Assessment of the impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricultural wastes on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs, south-eastern Nigeria

Obialo Solomon Onwuka; Chimankpam Kenneth Ezugwu; Stanley Ikenna Ifediegwu

doi:10.1080/24749508.2018.1493635

Assessment of the impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricultural wastes on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs, south-eastern Nigeria

Onwuka, Obialo Solomon; Ezugwu, Chimankpam Kenneth; Ifediegwu, Stanley Ikenna 2019-01-02 00:00:00 GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 2019, VOL. 3, NO. 1, 65–81 INWASCON https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2018.1493635 Assessment of the impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricultural wastes on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs, south-eastern Nigeria Obialo Solomon Onwuka, Chimankpam Kenneth Ezugwu and Stanley Ikenna Ifediegwu Department of Geology, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 9 April 2018 Physicochemical, multivariate, and bacteriological analyses were integrated to assess the Accepted 24 June 2018 impact of onsite sanitary sewage and agricultural waste on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs. Results of the physicochemical analysis suggest that groundwater samples in KEYWORDS the study area are acidic, with very few samples having electrical conductivity and total Bacteriological examination; dissolved solids above WHO standard for drinking water. The abundance of the major ions are geogenic processes; 2+ 2+ + + − 2- − − 2- in the following order: Ca ˃Mg ˃K ˃Na ˃ Cl =PO ˃NO ˃HCO ˃SO . Fifty-ﬁve groundwater ﬂow direction; 4 3 3 4 2+ − + + percent of the stiﬀ plot shows Ca – Cl water type and 45% of the stiﬀ shows Na +K – Ikem town; sewage system − 2+ 2+ − 2- Cl water type. The dominant hydrochemical facies in the study area are Ca –Mg –Cl SO + + 2- − (83%) and Na +K and SO +Cl (17%). Durov and Piper diagrams illustrated that simple mineral dissolution and ion exchange processes are mainly responsible for variation in the hydrogeochemistry. Bacteriological analysis shows that the groundwater is contaminated with faecal waste. The principal component analysis, correlation, and cluster analysis reﬂect Faecal matter contamination through onsite sanitary sewage system, leaching of agricultural waste into the groundwater and weathering and dissolution of host rocks. Groundwater ﬂow direction is local and controlled by topographic highs, weathering and fracturing of the host rock in the study area. Introduction identify factors controlling groundwater quality in Emene, Enugu State. Ayantobo, Oluwasanya, Idowu, Groundwater in urban and semi-urban areas is and Eruola (2012) assessed the quality of hand-dug increasingly contaminated, essentially due to increase wells and noted nitrate, fecal coliform, and total coli- in domestic waste and agricultural activities form at objectionable levels and that they were pro- (Kehinde, 1998; Adelana et al. 2003; Adelana, Bale., nounced in wells located close to the sewage systems. & Wu, 2004; Adelana, Bale, Olasehinde, & Wu, 2005; Omotoyinbo (2007) stated that the pollution of Ajala, 2005; Ocheri, 2006; Adelana, Abiye, Nkhuwa., organic and inorganic waste in Ado-Ekiti is attributed Tindinugaya, & Oga, 2008). Many studies have been to the location of wells in terms of distance to onsite conducted on groundwater quality with focus on the sewage system and proximity to agricultural waste. eﬀect of onsite sanitary sewage and agricultural Dapo (1990) stated that developing countries do not wastes on groundwater quality. Ocheri and Odoma have adequate sanitation system. Donlagic, Odobasic, (2013) established correlation between coliform and and Bratovic (2007) stated that uncontrolled uses of nitrates, total dissolved solids (TDS) and calcium, fertilizer and pesticides are responsible for contam- calcium, lead, and geology, to ascertain groundwater ination of shallow groundwater; they also highlighted quality in hand-dug wells with close proximity to a that animal wastes harbor