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An evaluation of coastal sand dune flora of Cuddalore District, Tamil Nadu, India: perspectives for conservation and management

An evaluation of coastal sand dune flora of Cuddalore District, Tamil Nadu, India: perspectives... GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES INWASCON https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2022.2130555 RESEARCH ARTICLE An evaluation of coastal sand dune flora of Cuddalore District, Tamil Nadu, India: perspectives for conservation and management a a a,b a a,c M. Anbarashan , N. Balachandran , R. Mathevet , N. Barathan and P. Uma Maheswari a b Department of Ecology, French Institute of Pondicherry (IFP) - UMIFRE 21 CNRS-MAEE/USR 3330 - 11, Pondicherry, India; Department of Ecology, CEFE, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE-PSL University, IRD, Montpellier, France; Department of Botany, Kanchi Mamuniver Government Institute for Postgraduate Studies and Research, Pondicherry, India ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 26 April 2022 Most of the sand dunes close to the Cuddalore coast of India have been destroyed due to Accepted 26 September 2022 human pressure. The remaining coastal sand dune (CSD) is under extreme threat due to unplanned development. The purpose of this study is to investigate the species diversity, KEYWORDS plant communities in different morphological types, spatial-temporal changes in the distribu- Conservation; coastal sand tion of sand dunes, and the state of their conservation. In the coastal dunes of Cuddalore, dunes; plant diversity; 25 perpendicular transects parallel to the coast were sampled. Following analysis, 105 vascular Spatial-temporal changes; plants from 39 plant families and 85 genera were identified as part of the CSD flora. The least zonal distribution disturbed sites harbored more species than the heavily disturbed sites. Members of the Poaceae and Fabaceae families dominated the flora, and 68% of the species in the dunes were herbaceous. The sand dune cover is significantly reduced and fragmented in various parts of the study area, and negative changes have been observed at a rate of more than 100 ha per year between 2003 and 2020. A CSD conservation policy that ensures species succession in the form of a three-layered zone is proposed as a long-term sustainable option for preserving Cuddalore coastal flora biodiversity. Introduction factors such as soil fertility, marine aerosol, sandblast- ing, and sand burial (Oosting & Billings, 1942). Sand, Coastal ecosystems are made up of a mosaic of highly wind biocrust, rainfall, flora dune covers and human diverse plant communities that play an important role activities will lead to formation of mobile (active), in ecological and economic balance (Sutton-Grier & semi-active, or fixed (stable) dunes (Kinast et al., Sandifer, 2019). Coastal sand dunes (CSD) are com- 2013). Biocrust and native vegetation play plex and dynamic ecosystems. They are zones of tran- a significant role in mobility and dune stability sition between terrestrial and marine biomes. The size, (Yizhaq & Ashkenazy, 2022). Hanoch et al., 2018, range, and sand stabilization vary depending on the further classified coastal dune based upon their rate distance from the sea, topography, and disturbance, of wind regime, sand deposition, and vegetation as, and it supports a variety of habitats (Van der Maarel & transverse dunes, barchans, linear dunes, parabolic van der Meulen, 2004). Worldwide zonation is very dunes, and star dunes. These coastal ecosystems are stable, with a consistent sequence of biotic gradients considered extremely threatened on a global scale (Attorre et al., 2013; Doing, 1985). Flora and fauna (Kutiel et al., 2000), and they suffer from heavy biodi- communities in sand dunes have very specific ecolo- versity loss and habitat simplification (Dolan & gical requirements, which determine their position Walker, 2006), owing primarily to a steady increase along the environmental gradient from the seashore in anthropogenic pressures such as urbanization, tour- region (Carboni et al., 2010). Beaches and mobile ism, shoreline erosion, climate change, and biological dunes are considered azonal vegetation (Doing, invasion over the last decades (Acosta et al., 2009; 1985), whereas stable dunes inland are occupied by Anderson et al., 2015; Brown & Zinnert, 2018; plant communities that are adapted to their local con- Carboni et al., 2010; Curr et al., 2000; Feagin et al., ditions (Buffa et al., 2012; Šilc et al., 2017). 2005; O’shea & Kirkpatrick, 2000; Prisco et al., 2020; CSD are formed primarily as a result of the inter- Reidsma et al., 2006). Aside from acting as natural action of tides, waves, and sand particle size, and they barriers against various coastal calamities such as tsu- serve as a natural barrier against waves and windy namis and cyclones, coastal sand dunes play an impor- storms (McLachlan & Defeo, 2001; Šilc et al., 2017). tant role in preventing saltwater intrusion into fresh This region’s biota is subjected to a number of limiting aquifers by preserving the aquifer in coastal areas and CONTACT M. Anbarashan anbarashan.m@ifpindia.org French Institute of Pondicherry (IFP) - UMIFRE 21 CNRS-MAEE/USR 3330 – 11, St. Louis street, P.B. 33, Pondicherry 605001, India © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group on behalf of the International Water, Air & Soil Conservation Society(INWASCON). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 2 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. coastal agriculture by preventing salt-laden winds human activity is changing the original species com- gusting from the sea (Namboothri et al., 2008). position, diversity, and distribution. As a result, in Highly adapted flora and fauna groups, such as order to provide useful insights for the management Spinifex littoreus, withstand harsh conditions and aid of the fragile coastal ecosystem, we conducted an in the formation, stabilization, and post-storm recov- analysis with the goals of (1) quantifying the species ery process. Climate change, sea-level rise, natural richness, abundance, and diversity of the plant com- erosion, grazing, fire, and land transformation all munity in relation to disturbance, (2) assessing the have an impact on CSD (Aucelli et al., 2018; conservation status of the different morphological Davenport & Davenport, 2006; Feagin et al., 2005; dune types based on diversity, and (3) understanding Hernández-Cordero et al., 2017; Malavasi et al., 2016; the spatial-temporal change in sand dune distribution Prisco et al., 2021). between 2003 and 2022. Coastal sand dunes are a fragile unique ecosystem that was constantly under pressure caused due to both Study area natural and man-made calamities. Especially popula- tion growth, urbanization and sea-and-sand tourism Cuddalore is one of the fastest-growing industrial belts leads to increased alteration in the coastal areas, nearly in Tamil Nadu’s southern state. This area is specifically 11% of global urbanization occurs in low elevation at located on the Coromandel coast between 11°44ʹ39” 10 m above sea level and at present it supports about N and 79°47ʹ00” E, south of the Puducherry Union 400 million occupants worldwide (IPBES, 2019; Territory (Figure 1). Cuddalore is bounded on the east Salgado et al., 2022). Average rate of urban expansion by the Bay of Bengal and on the south by is comparatively higher in coastal regions than in Chidambaram. Cuddalore is a coastal town islands, making coastal areas to be densely populated 10 m above sea level (Singh et al., 2021). The annual (Barragán & De Andrés, 2015; Seto et al., 2011). mean temperature is 27.8°C. The average annual rain- Coastal dunes are further destroyed due to extreme fall in the district is 1206.7 mm, with summers trampling, intrusion of off-road vehicles, restructura- (81.7 mm) receiving more rain than winters tion of dune, flora elimination, and sand extraction (44.1 mm). The region receives 697.8 mm of rainfall (Hesp et al., 2010). All these factors lead to loss of from the North-East monsoon and 383.1 mm of rain- native dune flora, while leads to the instruction and fall from the South-West monsoon. The average wind expansion of invasive species, which affects dune speed over the last year was 4 km/h. structure and alters its flora and fauna composition Cuddalore, with a coastline of 57.5 km, has been (Tordoni et al., 2019). Over a period of time coastline, designated as a multi-hazard prone district due to the urbanization and land changes increased as a result effects of cyclonic depressions, heavy rains resulting in species richness decreased along with the alternation floods, and the severe damage caused by the 2004 of functional traits in plants. The native psammo- Tsunami (Muthusankar et al., 2018). The coastal vil- phytes and halophytes dune species were found to be lages such as Pudukuppam (11°31ʹ11.8” N and 79° decreased with increased urbanization rate, whereas 45ʹ50.7” E), TS Pettai (11°24ʹ35.0” N and 79°48ʹ04.8” alien and non-dune species increased in their abun- E), Samiyaarpettai (11°32ʹ37.1” N and 79°45,31.0” E), dance (Salgado et al., 2022). Kayalpattu (11°34ʹ51.2” N and 79°45ʹ25.2” E) and The Government of India designated coastal Rasapettai (11°39ʹ27.7” N and 79°45ʹ58.0” E) were stretches influenced by tidal action as Coastal among the study sites chosen for the dune diversity Regulation Zones in 1991 (CRZ). Among the four assessment and disturbance impacts on vegetation. categories, CRZ I includes ecologically sensitive areas Parangipettai, also known as Porto Novo, is a coastal such as sand