 2018. 03. 220 Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2018) Plan climat cantonal – Volet Reischl C, Rauter R, Posch A (2018) Urban vulnerability and adap- 2. Plan de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et adap - tation to heatwaves: a case study of Graz (Austria). Clim Pol tation aux changements climatiques 2013–2017. https:// www. ge. 18(1):63–75. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2016. 12279 53 ch/docum ent/ elabo r ation-plans- dir ecteurs- commu naux- deuxi eme- Richard E (2015) L’action publique territoriale face au défi de gener ation. Accessed 9 June 2022 l’adaptation : déterminants et effets de la prise en compte des Gustafsson KM, Lidskog R (2018) Boundary organizations and envi- changements climatiques à l’échelle régionale. VertigO - la revue ronmental governance: performance, institutional design, and électronique en sciences de l'environnement. http://jour nals. opene conceptual development. Clim Risk Manag 19:1–11. https:// doi. dition. org/ verti go/ 15283 org/ 10. 1016/j. crm. 2017. 11. 001 Salvia M, Reckien D, Pietrapertosa F, Eckersley P, Spyridaki NA, Harker J, Taylor P, Knight-Lenihan S (2017) Multi-level governance Krook-Riekkola A, Olazabal M, De Gregorio HS, Simoes SG, and climate change mitigation in New Zealand: lost opportunities. Geneletti D, Viguié V, Fokaides PA, Ioannou BI, Flamos A, Csete Climate Policy 17(4):485–500. https://doi. or g/10. 1080/ 14693 062. MS, Buzasi A, Orru H, de Boer C, Foley A, Rižnar K, Matosović 2015. 11225 67 M, Balzan MV, Smigaj M, Baštáková V, Streberova E, Šel NB, Henstra D (2016) The tools of climate adaptation policy: analysing Coste L, Tardieu L, Altenburg C, Lorencová EK, Orru K, Wejs A, instruments and instrument selection. Climate Policy 16(4):496– Feliu E, Church JM, Grafakos S, Vasilie S, Paspaldzhiev I, Hei- 521. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2015. 10159 46 drich O (2021) Will climate mitigation ambitions lead to carbon Huard D, Chaumont D, Logan T, Sotille MF (2014) A decade of cli- neutrality? An analysis of the local-level plans of 327 cities in the mate scenarios: the ouranos consortium modus operandi. Bull EU. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 135:110253. https:// doi. org/ 10. Am Meteorol Soc 95(8):1213–1225. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1175/ 1016/j. rser. 2020. 110253 BAMS-D- 12- 00163.1 Scanu E, Cloutier G (2015) Why do cities get involved in climate gov- IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: synthesis report. In: Core Writing ernance? Insights from Canada and Italy. Environnement urbain Team, Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (eds) Contribution of working / UrbanEnvironment 9:1–19. https:// doi. org/ 10. 7202/ 10362 21ar groups I, II and III to the Fourth assessment report of the intergovern- Simonet G, Leseur A (2019) Barriers and drivers to adaptation mental panel on climate change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp 104 to climate change—a field study of ten French local authori - IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. ties. Clim Change 155: 621–637. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1007/ Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report s10584- 019- 02484-9 of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, Stoiber T (2019) Klimakarten zeigen, wo es im Kanton Zürich heiss ist. O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Sey- In : Collage 5/19 La Ville face au changement climatique, 10–12. both, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, https://w ww.f-s -u.c h/w p-c onten t/u pload s/2 019/1 2/C ollag e_5_1 9. J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022 Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Straka M, Sodoudi S (2019) Evaluating climate change adaptation Kingdom and New York, NY, USA strategies and scenarios of enhanced vertical and horizontal com- Kholer P, Kraus M (2016) Regionale Anpassungsstrategie Klimawan- pactness at urban scale (a case study for Berlin). Landsc Urban del Sursee-Mittelland. Final report in the framework of the Plan 183:68–78. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. landu rbplan. 2018. 11. FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017 006 Lehmann P, Brenck M, Gebhardt O (2015) Barriers and opportuni- Ville de Sion (2017) Aménagement des villes et adaptation au change- ties for urban adaptation planning: analytical framework and ment climatique. Sélection d’expériences et de bonnes pratiques evidence from cities in Latin America and Germany. Mitig de la Ville de Sion (projet AcclimataSion). Rapport final, mai Adapt Strateg Glob Change 20:75–97. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ 2017. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program s11027- 013- 9480-0 on climate adaptation 2014–2018, https:// www. nccs. admin. ch/ Lubell M, Morrison TH (2021) Institutional navigation for polycentric dam/ nccs/ it/ dokum ente/ klima/ exter ne- studi en- beric hte/ Amena sustainability governance. Nat Sustain 4:664–671. https://doi. or g/ gement-d es-v illes-e t-a dapta tion-a u-c hange ment-c limat ique-E xper 10. 1038/ s41893- 021- 00707-5 iences- e t- bonnes- pr ati q ues- de- la- Ville- de- Sion. pdf. downl oad. McClure B, Baker D (2018) How do planners deal with barriers to cli-pdf/ Am% C3% A9nag ement_ des_ villes_ et_ adapt ation_ au_ chang mate change adaptation? A case study in Queensland, Australia. ement_c limat ique_-_E xp%C 3%A 9rien ces_e t_b onnes_p ratiq ues_ Landsc Urban Plan 173:81–88. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. landu de_ la_ Ville_ de_ Sion. pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022 rbplan. 2018. 01. 012 Xu L, Wang X, Liu J, He Y, Tang X, Nguyen M, Cui S (2019) Identify- Mees H, Tijhuis N, Dieperink C (2018) The effectiveness of com - ing the trade-offs between climate change mitigation and adapta - municative tools in addressing barriers to municipal climate tion in urban land use planning: An empirical study in a coastal change adaptation: lessons from the Netherlands. Climate Policy city. Environ Int 133:105162. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. en vint. 18(10):1313–1326. https://doi. or g/10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2018. 14344 2019. 105162 Moser SC, Ekstrom JA (2010) A framework to diagnose barriers to Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to climate change adaptation. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107:22026–22031 jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Olazabal M, Ruiz De Gopegui M (2021) Adaptation planning in large cities is unlikely to be effective. Landsc Urban Plan 206:103974. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. landu rbplan. 2020. 103974 1 3 http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences Springer Journals http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/springer-journals/urban-planning-in-swiss-cities-has-been-slow-to-think-about-climate-cOFZgCnh1j

Loading next page...

References (72)