pathogenic organisms sewage and agricultural waste contamination. Ishaku which contaminate groundwater. Uma (2003) high- and Ezeigbo (2010) analyzed the quality of ground- lighted that shallow water table and moderate perme- water in Jimeta - Yola and found that the concentra- ability of the lateritic host rock have rendered the tion of chloride, nitrate, and TDS and coliforms perched aquifer around Enugu metropolis, vulnerable exceeds WHO allowable limits for drinking water to sewage buried in septic tanks and soakaway sys- and is more abundant in the rainy season. Onwuka, tems. Concerns over the quality of water harnessed Uma, and Ezeigbo (2004) assessed the potability of especially from hand-dug wells have received wide shallow groundwater using parameters of waste deri- attention among the following researchers: Echinola vable chemical components such as nitrate, chloride, and Cooker (2002), Nnodo and Illo (2002), sulfate, and indicator micro-organism of fecal coli- Ogunbadewa (2002), Omofonmwam and Eseigbe form. Similarly, Omono, Onwuka, and Okogbue (2009), Onwuka et al. (2004), and Ovrawah and (2013) used principal component analysis (PCA) to CONTACT Chimankpam Kenneth Ezugwu chimankpamkenneth2014@gmail.com Department of Geology, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria © 2018 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 66 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Hymore (2001). Their ﬁndings consistently showed East Local Government Area on the west both in that water from shallow hand-dug wells is more pol- Enugu State. It has a total land cover of about 1283 luted by anthropogenic activities than by geogenic km , which is within the Guinea Savanna region of the processes. This work tends to integrate physicochem- state. The annual precipitation is about 184 mm. The ical analysis, selected heavy metal analysis, and bac- major towns in the study area include Eha-Amufu, teriological and multivariate analyses to access the Ikem, Mbu, and Nekeand Umualor. The population of impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricul- the study area is about 169,811 persons (NPC, 2006). tural wastes on groundwater quality. Within the study area, no work has been done on groundwater Topography and drainage quality; about 80% of the population earns their live- lihood through commercial agriculture, accomplished The study area shows varying elevation ranging from by high use of fertilizers, insecticides, and manure to 250 m in the northwestern part of the study area to enhance crop yield. These could be a major source of 90 m in the southeastern part of the area (Figure 2). groundwater pollution in the study area. Onsite sani- Due to the high elevation in the northern part of the tary sewage system and open defecation are the major study area, most of rivers took their source there and ﬂow sewage systems in the study area; little or no attempt southward forming distributaries along their ﬂow paths. is made to ascertain the porosity and permeability of The drainage pattern is dendritic (Figure 3). The main rocks, topography, direction of groundwater ﬂow, rivers in the study area are Ebonyi and Amanyi Rivers. and depth to water table before sitting toilets facil- The Ebonyi River ﬂows northwestward to the central ities. Hand-dug wells are designed and located with- part of the study area, where it joins the Amanyi River. out proper site investigation as to ascertain nearness The streams in the study area are seasonal. Water level in to pollution source centers. The depth to ground- hand-dug wells, within or close to the streams and rivers, water in the study area is shallow and based on ﬁeld occurs at an average depth of 6–15 m (Table 1). Some examination and survey is prone to contamination. hand-dug wells in the northwestern part of the study area dry up simultaneously with the streams and rivers during dry season. The study area The study area is Ikem and its environs in the Isi-uzo Geology of the area Local Government area of Enugu State (Figure 1). It is bounded by 6°39ʹ57.25″N and 6°48’37.25″Nlatitudes The study area is