dunes, mangroves, and genetically town in the district’s south that is densely populated diverse areas. India has a coastline of approximately and serves as a major industrial hub. The establish- 7516.6 km, which is shared by nine states and two ment of the IL&FS Thermal Power Plant in union territories. The coastal line of Tamil Nadu is Pudukuppam, as well as the upcoming chain of approximately 1076 kilometers long, accounting for large- and small-scale industries, has encouraged approximately 15% of India’s total coastal length unsustainable coastal development projects, which (Arulmoorthy & Srinivasan, 2013). Indian CSDs have pose a significant threat to the coastal ecosystem in been extensively researched and documented in terms a variety of areas. of their geological, physical, biological, and restoration characteristics. Despite the fact that coastal sand dune ecosystems are ecologically sensitive, their biotic com- Materials and methods position is unknown. Local coastal human commu- Floristic sampling nities are heavily reliant on sand dune vegetation for a variety of reasons, including food, health, fodder, A comprehensive survey of plant species was initially manure, and recreation. We assumed that increased conducted along India’s Cuddalore coastline in order GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 3 Figure 1. The geographical location of the study area. to perform a representative sampling of different mor- recorded for each transect: overgrazing, industrial phological dune habitats with varying levels of human scrap dumping, urbanization (settlements, road con- disturbance. As a result, 25 perpendicular transects to struction, and industries), recreation, and the presence the seashore were established in the study area (5 in of invasive species. Based on field observations, the each site) to investigate dune zonation, beginning with degree of such human-induced disturbances was the annual vegetation of incipient dunes and progres- graded for each transect on an ordinal scale ranging sing to the mixed vegetation of hind dunes. The length from absent (0) to low (1), moderate (2), high (3), and of each transect varied according to the morphology severe (4). Furthermore, the distance from the sea and and width of the dunes. The percent cover of each the total length of each transect (in metres) were vascular plant present was visually estimated, and fre- examined as natural features. quency was calculated by counting the number of each species that occurred in the studied plots within dif- ferent morphological dune types in contiguous 1 m × Analysis of sand dune distribution changes 1 m plots. This size was deemed adequate for the herbaceous vegetation studied in this study, primarily We used the spatial-temporal analysis of moving poly- to avoid overlapping samples from different plant gons (STAMP) framework to understand the spatial- communities. temporal change in sand dune distribution between The following five disturbance factors affecting the 2003 and 2020 (Robertson et al., 2007). At four levels conservation status of plant communities were of increasing complexity, this framework reports 4 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. spatial-temporal change events among polygons. Vegetation classification The second level of this framework was used, which Based on the coverage of 105 plant species recorded in categorizes changes in sand dune distribution between the current study sites, it was possible to identify three 2003 and 2020 as disappearance, contraction, stable, vegetation groups associated with the different mor- expansion, and dunes generation. Stable areas are phological dune types: beach berm/Incipient dune, those that did not change, while lost areas are classified Fore dune, and Hind dune, each with a specific plant as contraction or disappearance based on their con- cluster (Figure 4). nectivity or lack thereof with stable areas. Incipient Dune Data analysis This group was characterised by Canavalia cathartica, Cyperus arenaruis, C. pygmaeus, Ipomoea pes-capre, Following Magurran, the diversity indices Shannon Dactyloptenium aegypticum, Fimbristylis cymosa, (H), Simpson (D), and Evenness were calculated Murdannia spirata, Spinifex littoralis which are her- (Magurran, 2004). Using Microsoft Excel 2019, the baceous perennial plant and Casuarina equisetifolia, data were also analyzed using One-way ANOVA and Cocos nucifera are found on the Beach berm/Incipient the t-test to see if the population in each site was dune. Species such as Ipomoea pes-capre, Cyperus are- significantly different. Biodiversity Pro, version 2, naruis and Spinifex littoralis occurred on seaward slop was used for the Bray-Curtis analysis. of Incipient dune. Fore Dune Results This group was characterised by Borassus flabellifer, Floristic composition in the study area Casuarina equisetifolia, Cocos nucifera, Brachiaria dis- tachya, Euphorbia rosea, Cyperus arenarius, Ipomoea In the current study area, 105 vascular plant species pes-capre, Pedalium murex, Spinifex littoralis and from 85 genera and 39 plant families were identified Spermacoce articularis found in semi-stable dune (Table 1). The most common families were Poaceae, which was located 60 m inland from the shoreline Fabaceae, Cyperaceae, and Rubiaceae (14, 13, 10, and 6 and the further landward zone. These species were taxa, respectively; Figure 2). Only one species repre- the indicator species that separate incipient dune sented each of the 15 families. Herbaceous species from foredune. made up the majority of the vegetation (68%) followed by climbers and creepers (14%), and trees and shrubs (18%) (Figure 3). Five invasive alien species Hind Dune (Anacardium occidentale, Cocos nucifera, Croton bon- Indicator species of this group were Calophyllum ino- plandianus, Dactyloptenium aegypticum, and Prosopis phyllum, Garcinia spicata, Fluggea leucopyrus, Phoenix juliflora ) were found in the studied CSD, while only pusilla, Gmelina asiatica, Gloriosa superba and two endemic species (Blumea eriantha and Cleome Pedalium murex. More protected areas behind dense felina) were found. In terms of life duration, 61 species Syzygium cumini and Calophyllum inophyllum are (52%) were annuals, while 44 species (42% were per- characterized by various species such as Asparagus ennials). The number of species in terms of diversity racemosus and Azadirachta indica with the admixture and abundance increased with increasing distance of the inland plants including Capparis zeylanica, from the shoreline. Coccinea grandis, Rivea hypocrateriformis etc. The spaces between hind dune were covered with grasses and herbaceous plants. Notably, species such as Diversity analysis Spinifex littoralis, Cyperus arenarius, Euphorbia rosea, Desmodium triflorum, Oldenlandia corymbosa, The species diversity was highest in the moderately and Ipomoea pes-capre are very well presented on disturbed site, which had the most species (21), fol- three dune types. lowed by the less disturbed sites. Shannon’s index for the primary dunes is higher in the highly disturbed site than in the slightly disturbed site, which was already Spatial-temporal changes in sand dune higher than in the moderately disturbed site (Table 2). distribution (2003-2020) Even Simpson’s index exhibits a similar pattern. Evenness (J) is equal to 0.89 in moderately disturbed Within the nearshore area, the dune land cover consists and highly disturbed sites, and 0.87 in slightly dis- of sandy beaches, incipient dunes, fore dunes, hind turbed sites. Among the primary dune sites, it is dunes, and associated landforms. The characteristics of clear from the results that they are significantly differ - this class have changed rapidly over time as a result of ent since the P values obtained for all the t-test and the marine and coastal processes, as well as other anthropo- ANOVA were less than 0.5. genic activities such as plantations. This class’s total area GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 5 Table 1. The list of sand dune flora under different zones from Cuddalore coast. Beach berm/Incipient Dune Fore Dune Hind Dune Species Family Habit Native/Exotic Annuals/Perennials 0–20 m 21–60 m 61–120 m Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae Climber N P * Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Herb N A * Aeschynomene aspera L. Fabaceae Herb N A * Almania nodiflora (L.) Amaranthaceae Herb N A * * R. Br. ex Wight. Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) Fabaceae Herb N A * * * DC. Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae Tree E P * L. Asparagus racemosus Asparagaceae Climber N P * Willd. Axonocarpus compressus Poaceae Herb N A * (Sw.) P.Beauv. Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Tree N P * * A. Juss. Blumea eriantha DC. Asteraceae Herb N A * Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae Herb N P * * Borassus flabellifer L. Arecaceae Tree N P * * Brachiaria distachya (L.) Poaceae Herb N A * * Stapf Brachiaria reptans (L.) C. Poaceae Herb N A * A.Gardner & C.E. Hubb. Bulbostylis barbata Cyperaceae Herb N A * * (Rottb.) C.B.Clarke Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Fabaceae Climber N P * Roxb. Calophyllum inophyllum Calophyllaceae Tree N P * L. Calotropes gigantea (L.) Apocynaceae Shrub N P * R.Br. Canavalia rosea (Sw.) Fabaceae Climber N P * * DC. Capparis zeylanica L. Capparaceae Climber N P * Casuarina equisetifolia L. Casuarinaceae Tree N P * * Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Cucurbitaceae Climber N A * Schrad. Cleome felina L.f. Cleomaceae Herb N A * Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae Herb N A * Coccinea grandis (L.) Cucurbitaceae Climber N P * Voigt Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae Tree E P * Crotalaria pallida pallida Fabaceae Herb N A * Croton bonplandianus Euphorbiaceae Herb E A * Baill. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Poaceae Herb N P * pers. Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D. Commelinaceae Herb N A * Don ex Sweet Cyperus arenarius Retz. Cyperaceae Herb N A * * * Cyperus castaneus Willd. Cyperaceae Herb N A * Cyperus compressus L. Cyperaceae Herb N A * Cyperus pygmaeus Cyperaceae Herb N A * Rottb. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae Herb N A * Cyperus stoloniferus Cyperaceae Herb N A * Retz. Dactyloptenium Poaceae Herb E A * * * aegypticum (L.) Willd. Desmodium Fabaceae Herb N P * biarticulatum (L.)F. Muell. Desmodium triflorum (L.) Fabaceae Herb N P * * * DC. Dolichos trilobus L. Fabaceae Climber N P * Eleocharis atropurpurea Cyperaceae Herb N A * (Retz.) J.Presl & C. Presl Eragrostis plumosa Poaceae Herb N A * (Retz.) Link. Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) Poaceae Herb N A * P Beauv. Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Poaceae Herb N A * * * Trin. Euphorbia rosea Retz. Euphorbiaceae Herb N A * * * Ficus amplissima Sm. Moraceae Tree N P * (Continued) 6 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. Table 1. (Continued). Beach berm/Incipient Dune Fore Dune Hind Dune Species Family Habit Native/Exotic Annuals/Perennials 0–20 m 21–60 m 61–120 m Fimbristylis cymosa R.Br. Cyperaceae Herb N A * * Fimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Cyperaceae Herb N P * Kunth Fluggea leucopyrus Phyllanthaceae Shrub N P * Willd. Garcinia spicata (Wight Clusiaceae Tree N P * & Arn.) Hook.f. Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae Herb N P * Gisekia pharnaceoides L. Molluginaceae Herb N A * * Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Molluginaceae Herb N A * Aug. DC. Gloriosa superba L. Colchicaceae Climber N A * Gmelina asiatica L. Lamiaceae Shrub N P * Gomphrena celosioides Amaranthaceae Herb N A * Mart. Hedyotis graminifolia L.f. Rubiaceae Herb N P * * Hedyotis herbacea L. Rubiaceae Herb N A * Hibiscus ovalifolius Malvaceae Shrub N A * (Forssk.) Vahl. Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) Convolvulaceae Herb N P * * * R.Br. Ipomoea pes-trigridis L. Convolvulaceae Herb N A * Lannea coromandelica Anacardiaceae Tree N P * (Houtt.) Merr. Launaea sarmentosa Asteraceae Herb N A * * * (Willd.) Limnophila indica (L.) Scrophulariaceae Herb N A * Druce Lindernia crustacea (L.) Linderniaceae Herb N A * F.Muell Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae Herb N A * Mollugo disticha (L.) Ser. Molluginaceae Herb N A * Mollugo nudicaulis Lam. Molluginaceae Herb N A * Mollugo oppositifolia L. Molluginaceae Herb N A * Murdannia spirata (L.) G. Commelinaceae Herb N A * * Brückn Oldenlandia corymbosa Rubiaceae Herb N A * * * L. Oldenlandia umbellata L. Rubiaceae Herb N A * * * Panicum repens L. Poaceae Herb N A * Panicum sp Poaceae Herb N A * Paspalidium Poaceae Herb N P * scrobiculatum L. Pedalium murex Linn. Pedaliaceae Herb N A * * Perotis indica (L.) Kuntze Poaceae Herb N A * * Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. Arecaceae Shrub N P * Phyla nodiflora (L.) Verbenaceae Herb N A * Greene. Phyllanthus amarus Phyllanthaceae Herb N A * * Schum. & Thonn. Phyllanthus virgatus G. Phyllanthaceae Herb N A * Forst. Phyllanthus reticulatus Phyllanthaceae Shrub N P * Poir. Polycarpaea corymbosa Caryophyllaceae Herb N A * (L.) Lam. Polygala arvensis Willd. Polygalaceae Herb N A * Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. Portulacaceae Herb N A * Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) Fabaceae Tree E P * DC. Rivea hypocrateriformis Convolvulaceae Climber N P * (Desr.) Choisy Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae Herb N P * * Senna occidentalis (L.) Fabaceae Tree N A Link. Sida cordiflolia L. Malvaceae Herb N A * * Spermacoce articularis L. Rubiaceae Herb N P * * * f. Spermacoce hispida L. Rubiaceae Herb N P * * * Spinifex littoralis (Burm. Poaceae Herb N P * * * f.) Merr. Syzygium cumini (L.) Myrtaceae Tree N P * Skeels Tephrosia villosa (L.) Fabaceae Herb N A * Pers. (Continued) GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 7 Table 1. (Continued). Beach berm/Incipient Dune Fore Dune Hind Dune Species Family Habit Native/Exotic Annuals/Perennials 0–20 m 21–60 m 61–120 m Thespesia populnea (L.) Malvaceae Tree N P * Sol. Ex Correa. Tiliacora acuminata Menispermaceae Climber N P * (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thoms. Tinospora cordifolia Menispermaceae Climber N P * (Willd.) Hook. f. Trachys muricata (L.) Poaceae Herb N A * * Pers. ex Trin. Tylophora indica (Burm. Apocynaceae Climber N P * f.) merr. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Asteraceae Herb N A * * Less. Waltheria indica L. Malvaceae Herb N P * Wattakaka volubilis (Lf) Apocynaceae Climber N P * Stapf. Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Rhamnaceae Climber N P * Miller Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers. Fabaceae Herb N A * N-native; E-Exotic; A-Annual; P-Perennial; *-Presence. is estimated to be 210 ha in 2003 and 92 ha in 2020. The Disturbed dunes exhibit greater diversity as anthro- sand dune cover is significantly reduced and fragmented pogenic activities such as cultivation, industrial estab- in various parts of the study area, and negative changes at lishment, and recreational pressure increase, which a rate of more than 100 ha have been observed between may aid in the direct or indirect introduction of new 2003 and 2020 (Figure 5). The sand dune formed a single species and associated species, as well as non-native or large patch in 2003, but by 2020, it had fragmented into exotic species. Similarly, extensive grazing observed in 21 small patches. The majority of the berm/incipient the Pudukuppam site may be a cause of non-native dune and foredune was converted to plantations, includ- species propagation via seed dispersal by cattle. Plants ing Casuarina and the aromatic grass Vettiver. such as Ipomea pes-caprae and Spinifex littoreus were found on the primary dunes, and most importantly, clear zones of these two species were found in the Discussion moderately disturbed Kayalpattu site. Ipomea pes- caprae also allowed other species to grow in the site. Species diversity and disturbance This suggests that these species occur on dunes that During the survey, 105 species from 85 genera and 39 are stabilized or moderately disturbed. In the same plant families were recorded in the study area. Nearly Kayalpattu region, the Ipomea pes-caprae zone was 70% of the Indian Coromandel coastal sand dune followed by the continuous growth of Canavalia plants recorded so far (154) were found in the study rosea. The typical psammophytes are gradually being area. The Coromandel coastal sand dunes are made up replaced by invasive plants such as Prosopis juliflora , of 154 species from 108 genera and 41 families (Arun which are also a result of increased human activity and et al., 1999; Muthukumar & Samuel, 2011: Rao & conservation strategies that have failed. P. juliflora is Sherieff, 2002). The Poaceae family was found to be a fast-growing invasive species that can withstand the dominant flora in our study. Several studies have harsh conditions and produces roots faster than found that temperate coastal sand dunes are domi- shoots (Gupta & Balara, 1972). They are also known nated by Poaceae members, whereas the dominant for producing a large number of pods that are con- plant families in the Indian and other tropics are sumed and dispersed by cattle, assisting in the species’ Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae rapid propagation (Muthana & Arora, 1983). (Arun et al., 1999; Rao & Sherieff, 2002; Sridhar & Furthermore, Arulmoorthy and Srinivasan (2013) Bhagya, 2007; Arun & Sridhar, 2004; Rodrigues et al., reported that the Pudupettai dunes in Cuddalore are 2011). Though the current findings are significant, harmed by the construction of a thermal power plant, they do not match those of a similar study conducted and the vegetation of the Annankoil dunes is also by Poyyamoli et al. (2011). The species diversity was harmed by the harbor construction. highest in the moderately disturbed site, according to The presence of specialized plants such as Ipomoea these authors, whereas our study found higher diver- pes-caprae and Spinifex littoreus, which are capable of sity and density in the highly disturbed sites of all dune maintaining dune stability but can also colonize patches types. of sandy bare area and grow quickly down an eroded 8 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. Genera Species Families Figure 2. Contribution of plant species from families of the coastal sand dune. Herbs Climbers & Trees Shrubs creepers Habit Figure 3. Percentage of coastal sand dune species representing different habit types. Table 2. Diversity indices values of the study sites. Unsustainable activities and their adverse effects Sl. SHANON’S SIMPSON’S Evenness No. SITE INDEX (H) INDEX (D) Hmax J = H/Hmax Based on field observations and interactions with 1 IL&FS* 2.52 0.89 3.05 0.82 2 Samiyar pettai** 2.37 0.88 2.77 0.85 locals and experts, it is clear that the currently opera- 3 TS Pettai*** 2.14 0.85 2.56 0.83 tional IL&FS thermal power plant and the remnants of 4 Ashley’s Broken 2.28 0.88 2.56 0.89 NOCL (Nagarjuna Oil Corporation Limited) projects Bridge* 5 Kayalpattu** 1.96 0.84 2.19 0.89 have harmed the locals and the environment, as well as 6 Rasapettai*** 2.17 0.87 2.48 0.87 impacted the study area’s land use pattern. Due to *Highly disturbed **Moderately disturbed ***Slightly disturbed opposition from the local population, IL&FS, a coal- based power plant, had previously caused respiratory, visibility, and other issues due to the dispersion of fly ash, which was later reduced by installing fly ash face to help build and restore the dune profile, is critical capture screens within the industrial premises. to the formation, stabilization, and post-storm recovery Similarly, the NOCL project, which is currently on process (Muthukumar & Samuel, 2011). Plantations of hold, has had a significant impact on the landscape species such as Casuarina equisetifolia are well adapted due to the dumping of construction debris on the to the coastal region and protect dune sites from erosion coastal dunes near the industrial site. The industrial and natural disasters along the shoreline; however, it is projects also include the construction of a port and the important to note that the growing need for cultivation construction of bridges and structures near the sea in has negative effects on native populations and sup- order to transport raw materials to the industries via presses local species by lowering the water table conveyer belts. With the exception of these, the devel- (Anbarashan et al., 2017, 2020; Namboothri et al., opment of industries prior to IL&FS, such as SIPCOT 2008). Coastal communities most often encourage the in Cuddalore, has been a major reason for road con- presence of commercially important non-native species, struction, resulting in increased access to coastal dune resulting in the extinction of native species. No. of genera & species (n) Composition (%) Others Poaceae Fabaceae Cyperaceae Rubiaceae Molluginaceae Malvaceae Phyllanthaceae Asteraceae Arecaceae Apocynaceae Amaranthaceae Convolvulaceae Commelinaceae Euphorbiaceae Lamiaceae GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 9 Figure 4. Plant species contributing to the similarity in Bray-Curtis clusters. systems and encouraging additional farming practices, Casuarina equisetifolia, Anacardium occidentale, commercial cultivation of Casuarina, recreational, and Azadirachta indica, and Vettiver monoculture have tourist spots that are not environmentally friendly. It been carried out extensively (Pers. Obs. And Singh is frequently observed that increased grazing and prac- et al., 2021). Casuarina plantations are said to be one tices to obtain food, timber, and fuel are occurring as of the factors affecting dune diversity and negatively a result of the access provided by coastal roads. In the impacting native dune species, as well as lowering the region, intensive plantation activities such as water table. 10 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. Figure 5. Changes of sand dune distribution between 2003 to 2020: (a) sand dune distribution in 2003 (b) in 2020 and (c) changes between 2003–2020. Conservation and management perspectives incipient dune receives the most salt spray due to its proximity to the sea. Zone 2 (Foredune) would be In the current situation, transects across the dune a mid-coast zone of herbs and medium-rooted shrubs. coast of Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu, show a mixed dis- Fimbristylis cymosa, F. falcata, Launnaea sarmentosa, position of floral species. Although herbs cover most Ludwigia perennis, Perotis indica, and Tephrosia vil- of the dunes, tall hinterland trees such as C. nucifera, losa are some of the species that could be used. Species Casuarina equisetifolia, Anacardium occidentale, and from zone 1 could also be used in conjunction with the aromatic herb Vettiver can be found along the zone 2 to achieve natural succession of vegetation. The frontal dune. The primary cause could be attributed use of C. equisetifolia and vetiver would not be recom- to a lack of planning and management initiatives, but mended in the foredune and mid-shore areas as they it could also be attributed to haphazard plantation are known to pose a threat to marine fauna such as programmes. Inappropriate plant species selection in marine turtles and may hinder the natural succession different zones of the beach/dune, combined with pattern of CSD vegetation. Deep-rooted dune species poor planning, results in potentially high environmen- of taller shrubs, climbers, and trees such as Calotropis tal stress on the fragile coastal ecosystem (Martinez gigantea, Coccinea grandis, Anacardium occidentale, et al., 2006; Rodrigues et al., 2011). Such unscientific Ziziphus oenoplia, Casuarina equisetifloia , and Cocos plantation methods cannot ensure the health of coastal nucifera could represent Zone 3 (Hind dune). Some of dune vegetation. the plants, such as A. occidentale and Cocus nucifera Following that, a succession of sand dune species species proposed in the hind dune are not native to landward from the dune is proposed, which could be India and were introduced and naturalized in the area expected to form a functional buffer zone: incipient centuries ago. While these tree species provide socio- dune (zone 1: Figure 6) would consist of pioneer shallow-rooted herbs such as Bulbostylis barbata, economic benefits to local communities, their impact Cyperus arenarius, and Spinifex littoreus on the frontal on native flora is minimal. For this purpose, several zones. Ipomoea pes-caprae and I. Pes-trigrids would kilometers of coastal sand dunes in India were flat - also be ideal in the zone and species because they can tened to make way for these plantations, which ulti- withstand burial by sand and salt stress, as the mately destroyed sea turtle nesting habitat and GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 11 reduced the natural effectiveness of coastal dune topo- growth and infrastructure expansion, local develop- graphy, which provides protection from storms. ment and conservation policies have failed to address the well-being of our coastal ecosystems. We rely heavily on the services provided by sand dunes, and Conclusion we are constantly exploiting the resources without regard for conservation or their own dynamics. The Given the current findings, there are several impor- CSD and beaches are under increasing strain, and tant considerations for managing fragile coastal dune unsustainable coastal development projects are systems in the areas studied. First, coastal plantations destroying these ecosystems. Coastal dune vegeta- such as Casuarina and Vettiver in the foredune are tion, on the other hand, plays an important role in the most significant source of disturbance, altering encouraging floral and faunal diversity in the areas. the typical spatial pattern of dune plant communities. Native dune species aid in dune formation and ero- Because erosion processes shifted the down drift of sion prevention. The assessment of vegetation in harbours and other engineering structures in recent disturbed areas revealed that disturbed sites are years, the construction of protective structures (such more vulnerable to activities such as trampling, graz- as groyens, seawalls, and jetties) along the coastal ing, cultivation, and invasion. The evaluation of traits affected by erosion has been a solution only coastal dune sites along the Cuddalore stretch aids for urgent local problems. These phenomena have us in understanding the alteration of shorelines resulted in the degradation of several coastal caused by increased human activity, which increases stretches, necessitating ongoing management actions. the likelihood of coastal hazards. The anthropogenic It is possible to conclude that, as a result of economic Figure 6. A schematic diagram representing coastal sand dune flora: (a) Present scenario depicting a mixed species disposition of vegetation (b) Species proposed as structured biozone so as to enhance conservation efforts. 12 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. disturbances investigated in this paper contribute to Current Science, 77(1), 19–21. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/24102908 the loss of uniqueness of these sites. To summarise, Arun, A. B., & Sridhar, K. R. (2004). Symbiotic performance the response to effective management of ecologically of fast-growing rhizobia isolated from the coastal sand sensitive coastal ecosystems should be the develop- dune legumes of west coast of India. Biology and Fertility ment of a new coastal vegetation conservation policy, of Soils, 40(6), 435–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374- 004-0800-0 the implementation of existing ones, continuous Attorre, F., Maggini, A., Di Traglia, M., De Sanctis, M., monitoring, and the creation of awareness among Vitale, M., & Hölzel, N. (2013). A methodological local peoples with the goal of promoting CSD social- approach for assessing the effects of disturbance factors ecological stewardship (Mathevet et al., 2018). on the conservation status of Mediterranean coastal dune Encouragement of appropriate plantation pro- systems. Applied Vegetation Science, 16(2), 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12002 grammes appears to be the most long-term manage- Aucelli, P. P., Di Paola, G., Rizzo, A., & Rosskopf, C. M. ment option for ensuring the conservation of the (2018). Present day and future scenarios of coastal ero- vulnerable coastal sand dune habitats of the study sion and flooding processes along the Italian Adriatic area. coast: The case of Molise region. Environmental Earth Sciences, 77(10), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665- 018-7535-y Barragán, J. M., & De Andrés, M. (2015). Analysis and Disclosure statement trends of the world’s coastal cities and agglomerations. No potential conflict of interest was reported by the Ocean & Coastal Management, 114(12), 11–20. https:// author(s). doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.06.004 Brown, J. K., & Zinnert, J. C. (2018). Mechanisms of surviv- ing burial: Dune grass interspecific differences drive resource allocation after sand deposition. Ecosphere, 9 Funding (3), e02162. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2162 Buffa, G., Fantinato, E., & Pizzo, L. (2012). 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An evaluation of coastal sand dune flora of Cuddalore District, Tamil Nadu, India: perspectives for conservation and management