(2014)
Deuxième volet de la stratégie du Conseil fédéral du 9 avril 2014. Federal Office for the Environment -FOEN ed
(Cloutier G, Joerin F, Dubois C, Labarthe M, Legay C, Viens D (2014) Planning adaptation based on local actors’ knowledge and participation: a climate governance experiment. Clim Pol 15(4):458–474. 10.1080/14693062.2014.937388)
Cloutier G, Joerin F, Dubois C, Labarthe M, Legay C, Viens D (2014) Planning adaptation based on local actors’ knowledge and participation: a climate governance experiment. Clim Pol 15(4):458–474. 10.1080/14693062.2014.937388
Cloutier G, Joerin F, Dubois C, Labarthe M, Legay C, Viens D (2014) Planning adaptation based on local actors’ knowledge and participation: a climate governance experiment. Clim Pol 15(4):458–474. 10.1080/14693062.2014.937388, Cloutier G, Joerin F, Dubois C, Labarthe M, Legay C, Viens D (2014) Planning adaptation based on local actors’ knowledge and participation: a climate governance experiment. Clim Pol 15(4):458–474. 10.1080/14693062.2014.937388
Lachlan McClure, D. Baker (2018)
How do planners deal with barriers to climate change adaptation? A case study in Queensland, Australia
Landscape and Urban Planning, 173
Malcolm Araos, L. Berrang‐Ford, J. Ford, S. Austin, R. Biesbroek, A. Lesnikowski (2016)
Climate change adaptation planning in large cities: A systematic global assessment
Environmental Science & Policy, 66
(FOEN (2017) Impulsions pour une adaptation de la Suisse aux changements climatiques. Conclusions de 31 projets pilotes sur l’adaptation aux changements climatiques. Info Environnement, 2017. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UI-1703-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/impulsions-pour-une-adaptation-de-la-Suisse-aux-changements-climatiques.html. Accessed 9 June 2022)
FOEN (2017) Impulsions pour une adaptation de la Suisse aux changements climatiques. Conclusions de 31 projets pilotes sur l’adaptation aux changements climatiques. Info Environnement, 2017. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UI-1703-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/impulsions-pour-une-adaptation-de-la-Suisse-aux-changements-climatiques.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
FOEN (2017) Impulsions pour une adaptation de la Suisse aux changements climatiques. Conclusions de 31 projets pilotes sur l’adaptation aux changements climatiques. Info Environnement, 2017. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UI-1703-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/impulsions-pour-une-adaptation-de-la-Suisse-aux-changements-climatiques.html. Accessed 9 June 2022, FOEN (2017) Impulsions pour une adaptation de la Suisse aux changements climatiques. Conclusions de 31 projets pilotes sur l’adaptation aux changements climatiques. Info Environnement, 2017. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UI-1703-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/impulsions-pour-une-adaptation-de-la-Suisse-aux-changements-climatiques.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
(Huard D, Chaumont D, Logan T, Sotille MF (2014) A decade of climate scenarios: the ouranos consortium modus operandi. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 95(8):1213–1225. 10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00163.1)
Huard D, Chaumont D, Logan T, Sotille MF (2014) A decade of climate scenarios: the ouranos consortium modus operandi. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 95(8):1213–1225. 10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00163.1
Huard D, Chaumont D, Logan T, Sotille MF (2014) A decade of climate scenarios: the ouranos consortium modus operandi. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 95(8):1213–1225. 10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00163.1, Huard D, Chaumont D, Logan T, Sotille MF (2014) A decade of climate scenarios: the ouranos consortium modus operandi. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 95(8):1213–1225. 10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00163.1
Paul Burton, J. Mustelin (2013)
Planning for Climate Change: Is Greater Public Participation the Key to Success?
Urban Policy and Research, 31
(2017)
Aménagement des villes et adaptation au changement climatique
(2017)
Urban Green & Climate Bern -Die Rolle und Bewirtschaftung von Bäumen in einer klimaangepassten Stadtentwicklun. Final report in the framework of the FOEN's pilot program on climate adaptation
O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona (2014)
Climate change 2014 : mitigation of climate change
J. Harker, P. Taylor, Stephen Knight-Lenihan (2017)
Multi-level governance and climate change mitigation in New Zealand: lost opportunities
Climate Policy, 17
Federal Office for the Environment FOEN, Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology
(Ville de Sion (2017) Aménagement des villes et adaptation au changement climatique. Sélection d’expériences et de bonnes pratiques de la Ville de Sion (projet AcclimataSion). Rapport final, mai 2017. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2014–2018, https://www.nccs.admin.ch/dam/nccs/it/dokumente/klima/externe-studien-berichte/Amenagement-des-villes-et-adaptation-au-changement-climatique-Experiences-et-bonnes-pratiques-de-la-Ville-de-Sion.pdf.download.pdf/Am%C3%A9nagement_des_villes_et_adaptation_au_changement_climatique_-_Exp%C3%A9riences_et_bonnes_pratiques_de_la_Ville_de_Sion.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022)
Ville de Sion (2017) Aménagement des villes et adaptation au changement climatique. Sélection d’expériences et de bonnes pratiques de la Ville de Sion (projet AcclimataSion). Rapport final, mai 2017. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2014–2018, https://www.nccs.admin.ch/dam/nccs/it/dokumente/klima/externe-studien-berichte/Amenagement-des-villes-et-adaptation-au-changement-climatique-Experiences-et-bonnes-pratiques-de-la-Ville-de-Sion.pdf.download.pdf/Am%C3%A9nagement_des_villes_et_adaptation_au_changement_climatique_-_Exp%C3%A9riences_et_bonnes_pratiques_de_la_Ville_de_Sion.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022
Ville de Sion (2017) Aménagement des villes et adaptation au changement climatique. Sélection d’expériences et de bonnes pratiques de la Ville de Sion (projet AcclimataSion). Rapport final, mai 2017. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2014–2018, https://www.nccs.admin.ch/dam/nccs/it/dokumente/klima/externe-studien-berichte/Amenagement-des-villes-et-adaptation-au-changement-climatique-Experiences-et-bonnes-pratiques-de-la-Ville-de-Sion.pdf.download.pdf/Am%C3%A9nagement_des_villes_et_adaptation_au_changement_climatique_-_Exp%C3%A9riences_et_bonnes_pratiques_de_la_Ville_de_Sion.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022, Ville de Sion (2017) Aménagement des villes et adaptation au changement climatique. Sélection d’expériences et de bonnes pratiques de la Ville de Sion (projet AcclimataSion). Rapport final, mai 2017. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2014–2018, https://www.nccs.admin.ch/dam/nccs/it/dokumente/klima/externe-studien-berichte/Amenagement-des-villes-et-adaptation-au-changement-climatique-Experiences-et-bonnes-pratiques-de-la-Ville-de-Sion.pdf.download.pdf/Am%C3%A9nagement_des_villes_et_adaptation_au_changement_climatique_-_Exp%C3%A9riences_et_bonnes_pratiques_de_la_Ville_de_Sion.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022
(Davies C and Lafortezza R (2017) Urban green infrastructure in Europe: is greenspace planning and policy compliant? Land Use Policy 69: 93–101. 10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.08.018)
Davies C and Lafortezza R (2017) Urban green infrastructure in Europe: is greenspace planning and policy compliant? Land Use Policy 69: 93–101. 10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.08.018
Davies C and Lafortezza R (2017) Urban green infrastructure in Europe: is greenspace planning and policy compliant? Land Use Policy 69: 93–101. 10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.08.018, Davies C and Lafortezza R (2017) Urban green infrastructure in Europe: is greenspace planning and policy compliant? Land Use Policy 69: 93–101. 10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.08.018
H. Füssel, Richard Klein (2006)
Climate Change Vulnerability Assessments: An Evolution of Conceptual Thinking
Climatic Change, 75
V. Berdoulay, Olivier Soubeyran (2014)
Adaptation, science de la durabilité et pensée planificatrice
Natures Sciences Sociétés, 22
K. Eisenack, R. Stecker (2012)
A framework for analyzing climate change adaptations as actions
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 17
(2011)
Barriers to implementation of adaptation policies to climate change : the case of Switzerland
Directives pour l'élaboration des plans directeurs communaux 2 ème génération, mars
Klimawandel im Grossraum Zürich. Was können wir tun ? Sudienreihe « Wirtschaft und
(IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: synthesis report. In: Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (eds) Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the Fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp 104)
IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: synthesis report. In: Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (eds) Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the Fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp 104
IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: synthesis report. In: Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (eds) Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the Fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp 104, IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: synthesis report. In: Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (eds) Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the Fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp 104
(Simonet G, Leseur A (2019) Barriers and drivers to adaptation to climate change—a field study of ten French local authorities. Clim Change 155: 621–637. 10.1007/s10584-019-02484-9)
Simonet G, Leseur A (2019) Barriers and drivers to adaptation to climate change—a field study of ten French local authorities. Clim Change 155: 621–637. 10.1007/s10584-019-02484-9
Simonet G, Leseur A (2019) Barriers and drivers to adaptation to climate change—a field study of ten French local authorities. Clim Change 155: 621–637. 10.1007/s10584-019-02484-9, Simonet G, Leseur A (2019) Barriers and drivers to adaptation to climate change—a field study of ten French local authorities. Clim Change 155: 621–637. 10.1007/s10584-019-02484-9
Christiane Reischl, Romana Rauter, A. Posch (2018)
Urban vulnerability and adaptation to heatwaves: a case study of Graz (Austria)
Climate Policy, 18
(2022)
Ville_ de_ Sion
H. Bulkeley, M. Betsill (2013)
Revisiting the urban politics of climate change
Environmental Politics, 22
(IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA)
IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
(Scanu E, Cloutier G (2015) Why do cities get involved in climate governance? Insights from Canada and Italy. Environnement urbain / Urban Environment 9:1–19. 10.7202/1036221ar)
Scanu E, Cloutier G (2015) Why do cities get involved in climate governance? Insights from Canada and Italy. Environnement urbain / Urban Environment 9:1–19. 10.7202/1036221ar
Scanu E, Cloutier G (2015) Why do cities get involved in climate governance? Insights from Canada and Italy. Environnement urbain / Urban Environment 9:1–19. 10.7202/1036221ar, Scanu E, Cloutier G (2015) Why do cities get involved in climate governance? Insights from Canada and Italy. Environnement urbain / Urban Environment 9:1–19. 10.7202/1036221ar
Lilai Xu, Xiaoming Wang, Jiahui Liu, Yuanrong He, Jianxiong Tang, M. Nguyen, Shenghui Cui (2019)
Identifying the trade-offs between climate change mitigation and adaptation in urban land use planning: An empirical study in a coastal city.
Environment international, 133 Pt B
Karin Gustafsson, R. Lidskog (2017)
Boundary organizations and environmental governance : Performance, institutional design, and conceptual development
Climate Risk Management, 19
R. Cunningham, C. Cvitanovic, T. Measham, B. Jacobs, A. Dowd, Ben Harman (2016)
Engaging communities in climate adaptation: the potential of social networks
Climate Policy, 16
(FOEN (2015) Adaptation aux changements climatiques. Stratégie du Conseil fédéral: enjeux pour les cantons. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UW-1509-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/adaptation-changements-climatiques.html. Accessed 9 June 2022)
FOEN (2015) Adaptation aux changements climatiques. Stratégie du Conseil fédéral: enjeux pour les cantons. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UW-1509-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/adaptation-changements-climatiques.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
FOEN (2015) Adaptation aux changements climatiques. Stratégie du Conseil fédéral: enjeux pour les cantons. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UW-1509-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/adaptation-changements-climatiques.html. Accessed 9 June 2022, FOEN (2015) Adaptation aux changements climatiques. Stratégie du Conseil fédéral: enjeux pour les cantons. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UW-1509-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/adaptation-changements-climatiques.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
Heleen Mees, N. Tijhuis, C. Dieperink (2018)
The effectiveness of communicative tools in addressing barriers to municipal climate change adaptation: lessons from the Netherlands
Climate Policy, 18
Panel Climático (2007)
Climate change 2007: Synthesis report
(Richard E (2015) L’action publique territoriale face au défi de l’adaptation : déterminants et effets de la prise en compte des changements climatiques à l’échelle régionale. VertigO - la revue électronique en sciences de l'environnement. http://journals.openedition.org/vertigo/15283)
Richard E (2015) L’action publique territoriale face au défi de l’adaptation : déterminants et effets de la prise en compte des changements climatiques à l’échelle régionale. VertigO - la revue électronique en sciences de l'environnement. http://journals.openedition.org/vertigo/15283
Richard E (2015) L’action publique territoriale face au défi de l’adaptation : déterminants et effets de la prise en compte des changements climatiques à l’échelle régionale. VertigO - la revue électronique en sciences de l'environnement. http://journals.openedition.org/vertigo/15283, Richard E (2015) L’action publique territoriale face au défi de l’adaptation : déterminants et effets de la prise en compte des changements climatiques à l’échelle régionale. VertigO - la revue électronique en sciences de l'environnement. http://journals.openedition.org/vertigo/15283
(Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2016) Directives pour l’élaboration des plans directeurs communaux 2ème génération, mars 2016. https://www.ge.ch/document/elaboration-plans-directeurs-communaux-deuxieme-generation. Accessed 9 June 2022)
Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2016) Directives pour l’élaboration des plans directeurs communaux 2ème génération, mars 2016. https://www.ge.ch/document/elaboration-plans-directeurs-communaux-deuxieme-generation. Accessed 9 June 2022
Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2016) Directives pour l’élaboration des plans directeurs communaux 2ème génération, mars 2016. https://www.ge.ch/document/elaboration-plans-directeurs-communaux-deuxieme-generation. Accessed 9 June 2022, Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2016) Directives pour l’élaboration des plans directeurs communaux 2ème génération, mars 2016. https://www.ge.ch/document/elaboration-plans-directeurs-communaux-deuxieme-generation. Accessed 9 June 2022
(Bättig M, Wegmann B, von Grünigen S, Rom N, Montanari D (2013) Klimawandel im Grossraum Zürich. Was können wir tun ? Sudienreihe « Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft » Zürcher Kantonalbank ed. https://www.econcept.ch/media/projects/downloads/2018/01/klimawandel_grossraum_zuerich_Publikumsversion.File.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022)
Bättig M, Wegmann B, von Grünigen S, Rom N, Montanari D (2013) Klimawandel im Grossraum Zürich. Was können wir tun ? Sudienreihe « Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft » Zürcher Kantonalbank ed. https://www.econcept.ch/media/projects/downloads/2018/01/klimawandel_grossraum_zuerich_Publikumsversion.File.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022
Bättig M, Wegmann B, von Grünigen S, Rom N, Montanari D (2013) Klimawandel im Grossraum Zürich. Was können wir tun ? Sudienreihe « Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft » Zürcher Kantonalbank ed. https://www.econcept.ch/media/projects/downloads/2018/01/klimawandel_grossraum_zuerich_Publikumsversion.File.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022, Bättig M, Wegmann B, von Grünigen S, Rom N, Montanari D (2013) Klimawandel im Grossraum Zürich. Was können wir tun ? Sudienreihe « Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft » Zürcher Kantonalbank ed. https://www.econcept.ch/media/projects/downloads/2018/01/klimawandel_grossraum_zuerich_Publikumsversion.File.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022
E. Richard (2014)
L’action publique territoriale face au défi de l’adaptation : déterminants et effets de la prise en compte des changements climatiques à l’échelle régionale