underlain by the Nkporo Formation and 7°39ʹ41.98″E and 7°50’56.98″E longitudes. It shears and Agwu Formation (Figure 4). The Nkporo boundary on the east with Ado and Okpokwu Local Formation of late Campanian age is the basal facies Government Areas of Benue State, Ishielu Local of the late Cretaceous sedimentary cycle in the Government Area of Ebonyi State on the south, Anambra basin. The lithology of the Nkporo Akpoga - Imilike on the north, and Nike in Enugu Formation consists mainly of carbonaceous shales, Figure 1. Location of the study area on a vegetation map of Nigeria (After Obaje, 2009). GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 67 Figure 2. Drainage map of the study area. Figure 3. Topographic map of the study area. sandstone, and coals within the upper half deposited sediments are normally associated with siderites and in lower ﬂood plain and swampy environments. The pyrites, which are early diagenetic minerals 68 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Table 1. Head values of groundwater in the study area. Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Elevation (m) Water depth (m) Head value (m) ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6°42 04.74 7° 38 18.98 151 11 140 ˈ ˈˈ ˈˈ 6° 44 11.35 7°38ˈ02.05 190 10 180 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6°43 35.13 7° 38 02.05 195 15 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 42 33.94 7° 40 24.19 160 10 150 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 41 38.42 7° 40 39.12 151 11 130 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 43 21.26 7° 41 51.50 161 11 150 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 40 49.72 7° 39 38.53 150 10 140 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 46 54.25 7° 39 23.25 170 10 160 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 47 19.79 7° 40 43.39 155 15 140 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 46 49.28 7° 42 23.34 157 7 150 ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6°44ˈ 54.17 7° 41 26.62 190 10 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 46 08.98 7° 42 07.59 180 10 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 49 00.49 7° 40 09.92 181 11 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 48 24.87 7° 40 01.14 111 11 100 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 46 04.35 7° 41 42.07 170 10 160 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 47 01.28 07° 44 40.68 162 12 150 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 48 16.47 7° 42 57.32 181 11 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 45 53.37 7° 44 49.06 170 10 160 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 48 22.64 7° 44 19.56 94 9 85 ˈ ˈˈ ˈˈ 6° 47 05.79 7° 46ˈ 47.50 130 10 130 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 45 10.79 7° 46 40.05 147 7 110 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 49 27.38 7° 46 23.49 120 10 110 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 45 43.79 7° 46 34.32 140 10 130 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 45 11.79 7° 48 16.97 131 11 120 Figure 4. Geologic map of the study area. GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 69 (Rayment, 1965). The Owelli Sandstone is the major local and is controlled by topographic highs and sand member of the Nkporo Formation. The area is fractures in the area (Figure5). In Figure 4,diﬀerent also underlain by the Awgu Formation; it overlies the color shades represent hydraulic heads. EzeAku Shale conformably. The lithology is bluish- gray well-bedded shale interbedded with ﬁne yellow Groundwater chemistry calcareous sandstone and shaly limestone, with a total thickness of 900 m. The strata are greatly folded and Water samples were taken from 25 hand-dug wells in fractured (Rayment, 1965). the study area, and were analyzed for major anions, cations, and four selected heavy metals associated with sewage and agricultural wastes. The physical Materials and methods parameters, major ions analyzed, and selected metals are shown in Tables 2, 3, and 4, respectively. This study adopted the sample survey method which Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) and the TDS of involves direct observation, collection of water sam- the groundwater in the study area averaged 5.1 and ples, and laboratory analysis of the water samples 210 mg/L, respectively, indicating acidic ground- among others. A 3-day reconnaissance survey of the water. The minimum pH was obtained from the study environment was conducted from 18th to 21st groundwater sample at locations 6 and 1 (CK6 and June 2017. The investigation commenced with the CK1, respectively). The acidic nature of the ground- use of global positioning systems to mark out the water can be attributed to oxidation of sulﬁde miner- locations of 25 water wells investigated in the study. als, sulfur contained in the host rocks, and the Four groundwater samples from each well were col- inﬂuence of anthropogenic activities (Collin et al. lected in 1 L plastic containers from 20th and 24th 2018). The EC of the groundwater varied from August 2017. One set of samples was used for the 0.08 µs/cm at locations CK2 and CK25 to 1.96 µs/ cation determination, the second set for the anion cm at location CK6 (Table 2). The variation in EC is determination, the third set for biological analysis, attributed to diﬀerent degrees of enrichment in the and the fourth set for selected heavy metal analysis. deposition environment during accumulation and Physical parameters such as acidity (pH), tempera- anthropogenic activities. There is ﬂuctuation in the ture, and electrical conductivity (EC) that change temperature of groundwater in the area of study. The rapidly with time were measured in the ﬁeld. Total temperature ranges between 10°C and 31°C. The bacteria and fecal coliform counts were determined values conﬁrmed existence of hydraulic connection by using the Millipore ﬁltration method. The pH was between the groundwater environment and the determined by using a Hach portable pH/ISE meter. ground surface based on the similarity with surface The meter was calibrated with buﬀers pH 4.0 and 9.0 water temperature and wide range of groundwater prior to measurement. EC and TDS were determined temperature (10°C −31°C). by wissenschaftlich-Technische-Werkstatten (WTW) The dominant cations in the groundwater, in conductivity meter. 0.8M EDTA titration cartridge 2+ 2+ + + order of abundance, are Ca ˃Mg ˃K ˃Na was selected and titrated against the water samples. 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ (Table 3). The calcium concentrations from hand- Heavy metals, such as Pb ,Cu ,Zn , and Mn , dug wells range from 10 mg/L at location CK22 to were determined by digital bulk 205 atomic absorp- 2- − 2+ 195 mg/L at locations CK7 and CK18, respectively. tion spectrophotometer. SO ,NO , and Fe were 4 3 Magnesium ion ranged from 1.65 mg/L at location determined by Hach DR/2000 spectrophotometer. Ck5 to 33.78mg/L at location CK6 (Figure 6). The Multivariate analysis was carried out using sources of calcium and magnesium in the water sam- Statgraphics software. Three statistical tests carried ples from the study area are thought to be from the out are the correlation analysis, cluster analysis dissolution of the limestone and shale in the study (CA), and PCA. Hydrochemical plots were drawn area. using Rockworks16; maps were made using ArcGIS The concentration of sodium varied from 10.2 and Surfer10. 0.188 mg/L at location CK23 to 113 mg/L at location CK12. All the samples have sodium concentrations Results and discussion within the permissible limit of 200 mg/L stipulated by WHO (2017). The concentration of K in the Groundwater ﬂow system groundwater varied from 0.59 mg/L at location The hydraulic head data alongside the wells coordi- CK22 to 39 mg/L at location CK9. The sources of nate were used to generate the hydraulic head map sodium in the water samples are attributed to host (Table 1). On a general note, regional groundwater rock dissolution, while the source of potassium is ﬂow direction is not expected in the area, owing to its thought to be from host rock dissolution and/or shaly lithology, patched sandy aquifer, and the undu- leaching of agricultural