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GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES INWASCON https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2022.2130555 RESEARCH ARTICLE An evaluation of coastal sand dune flora of Cuddalore District, Tamil Nadu, India: perspectives for conservation and management a a a,b a a,c M. Anbarashan , N. Balachandran , R. Mathevet , N. Barathan and P. Uma Maheswari a b Department of Ecology, French Institute of Pondicherry (IFP) - UMIFRE 21 CNRS-MAEE/USR 3330 - 11, Pondicherry, India; Department of Ecology, CEFE, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE-PSL University, IRD, Montpellier, France; Department of Botany, Kanchi Mamuniver Government Institute for Postgraduate Studies and Research, Pondicherry, India ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 26 April 2022 Most of the sand dunes close to the Cuddalore coast of India have been destroyed due to Accepted 26 September 2022 human pressure. The remaining coastal sand dune (CSD) is under extreme threat due to unplanned development. The purpose of this study is to investigate the species diversity, KEYWORDS plant communities in different morphological types, spatial-temporal changes in the distribu- Conservation; coastal sand tion of sand dunes, and the state of their conservation. In the coastal dunes of Cuddalore, dunes; plant diversity; 25 perpendicular transects parallel to the coast were sampled. Following analysis, 105 vascular Spatial-temporal changes; plants from 39 plant families and 85 genera were identified as part of the CSD flora. The least zonal distribution disturbed sites harbored more species than the heavily disturbed sites. Members of the Poaceae and Fabaceae families dominated the flora, and 68% of the species in the dunes were herbaceous. The sand dune cover is significantly reduced and fragmented in various parts of the study area, and negative changes have been observed at a rate of more than 100 ha per year between 2003 and 2020. A CSD conservation policy that ensures species succession in the form of a three-layered zone is proposed as a long-term sustainable option for preserving Cuddalore coastal flora biodiversity. Introduction factors such as soil fertility, marine aerosol, sandblast- ing, and sand burial (Oosting & Billings, 1942). Sand, Coastal ecosystems are made up of a mosaic of highly wind biocrust, rainfall, flora dune covers and human diverse plant communities that play an important role activities will lead to formation of mobile (active), in ecological and economic balance (Sutton-Grier & semi-active, or fixed (stable) dunes (Kinast et al., Sandifer, 2019). Coastal sand dunes (CSD) are com- 2013). Biocrust and native vegetation play plex and dynamic ecosystems. They are zones of tran- a significant role in mobility and dune stability sition between terrestrial and marine biomes. The size, (Yizhaq & Ashkenazy, 2022). Hanoch et al., 2018, range, and sand stabilization vary depending on the further classified coastal dune based upon their rate distance from the sea, topography, and disturbance, of wind regime, sand deposition, and vegetation as, and it supports a variety of habitats (Van der Maarel & transverse dunes, barchans, linear dunes, parabolic van der Meulen, 2004). Worldwide zonation is very dunes, and star dunes. These coastal ecosystems are stable, with a consistent sequence of biotic gradients considered extremely threatened on a global scale (Attorre et al., 2013; Doing, 1985). Flora and fauna (Kutiel et al., 2000), and they suffer from heavy biodi- communities in sand dunes have very specific ecolo- versity loss and habitat simplification (Dolan & gical requirements, which determine their position Walker, 2006), owing primarily to a steady increase along the environmental gradient from the seashore in anthropogenic pressures such as urbanization, tour- region (Carboni et al., 2010). Beaches and mobile ism, shoreline erosion, climate change, and biological dunes are considered azonal vegetation (Doing, invasion over the last decades (Acosta et al., 2009; 1985), whereas stable dunes inland are occupied by Anderson et al., 2015; Brown & Zinnert, 2018; plant communities that are adapted to their local con- Carboni et al., 2010; Curr et al., 2000; Feagin et al., ditions (Buffa et al., 2012; Šilc et al., 2017). 2005; O’shea & Kirkpatrick, 2000; Prisco et al., 2020; CSD are formed primarily as a result of the inter- Reidsma et al., 2006). Aside from acting as natural action of tides, waves, and sand particle size, and they barriers against various coastal calamities such as tsu- serve as a natural barrier against waves and windy namis and cyclones, coastal sand dunes play an impor- storms (McLachlan & Defeo, 2001; Šilc et al., 2017). tant role in preventing saltwater intrusion into fresh This region’s biota is subjected to a number of limiting aquifers by preserving the aquifer in coastal areas and CONTACT M. Anbarashan anbarashan.m@ifpindia.org French Institute of Pondicherry (IFP) - UMIFRE 21 CNRS-MAEE/USR 3330 – 11, St. Louis street, P.B. 33, Pondicherry 605001, India © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group on behalf of the International Water, Air & Soil Conservation Society(INWASCON). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 2 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. coastal agriculture by preventing salt-laden winds human activity is changing the original species com- gusting from the sea (Namboothri et al., 2008). position, diversity, and distribution. As a result, in Highly adapted flora and fauna groups, such as order to provide useful insights for the management Spinifex littoreus, withstand harsh conditions and aid of the fragile coastal ecosystem, we conducted an in the formation, stabilization, and post-storm recov- analysis with the goals of (1) quantifying the species ery process. Climate change, sea-level rise, natural richness, abundance, and diversity of the plant com- erosion, grazing, fire, and land transformation all munity in relation to disturbance, (2) assessing the have an impact on CSD (Aucelli et al., 2018; conservation status of the different morphological Davenport & Davenport, 2006; Feagin et al., 2005; dune types based on diversity, and (3) understanding Hernández-Cordero et al., 2017; Malavasi et al., 2016; the spatial-temporal change in sand dune distribution Prisco et al., 2021). between 2003 and 2022. Coastal sand dunes are a fragile unique ecosystem that was constantly under pressure caused due to both Study area natural and man-made calamities. Especially popula- tion growth, urbanization and sea-and-sand tourism Cuddalore is one of the fastest-growing industrial belts leads to increased alteration in the coastal areas, nearly in Tamil Nadu’s southern state. This area is specifically 11% of global urbanization occurs in low elevation at located on the Coromandel coast between 11°44ʹ39” 10 m above sea level and at present it supports about N and 79°47ʹ00” E, south of the Puducherry Union 400 million occupants worldwide (IPBES, 2019; Territory (Figure 1). Cuddalore is bounded on the east Salgado et al., 2022). Average rate of urban expansion by the Bay of Bengal and on the south by is comparatively higher in coastal regions than in Chidambaram. Cuddalore is a coastal town islands, making coastal areas to be densely populated 10 m above sea level (Singh et al., 2021). The annual (Barragán & De Andrés, 2015; Seto et al., 2011). mean temperature is 27.8°C. The average annual rain- Coastal dunes are further destroyed due to extreme fall in the district is 1206.7 mm, with summers trampling, intrusion of off-road vehicles, restructura- (81.7 mm) receiving more rain than winters tion of dune, flora elimination, and sand extraction (44.1 mm). The region receives 697.8 mm of rainfall (Hesp et al., 2010). All these factors lead to loss of from the North-East monsoon and 383.1 mm of rain- native dune flora, while leads to the instruction and fall from the South-West monsoon. The average wind expansion of invasive species, which affects dune speed over the last year was 4 km/h. structure and alters its flora and fauna composition Cuddalore, with a coastline of 57.5 km, has been (Tordoni et al., 2019). Over a period of time coastline, designated as a multi-hazard prone district due to the urbanization and land changes increased as a result effects of cyclonic depressions, heavy rains resulting in species richness decreased along with the alternation floods, and the severe damage caused by the 2004 of functional traits in plants. The native psammo- Tsunami (Muthusankar et al., 2018). The coastal vil- phytes and halophytes dune species were found to be lages such as Pudukuppam (11°31ʹ11.8” N and 79° decreased with increased urbanization rate, whereas 45ʹ50.7” E), TS Pettai (11°24ʹ35.0” N and 79°48ʹ04.8” alien and non-dune species increased in their abun- E), Samiyaarpettai (11°32ʹ37.1” N and 79°45,31.0” E), dance (Salgado et al., 2022). Kayalpattu (11°34ʹ51.2” N and 79°45ʹ25.2” E) and The Government of India designated coastal Rasapettai (11°39ʹ27.7” N and 79°45ʹ58.0” E) were stretches influenced by tidal action as Coastal among the study sites chosen for the dune diversity Regulation Zones in 1991 (CRZ). Among the four assessment and disturbance impacts on vegetation. categories, CRZ I includes ecologically sensitive areas Parangipettai, also known as Porto Novo, is a coastal such as sand dunes, mangroves, and genetically town in the district’s south that is densely populated diverse areas. India has a coastline of approximately and serves as a major industrial hub. The establish- 7516.6 km, which is shared by nine states and two ment of the IL&FS Thermal Power Plant in union territories. The coastal line of Tamil Nadu is Pudukuppam, as well as the upcoming chain of approximately 1076 kilometers long, accounting for large- and small-scale industries, has encouraged approximately 15% of India’s total coastal length unsustainable coastal development projects, which (Arulmoorthy & Srinivasan, 2013). Indian CSDs have pose a significant threat to the coastal ecosystem in been extensively researched and documented in terms a variety of areas. of their geological, physical, biological, and restoration characteristics. Despite the fact that coastal sand dune ecosystems are ecologically sensitive, their biotic com- Materials and methods position is unknown. Local coastal human commu- Floristic sampling nities are heavily reliant on sand dune vegetation for a variety of reasons, including food, health, fodder, A comprehensive survey of plant species was initially manure, and recreation. We assumed that increased conducted along India’s Cuddalore coastline in order GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 3 Figure 1. The geographical location of the study area. to perform a representative sampling of different mor- recorded for each transect: overgrazing, industrial phological dune habitats with varying levels of human scrap dumping, urbanization (settlements, road con- disturbance. As a result, 25 perpendicular transects to struction, and industries), recreation, and the presence the seashore were established in the study area (5 in of invasive species. Based on field observations, the each site) to investigate dune zonation, beginning with degree of such human-induced disturbances was the annual vegetation of incipient dunes and progres- graded for each transect on an ordinal scale ranging sing to the mixed vegetation of hind dunes. The length from absent (0) to low (1), moderate (2), high (3), and of each transect varied according to the morphology severe (4). Furthermore, the distance from the sea and and width of the dunes. The percent cover of each the total length of each transect (in metres) were vascular plant present was visually estimated, and fre- examined as natural features. quency was calculated by counting the number of each species that occurred in the studied plots within dif- ferent morphological dune types in contiguous 1 m × Analysis of sand dune distribution changes 1 m plots. This size was deemed adequate for the herbaceous vegetation studied in this study, primarily We used the spatial-temporal analysis of moving poly- to avoid overlapping samples from different plant gons (STAMP) framework to understand the spatial- communities. temporal change in sand dune distribution between The following five disturbance factors affecting the 2003 and 2020 (Robertson et al., 2007). At four levels conservation status of plant communities were of increasing complexity, this framework reports 4 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. spatial-temporal change events among polygons. Vegetation classification The second level of this framework was used, which Based on the coverage of 105 plant species recorded in categorizes changes in sand dune distribution between the current study sites, it was possible to identify three 2003 and 2020 as disappearance, contraction, stable, vegetation groups associated with the different mor- expansion, and dunes generation. Stable areas are phological dune types: beach berm/Incipient dune, those that did not change, while lost areas are classified Fore dune, and Hind dune, each with a specific plant as contraction or disappearance based on their con- cluster (Figure 4). nectivity or lack thereof with stable areas. Incipient Dune Data analysis This group was characterised by Canavalia cathartica, Cyperus arenaruis, C. pygmaeus, Ipomoea pes-capre, Following Magurran, the diversity indices Shannon Dactyloptenium aegypticum, Fimbristylis cymosa, (H), Simpson (D), and Evenness were calculated Murdannia spirata, Spinifex littoralis which are her- (Magurran, 2004). Using Microsoft Excel 2019, the baceous perennial plant and Casuarina equisetifolia, data were also analyzed using One-way ANOVA and Cocos nucifera are found on the Beach berm/Incipient the t-test to see if the population in each site was dune. Species such as Ipomoea pes-capre, Cyperus are- significantly different. Biodiversity Pro, version 2, naruis and Spinifex littoralis occurred on seaward slop was used for the Bray-Curtis analysis. of Incipient dune. Fore Dune Results This group was characterised by Borassus flabellifer, Floristic composition in the study area Casuarina equisetifolia, Cocos nucifera, Brachiaria dis- tachya, Euphorbia rosea, Cyperus arenarius, Ipomoea In the current study area, 105 vascular plant species pes-capre, Pedalium murex, Spinifex littoralis and from 85 genera and 39 plant families were identified Spermacoce articularis found in semi-stable dune (Table 1). The most common families were Poaceae, which was located 60 m inland from the shoreline Fabaceae, Cyperaceae, and Rubiaceae (14, 13, 10, and 6 and the further landward zone. These species were taxa, respectively; Figure 2). Only one species repre- the indicator species that separate incipient dune sented each of the 15 families. Herbaceous species from foredune. made up the majority of the vegetation (68%) followed by climbers and creepers (14%), and trees and shrubs (18%) (Figure 3). Five invasive alien species Hind Dune (Anacardium occidentale, Cocos nucifera, Croton bon- Indicator species of this group were Calophyllum ino- plandianus, Dactyloptenium aegypticum, and Prosopis phyllum, Garcinia spicata, Fluggea leucopyrus, Phoenix juliflora ) were found in the studied CSD, while only pusilla, Gmelina asiatica, Gloriosa superba and two endemic species (Blumea eriantha and Cleome Pedalium murex. More protected areas behind dense felina) were found. In terms of life duration, 61 species Syzygium cumini and Calophyllum inophyllum are (52%) were annuals, while 44 species (42% were per- characterized by various species such as Asparagus ennials). The number of species in terms of diversity racemosus and Azadirachta indica with the admixture and abundance increased with increasing distance of the inland plants including Capparis zeylanica, from the shoreline. Coccinea grandis, Rivea hypocrateriformis etc. The spaces between hind dune were covered with grasses and herbaceous plants. Notably, species such as Diversity analysis Spinifex littoralis, Cyperus arenarius, Euphorbia rosea, Desmodium triflorum, Oldenlandia corymbosa, The species diversity was highest in the moderately and Ipomoea pes-capre are very well presented on disturbed site, which had the most species (21), fol- three dune types. lowed by the less disturbed sites. Shannon’s index for the primary dunes is higher in the highly disturbed site than in the slightly disturbed site, which was already Spatial-temporal changes in sand dune higher than in the moderately disturbed site (Table 2). distribution (2003-2020) Even Simpson’s index exhibits a similar pattern. Evenness (J) is equal to 0.89 in moderately disturbed Within the nearshore area, the dune land cover consists and highly disturbed sites, and 0.87 in slightly dis- of sandy beaches, incipient dunes, fore dunes, hind turbed sites. Among the primary dune sites, it is dunes, and associated landforms. The characteristics of clear from the results that they are significantly differ - this class have changed rapidly over time as a result of ent since the P values obtained for all the t-test and the marine and coastal processes, as well as other anthropo- ANOVA were less than 0.5. genic activities such as plantations. This class’s total area GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 5 Table 1. The list of sand dune flora under different zones from Cuddalore coast. Beach berm/Incipient Dune Fore Dune Hind Dune Species Family Habit Native/Exotic Annuals/Perennials 0–20 m 21–60 m 61–120 m Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae Climber N P * Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Herb N A * Aeschynomene aspera L. Fabaceae Herb N A * Almania nodiflora (L.) Amaranthaceae Herb N A * * R. Br. ex Wight. Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) Fabaceae Herb N A * * * DC. Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae Tree E P * L. Asparagus racemosus Asparagaceae Climber N P * Willd. Axonocarpus compressus Poaceae Herb N A * (Sw.) P.Beauv. Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Tree N P * * A. Juss. Blumea eriantha DC. Asteraceae Herb N A * Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae Herb N P * * Borassus flabellifer L. Arecaceae Tree N P * * Brachiaria distachya (L.) Poaceae Herb N A * * Stapf Brachiaria reptans (L.) C. Poaceae Herb N A * A.Gardner & C.E. Hubb. Bulbostylis barbata Cyperaceae Herb N A * * (Rottb.) C.B.Clarke Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Fabaceae Climber N P * Roxb. Calophyllum inophyllum Calophyllaceae Tree N P * L. Calotropes gigantea (L.) Apocynaceae Shrub N P * R.Br. Canavalia rosea (Sw.) Fabaceae Climber N P * * DC. Capparis zeylanica L. Capparaceae Climber N P * Casuarina equisetifolia L. Casuarinaceae Tree N P * * Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Cucurbitaceae Climber N A * Schrad. Cleome felina L.f. Cleomaceae Herb N A * Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae Herb N A * Coccinea grandis (L.) Cucurbitaceae Climber N P * Voigt Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae Tree E P * Crotalaria pallida pallida Fabaceae Herb N A * Croton bonplandianus Euphorbiaceae Herb E A * Baill. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Poaceae Herb N P * pers. Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D. Commelinaceae Herb N A * Don ex Sweet Cyperus arenarius Retz. Cyperaceae Herb N A * * * Cyperus castaneus Willd. Cyperaceae Herb N A * Cyperus compressus L. Cyperaceae Herb N A * Cyperus pygmaeus Cyperaceae Herb N A * Rottb. Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae Herb N A * Cyperus stoloniferus Cyperaceae Herb N A * Retz. Dactyloptenium Poaceae Herb E A * * * aegypticum (L.) Willd. Desmodium Fabaceae Herb N P * biarticulatum (L.)F. Muell. Desmodium triflorum (L.) Fabaceae Herb N P * * * DC. Dolichos trilobus L. Fabaceae Climber N P * Eleocharis atropurpurea Cyperaceae Herb N A * (Retz.) J.Presl & C. Presl Eragrostis plumosa Poaceae Herb N A * (Retz.) Link. Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) Poaceae Herb N A * P Beauv. Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Poaceae Herb N A * * * Trin. Euphorbia rosea Retz. Euphorbiaceae Herb N A * * * Ficus amplissima Sm. Moraceae Tree N P * (Continued) 6 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. Table 1. (Continued). Beach berm/Incipient Dune Fore Dune Hind Dune Species Family Habit Native/Exotic Annuals/Perennials 0–20 m 21–60 m 61–120 m Fimbristylis cymosa R.Br. Cyperaceae Herb N A * * Fimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Cyperaceae Herb N P * Kunth Fluggea leucopyrus Phyllanthaceae Shrub N P * Willd. Garcinia spicata (Wight Clusiaceae Tree N P * & Arn.) Hook.f. Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae Herb N P * Gisekia pharnaceoides L. Molluginaceae Herb N A * * Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Molluginaceae Herb N A * Aug. DC. Gloriosa superba L. Colchicaceae Climber N A * Gmelina asiatica L. Lamiaceae Shrub N P * Gomphrena celosioides Amaranthaceae Herb N A * Mart. Hedyotis graminifolia L.f. Rubiaceae Herb N P * * Hedyotis herbacea L. Rubiaceae Herb N A * Hibiscus ovalifolius Malvaceae Shrub N A * (Forssk.) Vahl. Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) Convolvulaceae Herb N P * * * R.Br. Ipomoea pes-trigridis L. Convolvulaceae Herb N A * Lannea coromandelica Anacardiaceae Tree N P * (Houtt.) Merr. Launaea sarmentosa Asteraceae Herb N A * * * (Willd.) Limnophila indica (L.) Scrophulariaceae Herb N A * Druce Lindernia crustacea (L.) Linderniaceae Herb N A * F.Muell Ludwigia perennis L. Onagraceae Herb N A * Mollugo disticha (L.) Ser. Molluginaceae Herb N A * Mollugo nudicaulis Lam. Molluginaceae Herb N A * Mollugo oppositifolia L. Molluginaceae Herb N A * Murdannia spirata (L.) G. Commelinaceae Herb N A * * Brückn Oldenlandia corymbosa Rubiaceae Herb N A * * * L. Oldenlandia umbellata L. Rubiaceae Herb N A * * * Panicum repens L. Poaceae Herb N A * Panicum sp Poaceae Herb N A * Paspalidium Poaceae Herb N P * scrobiculatum L. Pedalium murex Linn. Pedaliaceae Herb N A * * Perotis indica (L.) Kuntze Poaceae Herb N A * * Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. Arecaceae Shrub N P * Phyla nodiflora (L.) Verbenaceae Herb N A * Greene. Phyllanthus amarus Phyllanthaceae Herb N A * * Schum. & Thonn. Phyllanthus virgatus G. Phyllanthaceae Herb N A * Forst. Phyllanthus reticulatus Phyllanthaceae Shrub N P * Poir. Polycarpaea corymbosa Caryophyllaceae Herb N A * (L.) Lam. Polygala arvensis Willd. Polygalaceae Herb N A * Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. Portulacaceae Herb N A * Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) Fabaceae Tree E P * DC. Rivea hypocrateriformis Convolvulaceae Climber N P * (Desr.) Choisy Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae Herb N P * * Senna occidentalis (L.) Fabaceae Tree N A Link. Sida cordiflolia L. Malvaceae Herb N A * * Spermacoce articularis L. Rubiaceae Herb N P * * * f. Spermacoce hispida L. Rubiaceae Herb N P * * * Spinifex littoralis (Burm. Poaceae Herb N P * * * f.) Merr. Syzygium cumini (L.) Myrtaceae Tree N P * Skeels Tephrosia villosa (L.) Fabaceae Herb N A * Pers. (Continued) GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 7 Table 1. (Continued). Beach berm/Incipient Dune Fore Dune Hind Dune Species Family Habit Native/Exotic Annuals/Perennials 0–20 m 21–60 m 61–120 m Thespesia populnea (L.) Malvaceae Tree N P * Sol. Ex Correa. Tiliacora acuminata Menispermaceae Climber N P * (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thoms. Tinospora cordifolia Menispermaceae Climber N P * (Willd.) Hook. f. Trachys muricata (L.) Poaceae Herb N A * * Pers. ex Trin. Tylophora indica (Burm. Apocynaceae Climber N P * f.) merr. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Asteraceae Herb N A * * Less. Waltheria indica L. Malvaceae Herb N P * Wattakaka volubilis (Lf) Apocynaceae Climber N P * Stapf. Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Rhamnaceae Climber N P * Miller Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers. Fabaceae Herb N A * N-native; E-Exotic; A-Annual; P-Perennial; *-Presence. is estimated to be 210 ha in 2003 and 92 ha in 2020. The Disturbed dunes exhibit greater diversity as anthro- sand dune cover is significantly reduced and fragmented pogenic activities such as cultivation, industrial estab- in various parts of the study area, and negative changes at lishment, and recreational pressure increase, which a rate of more than 100 ha have been observed between may aid in the direct or indirect introduction of new 2003 and 2020 (Figure 5). The sand dune formed a single species and associated species, as well as non-native or large patch in 2003, but by 2020, it had fragmented into exotic species. Similarly, extensive grazing observed in 21 small patches. The majority of the berm/incipient the Pudukuppam site may be a cause of non-native dune and foredune was converted to plantations, includ- species propagation via seed dispersal by cattle. Plants ing Casuarina and the aromatic grass Vettiver. such as Ipomea pes-caprae and Spinifex littoreus were found on the primary dunes, and most importantly, clear zones of these two species were found in the Discussion moderately disturbed Kayalpattu site. Ipomea pes- caprae also allowed other species to grow in the site. Species diversity and disturbance This suggests that these species occur on dunes that During the survey, 105 species from 85 genera and 39 are stabilized or moderately disturbed. In the same plant families were recorded in the study area. Nearly Kayalpattu region, the Ipomea pes-caprae zone was 70% of the Indian Coromandel coastal sand dune followed by the continuous growth of Canavalia plants recorded so far (154) were found in the study rosea. The typical psammophytes are gradually being area. The Coromandel coastal sand dunes are made up replaced by invasive plants such as Prosopis juliflora , of 154 species from 108 genera and 41 families (Arun which are also a result of increased human activity and et al., 1999; Muthukumar & Samuel, 2011: Rao & conservation strategies that have failed. P. juliflora is Sherieff, 2002). The Poaceae family was found to be a fast-growing invasive species that can withstand the dominant flora in our study. Several studies have harsh conditions and produces roots faster than found that temperate coastal sand dunes are domi- shoots (Gupta & Balara, 1972). They are also known nated by Poaceae members, whereas the dominant for producing a large number of pods that are con- plant families in the Indian and other tropics are sumed and dispersed by cattle, assisting in the species’ Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae rapid propagation (Muthana & Arora, 1983). (Arun et al., 1999; Rao & Sherieff, 2002; Sridhar & Furthermore, Arulmoorthy and Srinivasan (2013) Bhagya, 2007; Arun & Sridhar, 2004; Rodrigues et al., reported that the Pudupettai dunes in Cuddalore are 2011). Though the current findings are significant, harmed by the construction of a thermal power plant, they do not match those of a similar study conducted and the vegetation of the Annankoil dunes is also by Poyyamoli et al. (2011). The species diversity was harmed by the harbor construction. highest in the moderately disturbed site, according to The presence of specialized plants such as Ipomoea these authors, whereas our study found higher diver- pes-caprae and Spinifex littoreus, which are capable of sity and density in the highly disturbed sites of all dune maintaining dune stability but can also colonize patches types. of sandy bare area and grow quickly down an eroded 8 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. Genera Species Families Figure 2. Contribution of plant species from families of the coastal sand dune. Herbs Climbers & Trees Shrubs creepers Habit Figure 3. Percentage of coastal sand dune species representing different habit types. Table 2. Diversity indices values of the study sites. Unsustainable activities and their adverse effects Sl. SHANON’S SIMPSON’S Evenness No. SITE INDEX (H) INDEX (D) Hmax J = H/Hmax Based on field observations and interactions with 1 IL&FS* 2.52 0.89 3.05 0.82 2 Samiyar pettai** 2.37 0.88 2.77 0.85 locals and experts, it is clear that the currently opera- 3 TS Pettai*** 2.14 0.85 2.56 0.83 