S. Moser, J. Ekstrom (2010)
A framework to diagnose barriers to climate change adaptation
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107
(FOEN (2014) Adaptation aux changements climatiques en Suisse. Plan d’action 2014 –2019. Deuxième volet de la stratégie du Conseil fédéral du 9 avril 2014. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1081-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/adaptation-changements-climatiques-suisse-2014.html. Accessed 9 June 2022)
FOEN (2014) Adaptation aux changements climatiques en Suisse. Plan d’action 2014 –2019. Deuxième volet de la stratégie du Conseil fédéral du 9 avril 2014. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1081-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/adaptation-changements-climatiques-suisse-2014.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
FOEN (2014) Adaptation aux changements climatiques en Suisse. Plan d’action 2014 –2019. Deuxième volet de la stratégie du Conseil fédéral du 9 avril 2014. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1081-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/adaptation-changements-climatiques-suisse-2014.html. Accessed 9 June 2022, FOEN (2014) Adaptation aux changements climatiques en Suisse. Plan d’action 2014 –2019. Deuxième volet de la stratégie du Conseil fédéral du 9 avril 2014. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1081-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/fr/home/themes/climat/publications-etudes/publications/adaptation-changements-climatiques-suisse-2014.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
M. Derkzen, A. Teeffelen, P. Verburg (2017)
Green infrastructure for urban climate adaptation : How do residents’ views on climate impacts and green infrastructure shape adaptation preferences?
Landscape and Urban Planning, 157
C. Davies, R. Lafortezza (2017)
Urban green infrastructure in Europe: Is greenspace planning and policy compliant?
Land Use Policy, 69
(Gustafsson KM, Lidskog R (2018) Boundary organizations and environmental governance: performance, institutional design, and conceptual development. Clim Risk Manag 19:1–11. 10.1016/j.crm.2017.11.001)
Gustafsson KM, Lidskog R (2018) Boundary organizations and environmental governance: performance, institutional design, and conceptual development. Clim Risk Manag 19:1–11. 10.1016/j.crm.2017.11.001
Gustafsson KM, Lidskog R (2018) Boundary organizations and environmental governance: performance, institutional design, and conceptual development. Clim Risk Manag 19:1–11. 10.1016/j.crm.2017.11.001, Gustafsson KM, Lidskog R (2018) Boundary organizations and environmental governance: performance, institutional design, and conceptual development. Clim Risk Manag 19:1–11. 10.1016/j.crm.2017.11.001
Plan climat cantonal -Volet 2. Plan de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et adaptation aux changements climatiques
Adaptation to climate change in Switzerland -first part of the Federal Council's strategy
L. Berrang‐Ford, A. Siders, A. Lesnikowski, A. Fischer, M. Callaghan, N. Haddaway, K. Mach, Malcolm Araos, M. Shah, Mia Wannewitz, D. Doshi, T. Leiter, C. Matavel, J. Musah-Surugu, G. Wong‐Parodi, Philip Antwi‐Agyei, I. Ajibade, Neha Chauhan, William Kakenmaster, C. Grady, V. Chalastani, K. Jagannathan, E. Galappaththi, A. Sitati, G. Scarpa, E. Totin, Katy Davis, N. Hamilton, C. Kirchhoff, Praveen Kumar, B. Pentz, N. Simpson, Emily Theokritoff, D. Deryng, D. Reckien, C. Zavaleta-Cortijo, N. Ulibarri, Alcade Segnon, V. Khavhagali, Y. Shang, Luckson Zvobgo, Z. Zommers, Jiren Xu, P. Williams, I. Canosa, Nicole Maanen, Bianca Bavel, M. Aalst, Lynée Turek-Hankins, Hasti Trivedi, C. Trisos, Adelle Thomas, Shinny Thakur, S. Templeman, L. Stringer, Garry Sotnik, K. Sjostrom, C. Singh, Mariella Siña, Roopam Shukla, J. Sardans, E. Salubi, Lolita Chalkasra, R. Ruiz-Díaz, C. Richards, Pratik Pokharel, J. Petzold, J. Peñuelas, Julia Avila, Julia Murillo, S. Ouni, Jennifer Niemann, Miriam Nielsen, M. New, Patricia Schwerdtle, Gabriela Alverio, Cristina Mullin, Joshua Mullenite, A. Mosurska, M. Morecroft, J. Minx, G. Maskell, A. Nunbogu, A. Magnan, S. Lwasa, Megan Lukas-Sithole, T. Lissner, Oliver Lilford, S. Koller, Matthew Jurjonas, E. Joe, L. Huynh, Avery Hill, R. Hernandez, G. Hegde, Tom Hawxwell, S. Harper, A. Harden, M. Haasnoot, E. Gilmore, Leah Gichuki, A. Gatt, M. Garschagen, J. Ford, A. Forbes, Aidan Farrell, C. Enquist, Susan Elliott, Emily Duncan, Erin Perez, S. Coggins, Tara Chen, D. Campbell, K. Browne, K. Bowen, R. Biesbroek, I. Bhatt, R. Kerr, S. Barr, Emily Baker, S. Austin, I. Arotoma-Rojas, C. Anderson, Warda Ajaz, Tanvi Agrawal, Thelma Abu (2021)
A systematic global stocktake of evidence on human adaptation to climate change
Nature Climate Change, 11
Stratégie du Conseil fédéral: enjeux pour les cantons. Federal Office for the
M. Lubell, T. Morrison (2021)
Institutional navigation for polycentric sustainability governance
Nature Sustainability, 4
M. Salvia, D. Reckien, F. Pietrapertosa, P. Eckersley, Niki-Artemis Spyridaki, A. Krook-Riekkola, M. Olazabal, S. Hurtado, S. Simoes, D. Geneletti, V. Viguié, P. Fokaides, B. Ioannou, A. Flamos, M. Csete, A. Buzási, H. Orru, C. Boer, A. Foley, Klavdija Rižnar, Marko Matosović, M. Balzan, M. Smigaj, Viera Baštáková, Eva Streberová, Nataša Šel, L. Coste, L. Tardieu, Corinna Altenburg, E. Lorencová, Kati Orru, Anja Wejs, E. Feliu, J. Church, S. Grafakos, Sergiu Vasilie, Ivan Paspaldzhiev, O. Heidrich (2021)
Will climate mitigation ambitions lead to carbon neutrality? An analysis of the local-level plans of 327 cities in the EU
Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 135
G. Cloutier, F. Joerin, C. Dubois, Martial Labarthe, C. Legay, Dominique Viens (2015)
Planning adaptation based on local actors’ knowledge and participation: a climate governance experiment
Climate Policy, 15
(Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2018) Plan climat cantonal – Volet 2. Plan de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et adaptation aux changements climatiques 2013–2017. https://www.ge.ch/document/elaboration-plans-directeurs-communaux-deuxieme-generation. Accessed 9 June 2022)
Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2018) Plan climat cantonal – Volet 2. Plan de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et adaptation aux changements climatiques 2013–2017. https://www.ge.ch/document/elaboration-plans-directeurs-communaux-deuxieme-generation. Accessed 9 June 2022
Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2018) Plan climat cantonal – Volet 2. Plan de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et adaptation aux changements climatiques 2013–2017. https://www.ge.ch/document/elaboration-plans-directeurs-communaux-deuxieme-generation. Accessed 9 June 2022, Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2018) Plan climat cantonal – Volet 2. Plan de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et adaptation aux changements climatiques 2013–2017. https://www.ge.ch/document/elaboration-plans-directeurs-communaux-deuxieme-generation. Accessed 9 June 2022
G. Biesbroek, R. Swart, W. Knaap (2009)
The mitigation–adaptation dichotomy and the role of spatial planning
Habitat International, 33
Conclusions de 31 projets pilotes sur l'adaptation aux changements climatiques. Info Environnement
Daniel Henstra (2016)
The tools of climate adaptation policy: analysing instruments and instrument selection
Climate Policy, 16
(FSU (2019) Conférence centrale 2019 – L’aménagement du territoire face à l’urgence climatique, Lucerne, 22 November 2019, https://www.f-s-u.ch/fr/manifestations/conference-centrale/. Accessed 3 October 2021)
FSU (2019) Conférence centrale 2019 – L’aménagement du territoire face à l’urgence climatique, Lucerne, 22 November 2019, https://www.f-s-u.ch/fr/manifestations/conference-centrale/. Accessed 3 October 2021
FSU (2019) Conférence centrale 2019 – L’aménagement du territoire face à l’urgence climatique, Lucerne, 22 November 2019, https://www.f-s-u.ch/fr/manifestations/conference-centrale/. Accessed 3 October 2021, FSU (2019) Conférence centrale 2019 – L’aménagement du territoire face à l’urgence climatique, Lucerne, 22 November 2019, https://www.f-s-u.ch/fr/manifestations/conference-centrale/. Accessed 3 October 2021
(Kholer P, Kraus M (2016) Regionale Anpassungsstrategie Klimawandel Sursee-Mittelland. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017)
Kholer P, Kraus M (2016) Regionale Anpassungsstrategie Klimawandel Sursee-Mittelland. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017
Kholer P, Kraus M (2016) Regionale Anpassungsstrategie Klimawandel Sursee-Mittelland. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017, Kholer P, Kraus M (2016) Regionale Anpassungsstrategie Klimawandel Sursee-Mittelland. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017
(Stoiber T (2019) Klimakarten zeigen, wo es im Kanton Zürich heiss ist. In : Collage 5/19 La Ville face au changement climatique, 10–12. https://www.f-s-u.ch/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Collage_5_19.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022)
Stoiber T (2019) Klimakarten zeigen, wo es im Kanton Zürich heiss ist. In : Collage 5/19 La Ville face au changement climatique, 10–12. https://www.f-s-u.ch/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Collage_5_19.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022
Stoiber T (2019) Klimakarten zeigen, wo es im Kanton Zürich heiss ist. In : Collage 5/19 La Ville face au changement climatique, 10–12. https://www.f-s-u.ch/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Collage_5_19.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022, Stoiber T (2019) Klimakarten zeigen, wo es im Kanton Zürich heiss ist. In : Collage 5/19 La Ville face au changement climatique, 10–12. https://www.f-s-u.ch/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Collage_5_19.pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022
G. Simonet, A. Leseur (2019)
Barriers and drivers to adaptation to climate change—a field study of ten French local authorities
Climatic Change, 155
D. Reckien, M. Salvia, O. Heidrich, J. Church, F. Pietrapertosa, Sonia Gregorio-Hurtado, V. D’Alonzo, A. Foley, S. Simoes, Eliška lorencová, H. Orru, Kati Orru, Anja Wejs, J. Flacke, M. Olazabal, D. Geneletti, E. Feliu, Sergiu Vasilie, C. Nador, A. Krook-Riekkola, Marko Matosović, P. Fokaides, B. Ioannou, A. Flamos, Niki-Artemis Spyridaki, M. Balzan, Orsolya Fülöp, Ivan Paspaldzhiev, S. Grafakos, R. Dawson (2018)
How are cities planning to respond to climate change? Assessment of local climate plans from 885 cities in the EU-28
Journal of Cleaner Production
M. Olazabal, Maria Gopegui (2021)
Adaptation planning in large cities is unlikely to be effective
Landscape and Urban Planning, 206
(FOEN (2012) Adaptation to climate change in Switzerland - first part of the Federal Council’s strategy. Adopted on 2 March 2012. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1055-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/publications-studies/publications/adaptation-climate-change-switzerland-2012.html. Accessed 9 June 2022)
FOEN (2012) Adaptation to climate change in Switzerland - first part of the Federal Council’s strategy. Adopted on 2 March 2012. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1055-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/publications-studies/publications/adaptation-climate-change-switzerland-2012.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
FOEN (2012) Adaptation to climate change in Switzerland - first part of the Federal Council’s strategy. Adopted on 2 March 2012. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1055-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/publications-studies/publications/adaptation-climate-change-switzerland-2012.html. Accessed 9 June 2022, FOEN (2012) Adaptation to climate change in Switzerland - first part of the Federal Council’s strategy. Adopted on 2 March 2012. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1055-F. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/publications-studies/publications/adaptation-climate-change-switzerland-2012.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
D. Huard, D. Chaumont, Travis Logan, M. Sottile, Ross Brown, B. St-Denis, P. Grenier, M. Braun (2014)
A Decade of Climate Scenarios: The Ouranos Consortium Modus Operandi
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 95
(FOEN (2022) CO2-Emissionsfaktoren des Treibhausgas- inventars der Schweiz. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/state/data/greenhouse-gas-inventory.html)
FOEN (2022) CO2-Emissionsfaktoren des Treibhausgas- inventars der Schweiz. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/state/data/greenhouse-gas-inventory.html
FOEN (2022) CO2-Emissionsfaktoren des Treibhausgas- inventars der Schweiz. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/state/data/greenhouse-gas-inventory.html, FOEN (2022) CO2-Emissionsfaktoren des Treibhausgas- inventars der Schweiz. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/state/data/greenhouse-gas-inventory.html
(2019)
Klimakarten zeigen, wo es im Kanton Zürich heiss ist. In : Collage 5/19 La Ville face au changement climatique, 10–12
(FOEN (2020) Changements climatiques en Suisse. Federal Office for the Environment FOEN, Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology, Meteoswiss ed., UZ-2013-E. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/publications-studies/publications/climate-changeswitzerland.html. Accessed 9 June 2022)
FOEN (2020) Changements climatiques en Suisse. Federal Office for the Environment FOEN, Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology, Meteoswiss ed., UZ-2013-E. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/publications-studies/publications/climate-changeswitzerland.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
FOEN (2020) Changements climatiques en Suisse. Federal Office for the Environment FOEN, Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology, Meteoswiss ed., UZ-2013-E. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/publications-studies/publications/climate-changeswitzerland.html. Accessed 9 June 2022, FOEN (2020) Changements climatiques en Suisse. Federal Office for the Environment FOEN, Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology, Meteoswiss ed., UZ-2013-E. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/bafu/en/home/topics/climate/publications-studies/publications/climate-changeswitzerland.html. Accessed 9 June 2022
E. Scanu, G. Cloutier (2016)
Why do cities get involved in climate governance? Insights from Canada and Italy
, 9
F. Bertrand, E. Richard (2015)
La délicate existence locale de l’adaptation aux changements climatiques : avec, sans, ou à côté de l’atténuation
Développement Durable et Territoires, 6
P. Lehmann, M. Brenck, O. Gebhardt, S. Schaller, Elisabeth Süßbauer (2013)
Barriers and opportunities for urban adaptation planning: analytical framework and evidence from cities in Latin America and Germany
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 20
M. Straka, S. Sodoudi (2019)
Evaluating climate change adaptation strategies and scenarios of enhanced vertical and horizontal compactness at urban scale (a case study for Berlin)
Landscape and Urban Planning
(Blaser J, Gardi O, Kern M, Mack S, Wiedemar M, Remund J (2017) Urban Green & Climate Bern - Die Rolle und Bewirtschaftung von Bäumen in einer klimaangepassten Stadtentwicklun. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017)
Blaser J, Gardi O, Kern M, Mack S, Wiedemar M, Remund J (2017) Urban Green & Climate Bern - Die Rolle und Bewirtschaftung von Bäumen in einer klimaangepassten Stadtentwicklun. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017
Blaser J, Gardi O, Kern M, Mack S, Wiedemar M, Remund J (2017) Urban Green & Climate Bern - Die Rolle und Bewirtschaftung von Bäumen in einer klimaangepassten Stadtentwicklun. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017, Blaser J, Gardi O, Kern M, Mack S, Wiedemar M, Remund J (2017) Urban Green & Climate Bern - Die Rolle und Bewirtschaftung von Bäumen in einer klimaangepassten Stadtentwicklun. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017
J. Dupuis, P. Knoepfel (2011)
Les barrières à la mise en œuvre des politiques d’adaptation au changement climatique: le cas de la Suisse
Swiss Political Science Review, 17
(2014)
Rapport final, mai 2017. Final report in the framework of the FOEN's pilot program on climate adaptation
(Bertrand F, Richard E (2015) La délicate existence locale de l’adaptation aux changements climatiques : avec, sans, ou à côté de l’atténuation. Développement durable et territoires. https://journals.openedition.org/developpementdurable/11048. Accessed 22 December 2015)
Bertrand F, Richard E (2015) La délicate existence locale de l’adaptation aux changements climatiques : avec, sans, ou à côté de l’atténuation. Développement durable et territoires. https://journals.openedition.org/developpementdurable/11048. Accessed 22 December 2015
Bertrand F, Richard E (2015) La délicate existence locale de l’adaptation aux changements climatiques : avec, sans, ou à côté de l’atténuation. Développement durable et territoires. https://journals.openedition.org/developpementdurable/11048. Accessed 22 December 2015, Bertrand F, Richard E (2015) La délicate existence locale de l’adaptation aux changements climatiques : avec, sans, ou à côté de l’atténuation. Développement durable et territoires. https://journals.openedition.org/developpementdurable/11048. Accessed 22 December 2015

Publisher: Springer Journals
Copyright: Copyright © The Author(s) 2022
ISSN: 2190-6483
eISSN: 2190-6491
DOI: 10.1007/s13412-022-00767-9
Publisher site: See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

Recent years have been marked by a strong popular and political mobilization around climate change. However, to what extent does this mobilization lead to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or the vulnerability of our society to the effects of climate change? This question is at the heart of the research presented, which sought to identify the barriers and levers to the integration of climate issues into urban planning of Swiss cities. The literature review first situates the integration of climate change in Swiss cities in relation to the evolution of practices at the international level. It emerged that Swiss cities have generally been late in integrating climate issues into their public policies. Practices still focus strongly on energy poli- cies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but adaptation measures in urban planning are poorly implemented. In order to better understand the reasons for this slow and late integration of climate change into urban planning of Swiss cities, a survey was conducted among more than 200 professionals. It showed that the evolution of practices is generally driven by “pioneering” actors who are strongly mobilized by personal values and who use specialized and scientific sources of information. Finally, two focus groups with representative professionals were organized in order to deepen the barriers and levers observed and to formulate sound recommendations for integrating the climate issue into urban planning. Two lines of action emerged: prioritization (strengthening legal frameworks and organizational structures) and support (training and involvement of climate experts at all stages of urban planning). Keywords Climate governance · Land use planning · Swiss climate policy · Stakeholder involvement Introduction the many institutional obstacles that were highlighted during the recent summit COP26 in Glasgow. Events related to climate change are increasingly evident Switzerland is particularly exposed to climate change. and have further accelerated in 2021. At the same time, If the temperature of the earth has globally increased of awareness at all levels of society is increasing, thanks in about + 1 °C since the preindustrial area, in Switzerland particular to the 6th IPCC report (July 2021), which fur- the increase is of about + 2 °C (FOEN 2020), mainly due ther highlights the state of emergency. The challenge is to to the particular mountainous context. However, until the move from awareness to concrete action, and to overcome early 2010’s Switzerland did not really develop any climate change policy, particularly in terms of adaptation. The 2013 CO Act is the basis for Switzerland’s current climate policy. It sets a greenhouse gas emissions reduc- tion target of at least 20% by 2020 compared to 1990 lev- * Gilles Desthieux gilles.desthieux@hesge.ch els; this target must be achieved through measures taken in Switzerland. According to Federal Office for the Environ - Institut du Paysage, d’Architecture, de La Construction Et du ment - FOEN (FOEN 2022), total equivalent CO2 emis- Territoire (inPACT) Haute Ecole du Paysage, d’ingénierie sions effectively decreased of 20% between 1990 and 2020, Et d’architecture de Genève (HEPIA), Rue de la Prairie 4, CH-1202 Geneva, Switzerland therefore achieving the target. Transportation represents the main source of CO emissions: 32% at national level, and Institut d’ingénierie du Territoire (INSIT) Haute Ecole d’Ingénierie Et de Gestion du Canton de Vaud (HEIG-VD), even more 39%, if international i fl ghts are considered. Emit - Route de Cheseaux 1, CH-1401 Yverdon-les-Bains, ted CO by inhabitant at national level is only of 5.5 tC O / 2 2 Switzerland 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 693 inhabitant. But this ratio increases until 14.2 tCO /inhabit- To sum up, it can be pointed out that in Switzerland, the ant, according to www. globa lcarb onatl as. ch, if we consider governance of climate issues, particularly on adaptation, has the energy consumption of imported goods, which makes only become a reality at the national level since around 2010 Switzerland the 36th emitter in the world (132nd by surface and is only beginning to be implemented at the local level. area). The C O Act was revised in September 2020 at the The starting point of this research is therefore a question- Swiss parliament. A major element under discussion is the ing of the reasons for a certain delay in the implementation achievement of carbon neutrality by 2050, involving, how- of concrete measures on the Swiss urban territories. In the ever, a significant part of compensation abroad. specific Swiss context, the general question is similar to the Until recently, Swiss energy and climate policy has one addressed by Lehman et al. 2015: “What are relevant mainly focused on mitigation aspect of climate change. A barriers to effective (adaptation) actions in cities and what study conducted in 2011 (Dupuis and Knoepfel 2011), based are possible opportunities for progress?”. on lexical analysis of policy makers’ discourses, demon- This research considers both mitigation and adaptation of strated that adaptation was still not perceived as an important CC, but it particularly focuses on the adaptation topic, which dimension of climate change policy: policy makers did not is central in land use planning for reducing the effect of see links between adaptation, the Swiss economy and the heat waves in urban areas or the exposure to natural hazard. energy supply. However, awareness on adaptations issues The rest of the article is organized in four main parts. First, has raised during the last years. Mountain areas being more it presents a brief state of the art (Section 2) of research and more exposed to natural hazard events, and cities to about the relationship between climate change and ter- summer overheating. In this context, the Swiss government ritory, followed by a presentation of the applied research adopted in 2012 (FOEN 2012) a general strategy on climate method (Section 3). The next part (Section 4) describes the adaptation followed in 2014 by the Action plan 2014–2019 results of the research, which consists of three sections: (FOEN 2014), and finally guidelines for support Cantons first, a portrait of the Swiss institutional and organizational in the elaboration of their Climate Plans (FOEN 2015). In mechanisms (actual and potential) that are implemented to order to implement the action plan, the Federal Office for the integrate climate change into land-use planning practices, Environment—FOEN launched a program to support pilot second the results of a survey of spatial planning actors in projects at regional and local levels: 31 projects supported French-speaking Switzerland that has been conducted that in the first stage (2013–2017) (FOEN 2017), 50 projects was conducted in order to better understand what facilitates supported in the second stage (2018–2022). Cantons (states or hinders the integration of climate change in professional in the Swiss federal system) and local communities are practice, and third, a set of operational recommendations now taking initiatives to develop regional and local climate for the consideration of climate change mitigation/adapta- actions on both aspect mitigation and adaptation. tion issues in urban projects resulting from group discus- The recent strengthening of Swiss climate governance is sions. The article ends with a conclusion and discussion partly the result of the population’s awareness toward cli- (Section 5). mate emergency that took to the streets in Switzerland, as elsewhere in the world, during 2019. On several occasions, youths and schoolchildren organized strikes for climate, and State of the art media widely covered climate issues. This certainly con- tributed to the historic score of the green party in the last Considering the recent literature, this section analyzes what federal election in October 2019, becoming the fourth party are the key climate change issues for urban planning in Euro- at national level. pean and North American cities and how climate change is Regarding land use planning, it can be noted that planners taken into account in land use planning, whether adaptation are also raising awareness of the importance to take into or mitigation is considered. account (adaptation) climate issues. For example, the 2019 national workshop of the Swiss Federation of Urban Plan- Adaptation and mitigation in urban planning ners (FSU) was dedicated to this topic (FSU 2019). How- ever, until recently, Swiss cities, like most cities in the world, The definitions of adaptation and mitigation are already well had not been very active on climate change issues (Lehmann given in the literature. Mitigation is “a human intervention et al. 2015). Yet, the municipal level is particularly decisive to reduce the source or enhance the sinks of greenhouse in transposing the different framework conditions for climate gases” (IPCC 2014, p. 4), while adaptation “primarily aims policy to the operational level (Scanu and Cloutier 2015; at moderating the adverse effects of unavoided climate McClure and Baker 2018; Harker et al. 2017). change through a wide range of actions that are targeted at the vulnerable system” (Füssel and Klein 2006). 1 3 694 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 To sum up, Bertrand and Richard (2015) give a very help- texture, albedo, etc.), (2) urban form (height of buildings, ful synoptic view of both concepts. Climate policy was first street orientation, etc.), (3) natural cover and (4) building mainly based on mitigation in order to limit GHC emissions. architecture. Mitigation mainly involves technological and economic sci- ences and a more top-down oriented governance due the cen- Those examples show that adaptation is mainly carried tral role of authority for regulation and subsidies as observed out into sectoral activities. But adaptation has not yet been by Scanu and Cloutier (2015). Its impacts are relatively easy seen as really transversal program driving land use planning. to measure (GHC reduction, innovation) and the win–win for According to Cloutier et al. (2014), adaptation can become different actors is often obvious. Adaptation is more multi- a mean of innovation for planning process, which does not disciplinary oriented; its impacts and benefits are sometimes involve to initiate new actions or processes but to improve less measurable and uncertain. Its mode of governance is and orient the existing ones toward climate change issues. It more bottom-up oriented based on engagement and col- can even become a new gateway to sustainability science in laboration of many local actors (Scanu and Cloutier 2015). land use planning (Bertrand and Richard 2015). The priority consideration of both mitigation and adaptation In this perspective, new approaches should be proposed varies according to the cultural and institutional context as for land use planning instruments, dealing with municipal shown in the comparative study made by Scanu and Cloutier land use revision, new neighborhoods developments, open (2015) between Quebec City (Canada) and Genoa (Italy). spaces planning in existing neighborhoods. This involves An assessment of local climate plans from 885 cities in working on a global and transversal framework, and not the EU-28 (Reckien et al. 2018) showed that only 26% of only sectoral, and to investigate how far such integrated those plans deal with adaptation, and 17% with both miti- approaches could be transposed into the regulations at differ - gation and adaptation. Similarly, a worldwide study on 401 ent levels. Propositions in this matter will be made through municipalities (Araos et al. 2016) reported that only 18% of the article using the Swiss context. them set up planning toward adaptation policy. Therefore, cities still mainly focus on mitigation in order to seek carbon Levers and barriers of taking into account climate neutrality in the context of climate emergency (Salvia et al. change in urban governance 2021). If the need of human adaptation measures to climate action seems always more evident through the vast and fast- One of the main challenges is to modify land use planning growing on this topic, Berrang-Ford et al. (2021) as well practices in order to systematically consider climate change as Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021) state that adaptation issues. Different authors account for levers and barriers of is overall not effectively implemented. Local impacts and taking into account climate change in planning processes. effects of adaptation are limited; capacity to reduce vulner - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ability and risk is lacking. (IPCC) distinguishes between physical and ecological lim- While mitigation seems easier to achieve at local levels, its, technological limits, financial barriers, informational and because in synergy with energy constraints and orientations, cognitive barriers, and social and cultural barriers (IPCC adaptation requires more specific appropriation work, based 2007). Important works and surveys were carried out to on existing institutional mechanisms. The question is how to identify barriers and levers. For instance, Olazabal and De make territories resilient to climate change effects (Berdou - Gopegui (2021) studied planning in 59 cities worldwide, and lay and Soubeyran 2014). In the literature, many examples Simonet and Leseur (2019) conducted 75 semi-structured of adaptation measures can be found: interviews among 75 actors in 10 French cities. The following table (Table 1) gives a selection of frequent – Green infrastructure shape adaptation preferences among occurrences of barriers and levers classified into three main residents in Rotterdam (Derkzen et al. 2017), opportuni- topics: knowledge sharing, financial resources, organization ties and gaps for urban green infrastructures planning in and regulation: Europe (Davies and Lafortezza 2017). Faced with the observation of these barriers and levers, – Cartography of heat islands in Graz based on GIS indica- the question is how urban governance could evolve to facili- tors (Reischl et al. 2018) tate the consideration of climate change in the development – Land use planning related to sea level rise and extreme of cities (Bulkeley and Betsill 2013). weather events (McClure and Baker 2018) – Summer thermal comfort related to urban form and com- pactness in Berlin (Straka and Sodoudi 2019). Toward an urban governance for climate – Cloutier et al. (2014) organized in Quebec a design work- shop with professionals who identified 18 sectoral plan - In the specific field of adaptation, Henstra ( 2016) proposes ning measures of 4 types: (1) coating materials (color, a framework to structure climate governance in general. It 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 695 1 3 Table 1 Main barriers and levers for climate governance as referenced in the literature Barriers Levers Items Authors Items Authors Knowledge sharing Lack of actual data Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021), Set up adaptation monitoring, evaluation, Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021), on implementation and effectiveness reporting and learning in order to track how policy processes connect to adaptation success Low engagement of local actors: mispercep- Cloutier et al. (2014), Lemann et al. (2015), Reach out to a diversity of stakeholders, Cloutier et al. (2014), Burton and Mustelin tion of cause-and-effect linkages of climate Simonet and Leseur (2019) increase common knowledge and under- (2013), Simonet and Leseur (2019) change impacts, lack of awareness and standing of the issues, change in individual anticipation perception Lack of understanding among actors, deficit in Cloutier et al. (2014), Reischl et al. (2018) Use of external supports providing expertise, Henstra (2016), Richard (2014), Scanu and efficient communication between research- Eisenack and Stecker (2012 technical and cognitive resources (boundary Cloutier (2015) ers, policy makers and the public organizations) Lack of consideration of local knowledge and Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021) Use of social networks for improving informa- Cunningham et al. (2016) need of vulnerable groups tion sharing Financial resources Lack of financial resources, reduction of Henstra (2016) Eisenack and Stecker (2012), Financial incentives, subsidies, tax expendi- Henstra (2016) national subsidies Simonet and Leseur (2019) tures Scanu and Cloutier (2015) Green economic growth, innovation Organization and regulation Planning decisions not enough targeted to Cloutier et al. (2014), Mees et al. (2018) Systematic introduction of climate change Richard (2015) climate issues, difficulty of choosing the best issues (adaptation) in public policies: habitat strategy and urbanism, naturel hazard and water management, health, agriculture, biodiver- sity, etc Lack of integration of adaptation plans in Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021), Scanu Reorganization of public institutions for Olazabal and De Gopegui (2021), Simonet and current institutional, regulatory and financial and Cloutier (2015), Moser and Ekstrom’s implementing climate policies in order to Leseur (2019), framework, (2010) guarantee sustainable adaptation action McClure and Baker (2018) in the long-term and change in individual perceptions Identification of alternative authorities and rationale (boundary organizations) and action margin in existing capacities (land use planning) National/upper level regulation not compatible (Harker et al., 2017), (McClure and Baker Elaboration of Local Climate Action Plan Harker et al., (2017), with climate change issues 2018) Richard (2015) 696 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 classifies policy instruments, to which governments have et al. 2018; Scanu and Cloutier 2015; McClure and Baker access, in four main axes: 2018), emphasize the role of cities and local governments in climate policy implementation. However, the local actions – Nodality (information): Use of information dissemina- on climate should take place in the perspective of multi- tion, knowledge generation and knowledge mobilization level governance that considers articulations with the upper to inform responses levels: international, national and regional (Lehmann et al. – Authority: Use of the legitimate power of the state to 2015; Harker et al. 2017). The use of suitable governance permit, prohibit or command action and organizational instruments should therefore consider – Treasure: Use of public funds to (1) produce and main- whether states are centralized (unitary systems) or fed- tain public goods and services that contribute to improve eral. In the latter, local governments have