tional IL&FS thermal power plant and the remnants of 4 Ashley’s Broken 2.28 0.88 2.56 0.89 NOCL (Nagarjuna Oil Corporation Limited) projects Bridge* 5 Kayalpattu** 1.96 0.84 2.19 0.89 have harmed the locals and the environment, as well as 6 Rasapettai*** 2.17 0.87 2.48 0.87 impacted the study area’s land use pattern. Due to *Highly disturbed **Moderately disturbed ***Slightly disturbed opposition from the local population, IL&FS, a coal- based power plant, had previously caused respiratory, visibility, and other issues due to the dispersion of fly ash, which was later reduced by installing fly ash face to help build and restore the dune profile, is critical capture screens within the industrial premises. to the formation, stabilization, and post-storm recovery Similarly, the NOCL project, which is currently on process (Muthukumar & Samuel, 2011). Plantations of hold, has had a significant impact on the landscape species such as Casuarina equisetifolia are well adapted due to the dumping of construction debris on the to the coastal region and protect dune sites from erosion coastal dunes near the industrial site. The industrial and natural disasters along the shoreline; however, it is projects also include the construction of a port and the important to note that the growing need for cultivation construction of bridges and structures near the sea in has negative effects on native populations and sup- order to transport raw materials to the industries via presses local species by lowering the water table conveyer belts. With the exception of these, the devel- (Anbarashan et al., 2017, 2020; Namboothri et al., opment of industries prior to IL&FS, such as SIPCOT 2008). Coastal communities most often encourage the in Cuddalore, has been a major reason for road con- presence of commercially important non-native species, struction, resulting in increased access to coastal dune resulting in the extinction of native species. No. of genera & species (n) Composition (%) Others Poaceae Fabaceae Cyperaceae Rubiaceae Molluginaceae Malvaceae Phyllanthaceae Asteraceae Arecaceae Apocynaceae Amaranthaceae Convolvulaceae Commelinaceae Euphorbiaceae Lamiaceae GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 9 Figure 4. Plant species contributing to the similarity in Bray-Curtis clusters. systems and encouraging additional farming practices, Casuarina equisetifolia, Anacardium occidentale, commercial cultivation of Casuarina, recreational, and Azadirachta indica, and Vettiver monoculture have tourist spots that are not environmentally friendly. It been carried out extensively (Pers. Obs. And Singh is frequently observed that increased grazing and prac- et al., 2021). Casuarina plantations are said to be one tices to obtain food, timber, and fuel are occurring as of the factors affecting dune diversity and negatively a result of the access provided by coastal roads. In the impacting native dune species, as well as lowering the region, intensive plantation activities such as water table. 10 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. Figure 5. Changes of sand dune distribution between 2003 to 2020: (a) sand dune distribution in 2003 (b) in 2020 and (c) changes between 2003–2020. Conservation and management perspectives incipient dune receives the most salt spray due to its proximity to the sea. Zone 2 (Foredune) would be In the current situation, transects across the dune a mid-coast zone of herbs and medium-rooted shrubs. coast of Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu, show a mixed dis- Fimbristylis cymosa, F. falcata, Launnaea sarmentosa, position of floral species. Although herbs cover most Ludwigia perennis, Perotis indica, and Tephrosia vil- of the dunes, tall hinterland trees such as C. nucifera, losa are some of the species that could be used. Species Casuarina equisetifolia, Anacardium occidentale, and from zone 1 could also be used in conjunction with the aromatic herb Vettiver can be found along the zone 2 to achieve natural succession of vegetation. The frontal dune. The primary cause could be attributed use of C. equisetifolia and vetiver would not be recom- to a lack of planning and management initiatives, but mended in the foredune and mid-shore areas as they it could also be attributed to haphazard plantation are known to pose a threat to marine fauna such as programmes. Inappropriate plant species selection in marine turtles and may hinder the natural succession different zones of the beach/dune, combined with pattern of CSD vegetation. Deep-rooted dune species poor planning, results in potentially high environmen- of taller shrubs, climbers, and trees such as Calotropis tal stress on the fragile coastal ecosystem (Martinez gigantea, Coccinea grandis, Anacardium occidentale, et al., 2006; Rodrigues et al., 2011). Such unscientific Ziziphus oenoplia, Casuarina equisetifloia , and Cocos plantation methods cannot ensure the health of coastal nucifera could represent Zone 3 (Hind dune). Some of dune vegetation. the plants, such as A. occidentale and Cocus nucifera Following that, a succession of sand dune species species proposed in the hind dune are not native to landward from the dune is proposed, which could be India and were introduced and naturalized in the area expected to form a functional buffer zone: incipient centuries ago. While these tree species provide socio- dune (zone 1: Figure 6) would consist of pioneer shallow-rooted herbs such as Bulbostylis barbata, economic benefits to local communities, their impact Cyperus arenarius, and Spinifex littoreus on the frontal on native flora is minimal. For this purpose, several zones. Ipomoea pes-caprae and I. Pes-trigrids would kilometers of coastal sand dunes in India were flat - also be ideal in the zone and species because they can tened to make way for these plantations, which ulti- withstand burial by sand and salt stress, as the mately destroyed sea turtle nesting habitat and GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 11 reduced the natural effectiveness of coastal dune topo- growth and infrastructure expansion, local develop- graphy, which provides protection from storms. ment and conservation policies have failed to address the well-being of our coastal ecosystems. We rely heavily on the services provided by sand dunes, and Conclusion we are constantly exploiting the resources without regard for conservation or their own dynamics. The Given the current findings, there are several impor- CSD and beaches are under increasing strain, and tant considerations for managing fragile coastal dune unsustainable coastal development projects are systems in the areas studied. First, coastal plantations destroying these ecosystems. Coastal dune vegeta- such as Casuarina and Vettiver in the foredune are tion, on the other hand, plays an important role in the most significant source of disturbance, altering encouraging floral and faunal diversity in the areas. the typical spatial pattern of dune plant communities. Native dune species aid in dune formation and ero- Because erosion processes shifted the down drift of sion prevention. The assessment of vegetation in harbours and other engineering structures in recent disturbed areas revealed that disturbed sites are years, the construction of protective structures (such more vulnerable to activities such as trampling, graz- as groyens, seawalls, and jetties) along the coastal ing, cultivation, and invasion. The evaluation of traits affected by erosion has been a solution only coastal dune sites along the Cuddalore stretch aids for urgent local problems. These phenomena have us in understanding the alteration of shorelines resulted in the degradation of several coastal caused by increased human activity, which increases stretches, necessitating ongoing management actions. the likelihood of coastal hazards. The anthropogenic It is possible to conclude that, as a result of economic Figure 6. A schematic diagram representing coastal sand dune flora: (a) Present scenario depicting a mixed species disposition of vegetation (b) Species proposed as structured biozone so as to enhance conservation efforts. 12 M. ANBARASHAN ET AL. disturbances investigated in this paper contribute to Current Science, 77(1), 19–21. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/24102908 the loss of uniqueness of these sites. To summarise, Arun, A. B., & Sridhar, K. R. (2004). Symbiotic performance the response to effective management of ecologically of fast-growing rhizobia isolated from the coastal sand sensitive coastal ecosystems should be the develop- dune legumes of west coast of India. Biology and Fertility ment of a new coastal vegetation conservation policy, of Soils, 40(6), 435–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374- 004-0800-0 the implementation of existing ones, continuous Attorre, F., Maggini, A., Di Traglia, M., De Sanctis, M., monitoring, and the creation of awareness among Vitale, M., & Hölzel, N. (2013). A methodological local peoples with the goal of promoting CSD social- approach for assessing the effects of disturbance factors ecological stewardship (Mathevet et al., 2018). on the conservation status of Mediterranean coastal dune Encouragement of appropriate plantation pro- systems. Applied Vegetation Science, 16(2), 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12002 grammes appears to be the most long-term manage- Aucelli, P. 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Journal

Geology Ecology and Landscapes – Taylor & Francis

Published: Oct 8, 2022

Keywords: Conservation; coastal sand dunes; plant diversity; Spatial-temporal changes; zonal distribution

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