more autonomy climate governance; (2) confer benefits to induce new in developing their own system of regulation, taxation and behavior; or (3) impose costs to discourage behavior that subsidies and thus their own climate policy. In some par- undermines new behavior ticular contexts, centralized governments may constitute – Organization: Use of government resources and person- institutional barriers when political parties and regulations nel to implement policy objectives are unfriendly with climate change issues. This has been the case for example in Italy (Scanu and Cloutier 2015), New Combining those instruments in complementary ways is Zealand (Harker et al. 2017) and Queensland in Australia the key to maximize the likelihood that objectives will be (McClure and Baker 2018). Those authors also show how realized. local governments and actors can deal with this kind of bar- Information and its different forms and the adaptation rier with the support of boundary organizations, and some of the regulation frameworks (related to authority axis) are action margin through developing specific regulations (land the necessary first steps that precede the action, whereas use planning related to natural hazards). In this context of institutional resources (related to organization axis), with lack of regulatory framework, the involvement of individual the support of financial means and incentives, enable to pass motivations and beliefs of professionals is crucial for engag- from the knowledge to the concrete action. ing local actions (McClure and Baker 2018). In comparison Concerning Nodality, bottom-up approaches based on with the mentioned above conservative federal systems, knowledge sharing among actors are central in order to over- Swiss national authorities promote an ambitious climate come institutional silos that split climate change knowledge, policy (see Section 3.1) and supports local implementation measures and responses into isolated and ineffective poli - actions. Even if cantons (states) and municipalities have a cies. They include participatory approaches through work- relative autonomy, such a federal impulsion enables to boost shops and forums like in Quebec City (Cloutier et al. 2014), local actions. social networks for engaging local communities in climate The framework proposed of Henstra is one among others adaptation policy like in Australia (Cunningham et al. 2016), proposed in the literature. For instance, Lubell and Morrison questionnaires and interviews gather perceptions of decision (2021) developed a framework for institutional navigation makers or residents on climate impacts in cities like in Graz, they applied to climate change adaptation based on four ele- Austria (Reischl et al. 2018) or in Rotterdam, Netherlands ments: knowledge (similar to the Nodality axis of Henstra), (Derkzen et al. 2017), and boundary organizations. relationships, strategies, decisions and implementation. This Boundary organization is particularly helpful platform, framework addresses both collective (institutional) and indi- which aims facilitating interaction or mediation between vidual goals. This latter distinction is important, because, science and policy (Gustafsson and Lidskog 2018). In as we will see through the survey in Section 4.2, profes- the field of climate policy, it makes available to the stake - sionals of urban planning intervene and decide not only in holders impartial, technical and cognitive knowledge and the name of the organizations they represent, but also and resources for guidance on how to respond to the threat of often according to their personal values. Therefore, interper- climate change (Henstra 2016; Richard 2015; McClure and sonal relationships are crucial to reach agreement on climate Baker 2018). This kind of organization acts as motivators by change actions. pushing local governments to take action and by translating experts’ jargon into understandable credible form for deci- sion makers and the civil society. The Ouranos nonprofit Methodology consortium based in Quebec is often cited. Created in 2002, it has the mandate to provide advices to its governmental, The methodological approach is structured into three main academic and private partners (Huard et al. 2014). stages which is introduced here in this section. The results of About the 3 others axes Authority, Treasure and Organi- each stage are then respectively presented in Sections. 4.1, zation, Harker et al. (2017), as many other authors (Mees 4.2 and 4.3. 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 697 The first stage deals with how far climate change issues Survey among the actors of regional planning have been considered or not in the Swiss context, par- ticularly about adaptation. Concretely, the content of the In a second phase, we wished to explore the reasons for the climate policy instruments and tools was analyzed from slow and partial integration of climate issues in the practice regional to local levels using the framework introduced of urban planning in Switzerland. For this reason, we car- below in Section 3.1. ried out a survey among (French-speaking) actors in this Secondly, a questionnaire was collected from about 200 professional field. professionals in the field of land use planning in order to The online survey was distributed and made available investigate how far they take into account climate issues from January 30 to March 8, 2019. The target audience con- in their practice, what are the barriers and levers for such sisted of professional actors in the field of spatial planning considerations (Section 3.2). in municipal and cantonal administrations, private offices Finally, two focus groups with a representative panel of (mainly urban planning, but also architecture and transport), professionals were organized in order to deepen observed associations and academics in the French-speaking part of barriers and levers and formulate sound recommendations Switzerland. for integrating the climate issue into land use policy prac- The survey was distributed directly by email to more than tices (Section 3.3). 500 people (professionals involved in the field of land use planning, selected from the authors’ professional network) and 231 responses were obtained. An invitation was also Analysis of governance instruments for climate sent to various professional mailing lists (associations of issues in Switzerland urban planners) for which the number of subscribers is not known. In addition, those who received the invitation mes- In order to draw up a critical overview of different prac - sage were also encouraged to pass it on to others concerned. tices of integration of climate issues in the field of spatial Therefore, this method of distribution does not allow for the planning in Switzerland, at different scales, the working measurement of a response rate. method consisted in collecting a set of documents repre- The survey consisted of 49 questions, structured into four sentative of the actions carried out and instruments elabo- main parts: rated in the field of climate governance in Switzerland by different organizations (public, academic, private). These 1) Professional practices: specifies the field of activity, documents were then analyzed and compared according to describes how climate change is taken into account, a common analysis grid. and the factors that are favorable (levers) or unfavorable The instruments considered (presented in the table in (barriers) to considering it. Appendix 1) are classified in four categories that cover the 2) Climate Change Information: describes the knowledge areas of action in climate governance: of climate change and its effects and the uses of the available information. 1. Local projects and initiatives, 3) Individual practices: explores the consideration of cli- 2. Regulation and climate action plan, mate change in individual practices (mobility, housing, 3. Land-use planning instruments, food, etc.). 4. Labels and evaluation processes. 4) Personal profile: professional affiliation, age, education, political beliefs. Several programs and projects referenced in connec- tion with these instruments are part of the pilot projects The average response time was 17 min. supported by the Confederation and the Federal Office for As pointed out by Lehmann et al. 2015, it is important the Environment—FOEN (see Section 1). The aim of this to go beyond the identification of barriers and levers to also selection is not to be exhaustive by referencing the whole study their interactions. Thus, the analysis of the survey set of the known instruments, but to provide a representa- results is largely based on statistical tests aimed at high- tive overview of the initiatives in Switzerland up to 2019 lighting interdependencies between the different responses when the study was conducted. collected. The analysis framework is structured under 14 rubrics as presented in Table 2. For each rubric, it is indicated to Focus groups which axis of climate governance it mainly belongs (infor- mation, authority, treasury, organization), as presented in In order to follow up on the results of the survey and to Section 2.3. open up paths for action, we organized a process in two focus groups bringing together actors in the field of urban 1 3 698 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Table 2 Analysis grid structured in 14 rubrics that was applied to the Swiss instruments Rubric Analyzed content/questions Policy instrument type (Henstra 2016) 1. Abstract What it is about in broad outline, articles/chapters/part explicitly N.A related to climate change 2. Mitigation vs, Adaptation Does the analyzed document address these two pillars of climate Information change in a balanced way, or is one of the two preponderant? 3. Objectives of the instrument What are the objectives, the intentions of the instrument that is the Information subject of the document under review? Is the issue of climate change central (explicit) or secondary (implicit)? The objectives are often also multiple (multi-functionality): do the measures have effects on areas other than climate change? Vice versa, do measures that do not directly address climate change have indirect impacts? 4. Topics addressed by the instrument What topics does the action address and to what extent those topics Information a more or less strongly concerned? Level of coordination (between thematic areas): are the instruments and actions concerned imple- mented in an integrated and coordinated (multi-sectoral) manner, or in a sectoral, non-integrated (juxtaposed) or even ad hoc manner? 5. Regulation actors List of concerned actors and the nature of their involvement (In Organization charge, Associated, Concerned) 6. Scale of action What scale(s) in particular does the area of action cover? Organization How territorialized are the instruments (general principles vs. spatial and geographic impacts)? 7. Funding Are financial resources made available to implement the measures/ Treasury actions? What is the distribution between the private and public sectors? 8. Degree of intervention To what extent the instruments are binding for concerned people? Authority Are they informative (diagnosis), organizational (e.g., willingness of authorities but without regulatory translation), regulatory or incen- tive (subsidy or taxation) in their nature? 9. Format of the medium and degree of concreteness What is the format of the instrument? What level of knowledge? Is it Information a global diagnosis study report? Or does the instrument materialize into an action/measure plan? 10. Degree of territorial coordination How coordinated are the actions/instruments with the measures Authority (plans, regulations) established in the same portion of the territory (internal, or intra-territorial coordination) and with the higher and lower territorial levels (external, or extra-territorial coordination)? 11. Temporality of deployment Is the temporality of the instruments defined? If so, what are the main Authority steps? 12. Monitoring of implementation strategy Are qualitative or quantitative targets set for climate change objec- Information tives? According to which monitoring system (indicators)? 13. Degree of technicality To what extent do the suggested instruments involve more or less Information sophisticated/specific tools? 14. Overall appreciation of the instruments How original and innovative are the suggested instruments in terms Organization of: goals/objectives pursued, topics addressed, actors involved, instruments used (in an integrated way), steering and monitoring? planning. These aimed to progressively define priority action in energy and climate issues. A dozen people participated in sheets. The participants were selected from the authors’ pro- each of the two focus groups. The majority of participants fessional network so as to cover the following topics: the were able to attend both sessions, but about 1/3 of them were realization of climate plans for two large cities (300,000 only available for one of them. to 500,000 inhabitants), the urban planning of a medium- The first focus group was held on October 8, 2019 in sized city (23,000 inhabitants), the urban development of Geneva. It began with the presentation of the research pro- an agglomeration, within a large real estate development ject, followed by the presentation of the state of the art (Sec- company, or in urban planning consultancies or specialized tion 2), the analysis of the Swiss context (Section 4.1) and 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 699 finally the presentation of the results of the survey (Sec - Land use planning is gradually becoming a major axis of tion 4.2). Afterward, sequences of work in pairs and then action in relation to climate change, both on the mitigation jointly allowed the participants, including the research team side (reducing CO2 emissions in terms of mobility, con- (both authors), to formulate their point of view on the block- struction and rational use of energy) and on the adaptation ing factors (barriers) to the integration of climate change side (urban development in relation to natural risks, adapted into urban planning. Finally, the participants were asked to urban forms). The successive Climate Plans of the Canton identify, in pairs and then jointly, a first set of courses of of Geneva (2015, 2017, 2021) is one of the first significant action and levers to address the identified obstacles. illustrations of how climate issues can be taken into account The second focus group, which took place on October in a spatial planning instrument. This evolution at the can- 17, 2019 in Lausanne, started with a reminder of the results tonal level (region) is to be underlined but it is still only obtained in the first session. Afterward, participants were slowly reflected at the lower levels. asked to select one or two courses of action (called “Meas- ure”) in order to describe in more detail their content and Objectives and topics of the instruments (see rubrics 3 implementation process. Appendix 2 provides an example and 4 in Table 2) of a form completed by one of the groups on one of the identified action lines. Overall, the climate issue is still rarely mentioned explicitly Each focus group was designed to produce diversified in the objectives of the urban plans. It appears rather implic- and directly exploitable results (factsheet, schemes). It was itly and indirectly through the various disciplines concerned therefore not necessary to transcribe the discussions between with climate and in particular adaptation: green and public participants; however, during each focus group a notetaker spaces, urban climate, health, energy and mobility. This was present to produce a summary note which was returned interdisciplinary framework highlights apparent conflicts, to the participants for validation. in particular between adaptation and urban density. Indeed, high urban densities, which are encouraged by urban plan- ning policies in Switzerland, constitute particular challenges Results in terms of heat islands or vulnerability to climatic hazards. This delicate link between urban planning and climate policy Climate change instruments and tools (Xu et al. 2019, Biesbroek et al. 2009) is well illustrated in Switzerland in Zurich where a wind map shows that light winds and breezes, especially at night from nearby forests and moun- The analysis of the documentation collected and processed tains, have difficulty circulating in dense urban areas, thus according to the grid presented above (Table 2) provides accentuating night-time warming (Stoiber 2019). useful lessons on the implementation of territorial and cli- Thus, planners are becoming increasingly aware of the mate governance in Switzerland at the local level. The main importance of integrating climate measures into the con- results are presented below, using the headings of the analy- struction and densification process. For example, the Cli - sis grid. mate plan of Geneva highlighted the benefits of climate action in all three areas of sustainable development (echoing Mitigation vs. Adaptation (see rubric 2 in Table 2) the link observed by Bertrand and Richard 2015, between sustainability science and adaptation). At the social level, the Until recently, climate policy in Switzerland was closely measures envisaged can contribute to improving air quality, linked to energy policy and mainly focused on the mitigation fighting sedentary lifestyles or strengthening food security. of GHG emissions. This focus on mitigation is probably due From the environmental point of view, they contribute to to the direct and logical link between efficient use of renew - preventing floods, strengthening biodiversity, increasing able energies and emission reductions. Thus, more than 400 soil fertility or preserving natural resources. As for the eco- municipalities (in 2019), supported by the Confederation, nomic effects, these measures contribute to supporting the have committed themselves to establish an exemplary energy local economy, developing new skills or reducing material policy through the Energy City label (Swiss contribution to damage. the European Energy Award program). Recently, mitigation and adaptation seem to be more Regulatory actors (see rubric 5 in Table 2) closely linked in Swiss climate policy. One example is the new criteria catalog of the “Cité de l'énergie” label, which The coordination and arbitration of public policies, in close integrates requirements relating to quality of life and the partnership with economic and civil society actors, appears fight against global warming in public spaces and buildings, to be a central component in the implementation of climate as well as adaptation measures accordingly. governance measures. In the Mitteland region (canton of 1 3 700 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Lucerne), a pilot project consists of establishing a region- the situation is changing: the Climate Plan of the Canton wide climate change adaptation strategy and encouraging of Geneva recommends, for example, adapting the Geneva political actors to take into account the possible conse- legalization to further limit fossil fuels in new or converted quences of climate change when making future regional buildings, or adapting regulations and standards relating to development decisions and projects. This involves conduct- (grey) energy in construction, and changing the guidelines ing a broad discussion based on the available information, for municipal development plans, environmental impact developing a catalog of measures and providing support to studies and energy concepts to better take climate issues into municipalities for the implementation of the strategy. account. From now on, any local development plan (munic- ipality) in this Canton will have to refer explicitly to the Degree of territorial coordination (see rubric 10 in Table 2) measures of the Climate Plan and specify the contributions of the municipalities in this area. At the level of cities and The interdisciplinary and multisector approach required for municipalities, Sion is the best-known example in Switzer- climate governance confronts the actors involved with the land of integrating climate change adaptation measures into issue of coordination between planning instruments. The local planning and building regulations and plans (the City institutional frameworks analyzed indicate three forms of of Sion being one of the most affected in Switzerland by heat response. Some, such as the cantons, develop integrated and islands). In a more sectoral manner, the City of Lausanne autonomous climate plans, others, more often at the com- imposes the greening of roofs in urban planning regulations munal level, include climate-related issues in all existing as compensation for the loss of green surfaces on the ground. planning instruments, and still others develop the climate topic in sectoral plans (environmental impact study, energy Financing (see rubric 7 in Table 2) concept, mobility study, etc.). Although the issue of financing measures is central to their Scale of action (see rubric 6 in Table 2) implementation, the documents analyzed make little mention of this aspect. On the mitigation side, it is relatively easy to The instruments analyzed show that actions are gradually calculate the cost of the measures and also to evaluate the being implemented at all spatial scales: the Climate Plan in returns on investment, which generally involves the renova- Geneva and the Mitteland at the regional level (with meas- tion of buildings and the development of renewable energy. ures creating favorable framework conditions for operational The adaptation component is much less clear-cut, both in achievements), local initiatives in Bern (study on the role terms of the cost of the measures (is it already integrated into of trees in urban climate), Lausanne (green roofs), Zurich sectoral or additional measures) and in terms of the induced (mapping of microclimatic phenomena), Sion (climate- benefits, which are often indirect and difficult to perceive. related planning of public spaces) and very recently an Furthermore, as mentioned by Lehmann et al. 2015, costs of acceleration in the development of the climate plans at the adaptation arise in the short term while benefits often in the municipal level. long term. The climate plan for the Zürich region describes examples of synergies between different measures that make Format and degree of concretization (see rubric 9 it possible to reduce the overall cost of their implementation. in Table 2) Another area of savings consists in developing preventive measures rather than emergency measures in response to Climate issues are mainly addressed in reports, studies or climatic hazards. For example, according to the latter docu- diagnoses. They thus take the form of directives, general and ment, it is much cheaper to make people at risk aware of the indicative principles, and guides to good practice: Lausanne dangers of heat waves than to have to treat them afterward, concerning green roofs, in Sion for the planning of spaces, or, for example, it is cheaper to identify and regulate areas in Zurich concerning the urban forms of constructions to be at risk of flooding or other natural hazards than to have to favored in relation to the climate. These principles are still deal with the numerous damages caused by high exposure rarely translated into concrete measures. to hazards. Very often, the implementation of actions requires pub- Degree of intervention (see rubric 8 in Table 2) lic financial assistance (Lehmann et al. 2015). This is the case at the national level through pilot projects supported Our study shows that, in Switzerland, there are still gener- by the Federal Office for the Environment—FOEN or at the ally few or no legal obligations to consider climate change, local level, with the cities of Sion and Lausanne provid- nor are there any sustainable subsidy mechanisms. At the ing financial support for initiatives. An active and financial municipal and neighborhood levels, the topic of climate is involvement of public actors thus still seems essential to take rarely mentioned in spatial planning guidelines. However, concrete account of climate change on the (Swiss) territory. 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 701 Summary and natural sciences, and finally management (Table 3). The respondents’ activities are mainly related to issues related to Table 3 summaries the main findings from the Swiss instru - the management of public services, spatial and urban plan- ments in regard with the structure presented in Table 2. ning, environmental protection, transportation or mobility On the basis of these analyses, the hypothesis that Swit- (Table 4). zerland has presented until recently a slow integration of Slightly more than half of the respondents (52%) declared climate change into territorial governance instruments and a political values close to environmentalist parties, whereas weak concrete implementation of the recommendations can be confirmed. This slow and weak implementation can be seen in regard to climate urgency that was already acknowl- Table 4 Profile of respondents on field of training edged in the early 2010s in Switzerland, and in comparison Fields of training Count % with some other European and North American cities as presented in Section 2. The validation of this hypothesis is Engineering 66 29% Territorial sciences (geography, urbanism, planning, 54 23% mainly revealed by the following findings: etc.) Natural, biological and earth sciences 50 22% Survey of levers and barriers to changing land use Management and administration 46 20% planning practices Other humanities and social sciences (political science, 31 13% economics, sociology, etc.) Introduction and general profile respondents Architectures 17 7% Law studies 7 3% The online survey (see 3.2) received 231 responses. The Physical and mathematical sciences 7 3% respondents’ e fi lds of training are mainly in engineering, ter - Others 32 14% ritorial sciences (geography, urban planning, development) Table 3 Main findings fr om the Swiss climate change instruments Rubric Outcomes 1. Abstract - 2. Mitigation vs, Adaptation Climate policy is still closely linked to energy policy and mainly focused on the mitigation of GHG emissions until recently Land use planning is becoming a major axis of action in relation to climate change, both on the mitigation side 3. Objectives of the instrument Climate issue is still rarely explicitly mentioned in the objectives of the urban plans Awareness is raising about integrating climate measures into the urban planning process 4. Topics addressed by the instrument and their multisector benefits 5. Regulation actors Importance of coordination and arbitration of public policies, in close partnership with economic and civil society actors for the implementation of climate governance meas- ures 6. Scale of action Instruments are not limited to general intentions but progressively being implemented at local scales through emerging climate municipal plans 7. Funding Financial aspects are generally considered for mitigation measures, but more rarely for adaptation measures: indeed, the benefits related to risk management are revealed in the long term 8. Degree of intervention Still few legal obligations address climate change. But the situation is rapidly evolving through the climate commitments made at all levels 9. Format of the medium and degree of concreteness Climate issues are mainly addressed in reports, studies or diagnoses and until recently rarely translated into concrete measures 10. Degree of territorial coordination Climate policy is expected to become a bridge between planning instruments, but in prac- tice it is still often developed in a sectoral manner 11. Temporality of deployment Temporality mainly considers progress toward zero carbon. Monitoring is implemented to track carbon emission reduction but still few about adaptation progress 12. Monitoring of implementation strategy 13. Degree of technicality This issue is not explicitly carried out in the analyzed instruments, but it logically addresses technical measures to reduce carbon emissions 14. Overall appreciation of the instruments The study revealed some pilots project that are original and innovative, to be spread out and generalized 1 3 702 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 these parties received in Switzerland (in September 2019) responses should be interpreted with caution since, as just under 20% of the citizen votes. It will therefore be a previously mentioned, the sample of respondents pre- question of interpreting the results of this survey bearing sents a profile that is particularly sensitive to environ- in mind that respondents often show a prior sensitivity to mental issues. It may also be the result of a time lag climate change issues. between a relatively recent change in practice that was While the analysis of the literature and territorial gov- not yet very present when the documents or instruments ernance instruments shows that climate change issues analyzed (see 4.1) were written or developed. are still only partially integrated, a strong majority of respondents (84%) say they take climate change into Levier and Barriers account in their professional activities, implicitly or explicitly (Table 5). Of these, the majority of respondents Two questions in the survey addressed the levers or barriers (56%) say they take climate change into account implic- to integrating climate change issues into respondents’ pro- itly, which means that they do so through pre-existing fessional practice (Table 6). The responses obtained place measures, that were not made specifically to address the commitment of the institution (public or private) as the issues of climate change. As an illustration, one might most important lever (almost 50% of respondents). Then we find in this category a person working in public transport find, with relatively equal importance, regulatory change, development. On the other hand, 38% of them say that access to subsidies. Then, but for 1/5 of the respondents, they do so explicitly, which means by setting objectives we note that a particular climatic event can also constitute to be achieved or actions to be carried out directly related a trigger (Table 7). to climate change. With regard to barriers, the one most often chosen was This first result could be seen as a discrepancy the existence of issues associated with a higher priority. This between, on the one hand, the respondents’ perception result is linked to the lack of financial resources, which is of the integration of climate change into their activities almost as often chosen. It can also be noted that lack of skills and, on the other hand, the results of our analysis of the is identified as a barrier by more than 1/3 of respondents. literature and institutional instruments in Switzerland Among those least often selected, it is interesting to note the (Section 4.1), which only very partially reflect the sys- feeling of being powerless (The limited impact your activi- tematic consideration of climate change. However, these ties…) or the controversies on climate change. Finally, 11% of respondents chose the “other” category, among which some mentioned that work routine is sometimes also a Table 5 Profile of respondents on field of activities barrier. Activity focus Count % Interdependences analysis between answers Public service management or administration 107 46% Spatial planning or urbanism 97 42% In order to try to understand what leads respondents, who Biodiversity and environmental protection 65 28% are actors in land-use planning, to integrate climate change, Transport or mobility 60 26% explicitly or implicitly, into their professional activities, Energy production and distribution 36 16% independence tests (Chi-square) were carried out to high- Climatic changes 33 14% light the absence or presence of associations between the Others 25 11% answers collected. Teaching and research 24 10% Figure 1 presents all the independence tests carried Agricultural sector 23 10% out. The questions are organized into four main blocks Economic development 17 7% exploring: 1) how CCs are integrated into professional Natural risk and hazards 14 6% practices, 2) the level of knowledge and the use of avail- Public health 9 4% able information, 3) how CCs are integrated into private Digital sector 9 4% practices, 4) personal characteristics. Two questions can Table 6 Degree of In your professional activity, is climate change taken into account? consideration of climate change in professional activity (several Results % possible choices) and main Explicitly, through the setting of objectives to be achieved or actions to be taken 38,1 results Implicitly, through already existing measures (risk management, planning, project sizing, etc.) 55,8 There is no consideration of climate change in my professional activities 18,6 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 703 Table 7 Results on barriers and Levers % levers from the survey Commitment of a department, a team, an employee 46,3 Political commitment from the elected representatives of your territory 46,3 Public subsidies 24,5 Private initiative project(s) 23,9 Change in the legal or regulatory framework 23,4 Significant climatic events in your area 20,2 Collaboration with a third-party specialist 18,6 Consequences for activities in your region 18,6 Others 9,6 Barriers % Other higher priority issues 48,5 Lack of financial resources (to work on) 43,7 The cost of the required actions (to implement) 35,9 Lack of human resources or skills 34,2 Limited or unknown consequences of CC effects 24,7 Lack of interest from your managers, colleagues, funders 23,8 The limited impact your activities could have on the climate change issues… 19,9 Others 11,3 Climate change controversies 6,5 Fig. 1 Table of dependency relationships between the answers to the questions asked in the survey be observed which present several significant dependency (Q29 to Q31), age and education (Q45, Q46) and personal relationships: question 3, already mentioned, which deals choices (Q35). with the consideration of climate change and question 37 The presence of a cross indicates that the independ- on the consideration of climate change in private leisure ence test has been completed. The use of colors expresses activities. the degree of significance of the test (p < 1%, p < 5%, The analysis presented here focuses on the statistically p < 15%). For example, a p value = 1% means that there significant interdependencies between the consideration of is a 99% probability that the variables are dependent. The climate change in professional activities (Q3) and variables white boxes (with a cross) are not significant. in three main themes: knowledge and access to information 1 3 704 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Profile of respondents toward integration of climate This result confirms that the information availabil- change into professional practices ity (related to the Nodality axis as presented in Sec- tion 2.3) is a determining factor in the change of pro- At the date of the survey, February 2019, which is impor- fessional practices (Lehmann et al. 2015). However, it tant to remember because the political context of climate also shows that availability of information is not suf- change is changing rapidly, the analysis of the results ficient in itself since only the most motivated actors seems to highlight a group of committed actors who take seem to know, use and appreciate the available sources climate change explicitly into account in their profes- of information (Henstra 2016). sional activities. This group of actors, which we describe It is also noteworthy that these pioneers cite the as pioneers, is distinguished by two main factors. First, importance of subsidies as a lever for action slightly they also integrate climate change issue in their personal more often than others and, even more strongly, they choices. In particular, an interdependence is observed point to the lack of interest from their managers, col- between taking climate change into account in profes- leagues, funders or clients as a hindrance (Q37 and sional practices and personal mobility choices. Second, Q14). It can thus be assumed that they are faced with pioneers are making more than others an active use of (passive) resistance from their professional context, available sources of information on climate change and which could be interpreted as an enrolment issue. They its issues. These sources of information consist of con- would encounter difficulties in convincing their col- ferences, scientific publications, documents produced by leagues or superiors of the importance of better taking public administrations or training courses. It also seems climate change into account. that this group of pioneering actors is more often present Finally, in general, professional contexts or fields of in the lower age brackets (< 36 years) and in technical activity do not seem to play a determining role. In other training, in engineering or architecture, for example. It words, the implementation of concrete and targeted actions also seems that this group of pioneering actors is more on climate change would rather be driven by the personal often present in the lower age categories (< 36 years) commitments of individuals to these issues in their private and in technical training, in engineering or architecture, lives. The absence of significant dependencies between the for example. variables describing professional contexts and the con- At the same time, we observe a group of actors, less sideration of climate change allows us to hypothesize a involved, who take climate change into account through lack of institutional guidelines or objectives that could be pre-existing measures and who mainly inform themselves endorsed by the actors of these institutions, regardless of through the press. These people are generally older, inform their personal convictions or values. However, if an evolu- themselves through the press and have less technical train- tion of these institutions through the commitment of pio- ing, which suggests that climate change issues are still neering actors seems a natural progression, a more effec - perceived as having little to do with the social sciences or tive consideration of climate change in general practices humanities. of land use planning would require their rapid transposi- The table below (Table 8) summarizes the factors that tion into coherent and more widely applied institutional are favorable and unfavorable to the integration of climate strategies. These findings on the importance of pioneer - change into the respondents’ professional practices. ing actors are also consistent with the conclusions of the literature on the influence of the specific characteristics Table 8 Summary of the favorable and unfavorable factors for taking climate change into account Respondent characteristics Values associated with: “taking climate change into account” Values asso- ciated with: “not taking climate change into account” Considers CCs for personal mobility Yes No Training Technical training: engineering, architecture, natural sciences Land use planning, human sci- ences, law Source of information used Specialized sources and training on CC Press Age < 36 years > 50 years 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 705 of actors (Lehmann et al. 2015) and their individual moti- integration of climate change into the professional practice vations in the context of a lack of regulatory framework of land use and urban planning. Figure 2 presents a synthesis (McClure and Baker 2018) in relation with the Authority of these discussions. Barriers and levers are grouped into axis. main topics. This result gives a wide variety of opinions and proposals. However, issues of lack of information and legal Focus group: toward courses of action framework, and the need for arbitration between conflicting policies are the most prevalent. Outcomes from the focus groups Based on the identification of barriers and levers during the first focus group, the very rich exchanges that took place The first focus group allowed participants to share their during the second focus group enabled to highlight six major views on what facilitates (levers) or hinders (barriers) the priorities for action as presented in Fig. 3. Fig. 2 Main levers and barriers identified during the first focus group section. Black boxes: Barriers / White boxes: Levers Fig. 3 Priorities for action and connections that were discussed during the second focus group meeting. SIA and VSS refer to Swiss norms (SIA: Swiss soci- ety of engineers and architects, VSS: Swiss Association of Road and Transport Profes- sionals) 1 3 706 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 The arrows conceptually illustrate the interrelations permits). This is an organization-type action. Similar to between the priorities for action. Indeed, they are not inde- existing thematic commissions, such as the one present in pendent, the achievement of one can facilitate the achieve- some Swiss cantons on natural hazards, this commission ment of the other, but they can be carried out in parallel. would bring together representatives of different services Their presentation can be made by considering two struc- (health, safety, environment, nature, etc.). This commission turing axes: 1) the need to reinforce the weight of climate could, on one hand, guarantee that climate issues are taken change among the other issues and topics in urban planning into account and, on the other hand, be the place where decisions 2) the need to support the actors in the integra- interests are weighed between the different standards or tion of climate issues in their professional practices. The constraints that apply to the project concerned. However, proposed actions can also be easily associated with the four one limitation of this action is obviously to introduce an categories proposed by Henstra (2016): Nodality, Authority, additional stage in the authorization procedure for urban Treasure and Organization. projects. Finally, related to Treasury axis, participants considered Giving more weight to climate change that the low priority given to climate change is also due to the presence of technological, financial and legal risk. The first action described is of the Authority type. In order Indeed, the integration of climate change into urban projects to rebalance interests in favor of climate change, the par- often requires departing from usual and standardized (see ticipants considered it desirable to modify the legal bases of above) practices. Thus, project leaders are afraid of expos- urban or territorial projects by introducing a constitutional ing themselves to technical faults that may involve finan - (cantonal) article or a (cantonal) law requiring the considera- cial charges or legal proceedings as well as delivery delays tion of climate change in urban planning plans and projects. (involving penalties). These risks may arise, for example, Indeed, the participants particularly mentioned that once the from the use of new construction techniques or materials already existing legal constraints (that are not concerning (recycled concrete, wood, etc.) or from innovative, less climate change) have been respected, project designers have controlled and routine practices in urban planning and the neither the resources (time and money), nor the room for development of public spaces (choice of suitable coverings, maneuver to still integrate climate issues. However, they also for example), for which experience and know-how are less discussed the paradox that adding legal constraint concern- consistent. It would therefore be in the interest to reduce ing climate change would make the legislative framework these risks by setting up a system of public guarantee. In even more complex. So, some of them argued for giving other words, it would be a matter of making available to more latitude to the interpretation of legal constraints and project leaders a kind of public insurance offering coverage the balancing of interests, rather than adding new legal con- on the implementation of technological innovations. This straints further limiting the possibility of finding solutions could contribute, from their point of view, to getting profes- specifically adapted to the local context. sionals out of the routines of usual businesses (construction In the same vein, participants pointed out that the profes- sector in particular). sional standards and codes that apply to urban projects are not always or rarely compatible with a relevant and effec - Supporting the integration of climate issues tive consideration of climate change. For example, parking standards, which require a minimum parking rate per dwell- In order to accompany the actors of the regional planning ing based on distance from the urban center, can be an obsta- toward a modification of the professional practices in favor cle to the implementation of a strong soft mobility strategy of the climate stakes, the participants considered that it or the fight against the sealing of public spaces. In addition, would be necessary to train “climate integrators” interven- as with the findings on legal constraints, the application of ing in the urban project approaches. Indeed, the results of the the many existing professional standards also considerably survey showed that access to information on climate change reduces the room for flexibility needed to integrate climate and its relationship to the territory is a determining factor in change into territorial projects. The participants therefore the evolution of practices. Thus, there is a real challenge in suggested that a rapid review of standards and codes from a facilitating its appropriation by the presence of relay actors. climate change perspective (construction sector, urban plan- Through CAS (Certificate of Advanced Studies), Bach - ning) be undertaken to verify their consistency and open up elor’s or Master’s degrees, the aim would be to train urban areas for action. planners, developers, planners or builders specializing in cli- Another proposed course of action to reinforce the prior- mate change. These people could oe ff r specic fi skills related ity of climate issues is the creation of a cantonal climate to the climate and its consequences, as well as transversal commission whose mission would be to formulate advance skills related to the project approach. However, the partici- notice of urban projects (neighborhood plan and building pants were aware that this is a medium-term perspective, 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 707 requiring nearly ten years between the definition of edu - address climate change issues. Moreover, many of the pro- cational programs and the entry into the market of climate jects that do so are still pilot projects subsidized by public integrators. institutions. Another form of accompaniment could be the one offered However, the analysis of the Swiss situation also shows, by a center of competences (boundary organization). Like in the case of a federal-type system, a good articulation the Ouranos consortium in Quebec (see Section 2.3), this between the federal, cantonal and local levels according to center of expertise could produce targeted studies, make rec- the principles of subsidiarity. Thus, an ambitious climate ommendations, promote exemplary projects, but also answer policy will at the federal level has been undertaken to give questions or provide more general support to project leaders impetus and encourage the implementation of actions at in integrating climate change. the cantonal and local (municipal) levels. This top-down By facilitating access to urban climate expertise, it would approach could preserve Switzerland from the problems be possible to reduce the observed erosion of intentions and observed in other federal contexts (Harker et al. 2017 in motivations, which are often strong in the early stages of New Zealand and McClure and Baker 2018 in Australia) projects, but become residual at the implementation stage. where local action is often hampered by a lack of ambition Moreover, the positive effects of facilitated access to the at the higher level. necessary skills are not limited to the design and implemen- The study also showed that federal initiatives are slowly tation of urban projects, but could also contribute to achieve (and recently) being taken up at the lower political scales better environmental performance in the operational phases. (cantons), which are the most decisive in spatial planning The participants thus evoked the interest in developing skills practice. However, given the lack of clear and sustained in the area of climate issues not only in the form of assis- guidelines from these cantonal or municipal institutions, tance to the project owner, i.e., a person who supports the the evolution of professional practice is strongly linked to project manager, but also in the form of a user manager, this the personal motivations of individual actors. There is thus time supporting the users of the project, once it has been certainly a step to be taken to institutionalize and perpetuate, carried out. Indeed, it is often observed that the expected in spatial planning practices, the importance of meeting the performance in terms of energy consumption, for example, challenges posed to urban and territorial systems by climate is not finally achieved due to inadequate user behavior. change. All the actions proposed concerning the support of the Although the courses of action that were identified in integration of climate issues are in the Nodality type as pro- focus groups are partly specific to the Swiss context, they posed by Henstra (2016), aiming at mobilizing, reinforcing nevertheless easily fit into the four categories proposed and sharing knowledge. by Henstra (2016), showing that the proposed conceptual framework is adapted to structure climate governance in various contexts. This result thus underlines the importance Discussion and conclusion of pursuing a strategy that combines these different fields of action. This article presents, step by step, the investigation of a It seems important to us to return to the central role of general question: how to help Swiss urban planning actors information. Indeed, our results show that, on the one hand, to better integrate climate change into their professional actors who are aware of the issue are more informed and practice? that, on the other hand, actors who are better informed act In addition to a review of scientific literature, data collec - more in favor of taking climate change into account. In other tion was carried out through Swiss case studies, a survey of words, feeling informed facilitates action, but access to professional circles and focus groups. information is still restricted to previously motivated actors. These approaches did not produce an exhaustive portrait We could thus assume the existence of a vicious circle that of climate practice in Switzerland, which was not the objec- restricts the group of actors who are ready to modify their tive; however, they did bring out very instructive insights professional practices: one should be motivated to gather with a view to strengthening and generalizing climate gov- information and one should be informed to be motivated. ernance in Switzerland. From our point of view, the key to this dynamic is there- This research shows that actors in the field of spatial plan - fore certainly easier access to (widely) available informa- ning in Switzerland have been slow to realize the need to tion. Fortunately, several public institutions are diversifying modify their practices to face climate change. This obser- their modes of communication (videos, discussion groups, vation and the reasons that we have put forward to under- participatory approaches, social networks, etc.). stand them are in many respects similar to elements already It should be noted that throughout this research, but also observed in other contexts. In Switzerland, as elsewhere, it is and especially since the distribution of the questionnaire, relatively recent that urban instruments or projects explicitly awareness of the climate emergency has accelerated in 1 3 708 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Switzerland through numerous street demonstrations (cli- the comparison with other countries, we are nevertheless mate strike) and the confirmation of a “green wave” in the convinced that the barriers and levers identified in this last federal elections (October 2019). The current COVID- study are transposable to other situations where changes 19 pandemic will certainly also have had an impact on in practices must be implemented in a short time. In Swit- motivations, either by reinforcing them in favor of climate zerland, as elsewhere, the integration of climate policies (since these events demonstrated the possibility of acting into spatial planning is underway, but many steps remain in emergency and the benefits of a society slowing down to be taken and these may present difficulties similar to its activities), or by leaving aside the climate theme in the those identified in this article. face of the importance given to other health and socioeco- nomic emergencies. The year 2021 has also been decisive in the awareness of the climate emergency through the climate hazards that have multiplied and the alarmist tone Appendix 1 of the latest IPCC report. This context, where climate phenomena, awareness and The table presents the detailed view of the instruments policy responses are evolving very rapidly, raises the ques- analyzed in the Swiss context. For each instrument, it is tion of the internal validity of the instruments presented in indicated whether it addresses Adaptation (A), Mitigation the article: analysis framework for climate policies in Swit- (M) or both. zerland, questionnaires and surveys, focus group framework. Tool Description Organism Scale A M The results presented in Section 4 for each instrument are representative of the current state of awareness and opin- 1.Local projects and initiatives ions during the research project period (2018–2019). We Urban green Study of the City of Bern Municipality x infrastruc- link between assume that if the instruments were being applied presently, tures & cli- climate the results would have been die ff rent. For example, the num - mate (Blaser change and ber of climate plans in cantons and cities has increased since et al. 2017) trees in cities. 2020. The questionnaire distributed 6 months later would Develop- ment of probably have put more emphasis on personal convictions methods and and the role of information, which has also greatly increased concepts for in recent months. The perception of priority actions (see sustainable Fig. 2) resulting from the focus group sessions would also urban tree management. probably be different now. While the validity period of Pilot project the results is short, we believe that the proposed structure supported of the instruments remains valid over a longer term. As a by FOEN perspective, it would be interesting to apply these same (phase 1) Green roofs The City owns City of Laus- Municipality x instruments on a regular basis to reflect the evolution of Lausanne some 3,000 anne climate policy implementation, professional practices and (www. lausa roofs and opinions. Concerning the external validity, which addressed nne. ch/ toitu is making the generability of the process, the question is particularly res- veget alise every effort es) to promote how far the sample of the involved people can be extended. the greening Indeed, both interviewees (survey) and participants of the of its own focus group were selected among professionals involved roofs. It also in climate-related fields in order to target climate policy encourages homeown- levers. But since it is acknowledged that climate is now a ers and concern for society as a whole and for every individual, professionals we believe that the proposed approach and tools could be to welcome applied to the entire professional spectrum and to the public nature on their roofs in general, with minor adaptations in the formulation of the questions. The focus groups could also be used to facilitate public forums in the neighborhoods. This would allow us to broaden the range of responses and proposals. Finally, if the picture of the situation described at the time of this study has indeed changed significantly in recent years and if, moreover, the Swiss situation presents certain specificities (economic and political) which limit 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 709 Tool Description Organism Scale A M Tool Description Organism Scale A M AcclimataSion The City of City of Sion Municipality x Climate plan Studies carried State and city State, region x x (Ville de Sion Sion carried Zurich (Bättig out at dif- of ZH and city 2017) out urban et al. 2013) ferent scales development integrating projects that the analysis give priority of the effects to vegetation of climate and the water change in cycle, devel- different oped a guide fields and for profes- the proposal sionals, and of priority guidelines for actions and construction measures. and develop- Elaboration ment projects. of thematic Pilot project maps of supported by heat islands the FOEN and winds (phase 1) contributing to cooling 2.Regulation and climate action plan Climate plan Analysis of the Region Region x x Energy law Requirements State of Geneva State (canton) x Mitteland effects of cli- Genève for the con- (Kholer and mate change struction and Kraus 2016) on a lowland renovation and medium of buildings mountain with regard region still to renew- little affected, able energy, adoption of efficiency; an adaptation energy plan- strategy, ning of neigh- mobilizing borhoods and the network municipalities of key actors. Climate plan Strategic, trans- State of Geneva State (canton) x x Pilot project Genève versal and supported (Genève 2018) operational by FOEN instrument (phase 1) structured 3.Land use planning instruments (Geneva) in two parts. Component Directive on Cantonal State of Geneva Municipality (x) x 1: inventory master munic- directive and strategies ipal land use concerning of the climate plan (Genève the updating policy via 6 2016) of communal axes. Part II: master plans, measurement with a sheets for chapter on each axis the climatic aspect but not very detailed. Climate is mainly dealt with through the com- munal energy plan and the fight against emissions 1 3 710 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Tool Description Organism Scale A M Tool Description Organism Scale A M Local urban Analysis State, builders Neighborhood x Site 2000 watts This label OFEN Neighborhood x (x) planning of a few (https:// www. rewards development 2000w att. neighbor- neighborhood swiss/ en/ engli hoods plans adopted sh. html) (planning, in 2017 transforma- and 2018 tion, opera- and related tion) that documents. conform to Climate the principles addressed of a 2000-W only with society. Cri- reference to teria mainly emissions of concern pollutants, attenua- GHGs and tion; others O depleting relate to the substances, quality of but explicit public spaces adaptation guarantee- measures ing thermal comfort 4.Labels and evaluation processes European The “Cité de OFEN Municipality x x energy award l'énergie” (https:// tool. label rewards europ ean- municipalities energy- award. that actively org) pursue a sustainable energy and climate pol- icy. The latest version of the Management Tool contains more climate- related criteria, particularly with regard to adaptation 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 711 Appendix 2 The figure below gives an example of a measure described by one of the groups during the second focus group meeting. 1 3 712 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 Authors’ contributions All authors contributed to the study conception Bulkeley H, Betsill MM (2013) Revisiting the urban politics of climate and design and to writing the first draft. Florent Joerin mainly contrib - change. Environ Politics 22:136–154. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ uted to the Methodology (3), the Survey on barriers and levers (4.2), 09644 016. 2013. 755797 the Focus group results (4.3) and the Conclusion (5). Gilles Desthieux Burton P, Mustelin J (2013) Planning for Climate Change: Is Greater mainly contributed to the Introduction (1), the State of the art (2) and Public Participation the Key to Success? Urban Policy Res the Climate change instruments and tools in Switzerland (4.1) sections. 31:399–415. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 08111 146. 2013. 778196 Cloutier G, Joerin F, Dubois C, Labarthe M, Legay C, Viens D (2014) Planning adaptation based on local actors’ knowledge and par- Funding Open access funding provided by University of Applied Sci- ticipation: a climate governance experiment. Clim Pol 15(4):458– ences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO) The paper was written 474. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2014. 937388 in the framework of the GO CLIMAT project (Swiss climate govern- Cunningham R, Cvitanovic C, Measham T, Jacobs B, Dowd AM, Har- ance in land use planning) that was funded by the University of Applied man B (2016) Engaging communities in climate adaptation: the Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO) and co-funded by potential of social networks. Clim Pol 16(7):894–908. https://doi. the Energy Office of the State of Geneva. org/ 10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2015. 10529 55 Davies C and Lafortezza R (2017) Urban green infrastructure in Declarations Europe: is greenspace planning and policy compliant? Land Use Policy 69: 93–101. https://doi. or g/10. 1016/j. landu sepol. 2017. 08. Conflicts of interest Not applicable. 018 Derkzen ML, Van Teeffelen AJA, Verburg PH (2017) Green infra - structure for urban climate adaptation: How do residents’ views Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- on climate impacts and green infrastructure shape adaptation bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- preferences? Landsc Urban Plan 157:106–130. https:// doi. org/ tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long 10. 1016/j. landu rbplan. 2016. 05. 027 as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, Dupuis J, Knoepfel P (2011) Barriers to implementation of adapta- provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes tion policies to climate change: the case of Switzerland. Swiss were made. The images or other third party material in this article are Pol Sci Rev 17:188–219 included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated Eisenack K, Stecker R (2012) A framework for analyzing climate otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in change adaptations as actions. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not 17:243–260 permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will FOEN (2012) Adaptation to climate change in Switzerland - first part need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a of the Federal Council’s strategy. Adopted on 2 March 2012. copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., UD-1055-F. https:// www. bafu. admin. ch/ bafu/ en/ home/ topics/ clima te/ publi catio ns- studi es/ publi catio ns/ adapt ation- clima te- change- switz References erland- 2012. html. Accessed 9 June 2022 FOEN (2014) Adaptation aux changements climatiques en Suisse. Plan d’action 2014 –2019. Deuxième volet de la stratégie du Araos M, Berrang-Ford L, Ford JD, Austin SE, Biesbroek R, Conseil fédéral du 9 avril 2014. Federal Office for the Environ - Lesnikowski A (2016) Climate change adaptation planning in ment - FOEN ed., UD-1081-F. https://www .bafu. admin. c h/bafu/ large cities: A systematic global assessment. Environ Sci Policy fr/ home/ themes/ climat/ publi catio ns- etudes/ publi catio ns/ adapt 66:375–382. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. envsci. 2016. 06. 009 ation- chang ements- clima tiques- suisse- 2014. html. Accessed 9 Bättig M, Wegmann B, von Grünigen S, Rom N, Montanari D (2013) June 2022 Klimawandel im Grossraum Zürich. Was können wir tun ? Sudi- FOEN (2015) Adaptation aux changements climatiques. Stratégie enreihe « Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft » Zürcher Kantonalbank du Conseil fédéral: enjeux pour les cantons. Federal Office for ed. https:// www . econc ep t. c h/ media/ pr oje cts/ downl oads/ 2018/ the Environment - FOEN ed., UW-1509-F. https:// www. bafu. 01/klima w andel_g rossr aum_zuer ic h_Publi k umsversion. F ile.pdf . admin.c h/bafu/ fr/ home/ t hemes/climat/ publi catio ns- e tudes/publi Accessed 9 June 2022 catio ns/ adapt ation- chang ements- clima tiques. html. Accessed 9 Berdoulay V, Soubeyran O (2014) Adaptation, science de la durabilité June 2022 et pensée planificatrice. Nat Sci Soc 22:114–123. https:// doi. org/ FOEN (2017) Impulsions pour une adaptation de la Suisse aux 10. 1051/ nss/ 20140 24 changements climatiques. Conclusions de 31 projets pilotes Berrang-Ford L, Siders AR, Lesnikowski A et al (2021) A system- sur l’adaptation aux changements climatiques. Info Environne- atic global stocktake of evidence on human adaptation to climate ment, 2017. Federal Office for the Environment - FOEN ed., change. Nat Clim Chang 11:989–1000. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1038/ UI-1703-F. https:// www. bafu. admin. ch/ bafu/ fr/ home/ themes/ s41558- 021- 01170-y climat/ publi catio ns- etudes/ publi catio ns/ impul sions- pour- une- Bertrand F, Richard E (2015) La délicate existence locale de adap t ation- de- la- Suisse- aux- c hang ements- clima tiq ues. html. l’adaptation aux changements climatiques : avec, sans, ou à côté Accessed 9 June 2022 de l’atténuation. Développement durable et territoires. https:// FOEN (2020) Changements climatiques en Suisse. Federal Office for journals. opene dition. or g/de veloppem entdu r able/11048 . Accessed the Environment FOEN, Federal Office of Meteorology and Cli - 22 December 2015 matology, Meteoswiss ed., UZ-2013-E. https://www .bafu. admin. Biesbroek GR, Swart RJ, Van der Knaap WGM (2009) The mitigation– ch/bafu/ en/ home/ t opics/clima te/ publi catio ns- s tudies/ publi catio ns/ adaptation dichotomy and the role of spatial planning. Habitat clima te- chang eswit zerla nd. html. Accessed 9 June 2022 Int 33:230–237. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. habit atint. 2008. 10. 001 FOEN (2022) CO2-Emissionsfaktoren des Treibhausgas-inventars der Blaser J, Gardi O, Kern M, Mack S, Wiedemar M, Remund J (2017) Schweiz. https:// www. bafu. admin. ch/ bafu/ en/ home/ topics/ clima Urban Green & Climate Bern - Die Rolle und Bewirtschaftung te/ state/ data/ green house- gas- inven tory. html von Bäumen in einer klimaangepassten Stadtentwicklun. Final FSU (2019) Conférence centrale 2019 – L’aménagement du territoire report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program on climate face à l’urgence climatique, Lucerne, 22 November 2019, https:// adaptation 2013–2017 1 3 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2022) 12:692–713 713 www.f-s- u.c h/fr /ma nife statio ns/c onfer ence-c entra le/. Accessed 3 Reckien D, Salvia M, Heidrich O, Church JM, Pietrapertosa F, October 2021 De Gregorio-Hurtado S, D’Alonzo V, Foley A, Simoes SG, Füssel HM, Klein RJT (2006) Climate Change Vulnerability Assess- KrkoškaLorencová E, Orru H, Orru K, Wejs A, Flacke J, Olazabal ments: An Evolution of Conceptual Thinking. Clim Change M, Geneletti D, Feliu E, Vasilie S, Nador C, Krook-Riekkola A, 75:301–329. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10584- 006- 0329-3 Matosović M, Fokaides PA, Ioannou BI, Flamos A, Spyridaki NA, Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2016) Directives pour Balza MV, Fülöp O, Paspaldzhiev I, Grafakos S, Dawson R (2018) ème l’élaboration des plans directeurs communaux 2 génération, How are cities planning to respond to climate change? Assessment mars 2016. https:// www. ge. ch/ docum ent/ elabo ration- plans- direc of local climate plans from 885 cities in the EU-28. J Clean Prod teurs- commu naux- deuxi eme- gener ation. Accessed 9 June 2022 191:207–219. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jclep ro. 2018. 03. 220 Genève (Rébublique et Canton de-) (2018) Plan climat cantonal – Volet Reischl C, Rauter R, Posch A (2018) Urban vulnerability and adap- 2. Plan de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre et adap - tation to heatwaves: a case study of Graz (Austria). Clim Pol tation aux changements climatiques 2013–2017. https:// www. ge. 18(1):63–75. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2016. 12279 53 ch/docum ent/ elabo r ation-plans- dir ecteurs- commu naux- deuxi eme- Richard E (2015) L’action publique territoriale face au défi de gener ation. Accessed 9 June 2022 l’adaptation : déterminants et effets de la prise en compte des Gustafsson KM, Lidskog R (2018) Boundary organizations and envi- changements climatiques à l’échelle régionale. VertigO - la revue ronmental governance: performance, institutional design, and électronique en sciences de l'environnement. http://jour nals. opene conceptual development. Clim Risk Manag 19:1–11. https:// doi. dition. org/ verti go/ 15283 org/ 10. 1016/j. crm. 2017. 11. 001 Salvia M, Reckien D, Pietrapertosa F, Eckersley P, Spyridaki NA, Harker J, Taylor P, Knight-Lenihan S (2017) Multi-level governance Krook-Riekkola A, Olazabal M, De Gregorio HS, Simoes SG, and climate change mitigation in New Zealand: lost opportunities. Geneletti D, Viguié V, Fokaides PA, Ioannou BI, Flamos A, Csete Climate Policy 17(4):485–500. https://doi. or g/10. 1080/ 14693 062. MS, Buzasi A, Orru H, de Boer C, Foley A, Rižnar K, Matosović 2015. 11225 67 M, Balzan MV, Smigaj M, Baštáková V, Streberova E, Šel NB, Henstra D (2016) The tools of climate adaptation policy: analysing Coste L, Tardieu L, Altenburg C, Lorencová EK, Orru K, Wejs A, instruments and instrument selection. Climate Policy 16(4):496– Feliu E, Church JM, Grafakos S, Vasilie S, Paspaldzhiev I, Hei- 521. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2015. 10159 46 drich O (2021) Will climate mitigation ambitions lead to carbon Huard D, Chaumont D, Logan T, Sotille MF (2014) A decade of cli- neutrality? An analysis of the local-level plans of 327 cities in the mate scenarios: the ouranos consortium modus operandi. Bull EU. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 135:110253. https:// doi. org/ 10. Am Meteorol Soc 95(8):1213–1225. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1175/ 1016/j. rser. 2020. 110253 BAMS-D- 12- 00163.1 Scanu E, Cloutier G (2015) Why do cities get involved in climate gov- IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: synthesis report. In: Core Writing ernance? Insights from Canada and Italy. Environnement urbain Team, Pachauri RK, Reisinger A (eds) Contribution of working / UrbanEnvironment 9:1–19. https:// doi. org/ 10. 7202/ 10362 21ar groups I, II and III to the Fourth assessment report of the intergovern- Simonet G, Leseur A (2019) Barriers and drivers to adaptation mental panel on climate change. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp 104 to climate change—a field study of ten French local authori - IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. ties. Clim Change 155: 621–637. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1007/ Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report s10584- 019- 02484-9 of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, Stoiber T (2019) Klimakarten zeigen, wo es im Kanton Zürich heiss ist. O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Sey- In : Collage 5/19 La Ville face au changement climatique, 10–12. both, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, https://w ww.f-s -u.c h/w p-c onten t/u pload s/2 019/1 2/C ollag e_5_1 9. J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022 Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Straka M, Sodoudi S (2019) Evaluating climate change adaptation Kingdom and New York, NY, USA strategies and scenarios of enhanced vertical and horizontal com- Kholer P, Kraus M (2016) Regionale Anpassungsstrategie Klimawan- pactness at urban scale (a case study for Berlin). Landsc Urban del Sursee-Mittelland. Final report in the framework of the Plan 183:68–78. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. landu rbplan. 2018. 11. FOEN’s pilot program on climate adaptation 2013–2017 006 Lehmann P, Brenck M, Gebhardt O (2015) Barriers and opportuni- Ville de Sion (2017) Aménagement des villes et adaptation au change- ties for urban adaptation planning: analytical framework and ment climatique. Sélection d’expériences et de bonnes pratiques evidence from cities in Latin America and Germany. Mitig de la Ville de Sion (projet AcclimataSion). Rapport final, mai Adapt Strateg Glob Change 20:75–97. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ 2017. Final report in the framework of the FOEN’s pilot program s11027- 013- 9480-0 on climate adaptation 2014–2018, https:// www. nccs. admin. ch/ Lubell M, Morrison TH (2021) Institutional navigation for polycentric dam/ nccs/ it/ dokum ente/ klima/ exter ne- studi en- beric hte/ Amena sustainability governance. Nat Sustain 4:664–671. https://doi. or g/ gement-d es-v illes-e t-a dapta tion-a u-c hange ment-c limat ique-E xper 10. 1038/ s41893- 021- 00707-5 iences- e t- bonnes- pr ati q ues- de- la- Ville- de- Sion. pdf. downl oad. McClure B, Baker D (2018) How do planners deal with barriers to cli-pdf/ Am% C3% A9nag ement_ des_ villes_ et_ adapt ation_ au_ chang mate change adaptation? A case study in Queensland, Australia. ement_c limat ique_-_E xp%C 3%A 9rien ces_e t_b onnes_p ratiq ues_ Landsc Urban Plan 173:81–88. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. landu de_ la_ Ville_ de_ Sion. pdf. Accessed 9 June 2022 rbplan. 2018. 01. 012 Xu L, Wang X, Liu J, He Y, Tang X, Nguyen M, Cui S (2019) Identify- Mees H, Tijhuis N, Dieperink C (2018) The effectiveness of com - ing the trade-offs between climate change mitigation and adapta - municative tools in addressing barriers to municipal climate tion in urban land use planning: An empirical study in a coastal change adaptation: lessons from the Netherlands. Climate Policy city. Environ Int 133:105162. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. en vint. 18(10):1313–1326. https://doi. or g/10. 1080/ 14693 062. 2018. 14344 2019. 105162 Moser SC, Ekstrom JA (2010) A framework to diagnose barriers to Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to climate change adaptation. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107:22026–22031 jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Olazabal M, Ruiz De Gopegui M (2021) Adaptation planning in large cities is unlikely to be effective. Landsc Urban Plan 206:103974. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. landu rbplan. 2020. 103974 1 3

Journal

Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences – Springer Journals

Published: Dec 1, 2022

Keywords: Climate governance; Land use planning; Swiss climate policy; Stakeholder involvement

Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Urban planning in Swiss cities has been slow to think about climate change: why and what to do?

Urban planning in Swiss cities has been slow to think about climate change: why and what to do?

Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Urban planning in Swiss cities has been slow to think about climate change: why and what to do?

Urban planning in Swiss cities has been slow to think about climate change: why and what to do?

References (72)

Abstract

Journal

Recommended Articles

There are no references for this article.

Our policy towards the use of cookies