waste. Diﬀerent color shades lating topography. Groundwater ﬂow direction is in the diagram (Figure 6) show variation of major 70 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 5. Groundwater ﬂow map of the study area. Table 2. The analyzed physical parameters. cations with respect to their location in the study EC TDS Temp area. Chloride and phosphate are the dominant Sample name ID µs/cm mg/L PH (°C) anions in the groundwater in the study area. The UMUALOR AGU CK1 0.12 54 6.5 25 dominant anion in the order of abundance is AMUDAMU CK2 0.08 43 6 20 − 2- − − 2- Cl ˃PO ˃NO ˃HCO ˃SO (Table 3). Nitrate 4 3 3 4 IKEM CK3 0.19 82 5.7 25 OBOGU CK4 0.19 76 5.9 28 concentration in hand-dug wells is lower than ONUME CK5 1.11 55 5.2 31 10 mg/L allowable limit for drinking water, with the EHA-AMUFU CK6 1.97 1145 6.5 30 MBU-AMONU CK7 0.36 188 6.1 10 exception of CK6, CK14, and CK24. The maximum UGWUOSHIME CK8 0.85 168 6.4 23 value is 1.9 mg/L which was recorded in CK6. MBU MARKET CK9 0.13 61 6.1 30 NO has an average of 0.08996 mg/land ranges AKPOTI CK10 0.36 171 5.8 31 AGUMEDE CK11 0.22 103 5.7 22 from 0.015 mg/L at CK 19 to 1.9 mg/L at CK6. The AGU-UMUALOR CK12 0.13 59 5.5 28 source of nitrate in the study area could be attributed NEKE CK13 0.25 108 5.5 30 NKWO-NEKE CK14 0.18 93 5.3 30 to onsite sanitary sewage contamination and/or IKEM-NKWO CK15 0.14 67 5.4 26 leaching of agricultural waste. It also contributes in NEKE AGUAMEDE CK16 0.12 0.42 5.3 28 APKOGA CK17 0.05 0.23 5.3 28 lowering the pH by forming weak acids (tetraoxoni- MGBUJI CK18 1.84 949 6.2 25 trate V acid) through oxidation and hydration. In this IHENYI CK19 2.12 1066 6.4 21 EGEDEGEBE CK20 1.92 1013 6.6 26 work, the chloride concentrations from hand-dug NEKE-ULOR CK21 0.22 106 6.4 30 wells are within the permissible limit of 250 mg/L UMU-ULOR CK22 0.09 40 5.7 30 for drinking water prescribed by WHO (2017). Cl AGUAMEDE ULOR CK23 0.18 81 5.6 31 OGO-NDOGO CK24 0.14 65 6.7 28 has an average of 143.168 mg/L and ranges from AGUAMEDE ETITE CK25 0.08 33 6.1 30 13.49 mg/L at CK8 to 248.5 mg/L at CK1. The source CK represents groundwater sample at particular location. could also be onsite sanitary sewage contamination GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 71 Table 3. The analyzed major ions. mg/L + 2+ 2+ 2 2- Sample name ID Na K Ca Mg HCO PO Cl NO SO 3 4 3 4 UMUALOR AGU CK1 50.83 3.43 27.51 4.53 9.00 29.98 248.51 0.16 1.25 AMUDAMU CK2 111.65 18.05 32.52 5.36 7.00 12.82 65.00 0.08 1.56 IKEM CK3 238.71 5.05 27.51 4.53 6.00 11.62 92.31 0.08 1.73 OBOGU CK4 37.45 15.25 12.56 24.51 4.00 9.13 44.88 0.08 1.64 ONUME CK5 215.6 3.75 10.00 1.65 3.00 9.96 177.51 0.07 5.5 EHA-AMUFU CK6 26.75 21.43 205.11 33.80 4.00 11.16 220.10 0.11 1.76 MBU-AMONU CK7 18.73 9.64 17.55 6.11 1.00 9.77 42.61 0.08 11 UGWUOSHIME CK8 231.11 39.86 20.00 10.00 1.00 10.05 13.00 0.09 2.08 MBU MARKET CK9 40.13 3.74 23.00 17.00 2.00 8.57 16.33 0.11 1.94 AKPOTI CK10 6.52 2.98 12.12 6.00 0.98 8.30 9.00 0.16 1.61 AGUMEDE CK11 6.13 10.46 22.51 3.71 4.00 9.13 38.00 0.09 2.46 AGU-UMUALOR CK12 1.84 2.13 180.00 2.12 6.00 10.33 28.00 0.09 6.49 NKWO– NEKE CK14 4.92 4.25 25.00 4.12 10.00 8.11 50.00 0.09 0.64 IKEM-NKWO CK15 3.67 6.12 25.00 4.12 8.00 9.68 75.00 0.09 2.76 NEKE AGUAMEDE CK16 4.29 5.61 19.00 2.06 3.14 7.74 85.25 0.14 1.66 APKOGA CK17 4.29 2.98 18.00 9.00 11.88 8.57 149.18 0.08 4.98 MGBUJI CK18 1.23 10.97 195.00 32.19 0.22 9.50 83.00 0.13 1.69 IHENYI CK19 4.91 4.55 50.00 28.4 0.24 12.73 8.00 0.02 3.98 EGEDEGEBE CK20 1.84 5.63 75.00 28.46 0.16 9.96 36.99 0.12 2.72 NEKE– ULOR CK21 254.00 1.91 32.51 0.00 0.18 9.13 85.88 0.08 2.38 UMU-ULOR CK22 0.31 0.59 10.00 1.65 0.16 9.04 35.51 0.09 10.77 AGUAMEDE ULOR CK23 0.18 0.64 12.56 2.06 0.18 8.94 56.81 0.09 5.22 OGO-NDOGO CK24 0.44 0.71 15.00 2.47 0.18 8.30 9.87 0.09 3.77 AGUAMEDE ETITE CK25 0.25 0.67 10.10 1.65 0.16 9.68 93.31 0.08 2.21 Table 4. The analyzed heavy metals. 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ to 10 mg/L at CK24 and CK15, respectively Zn Fe Mn Pb (Figure 7). The concentrations of bicarbonates are Sample name ID µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L UMUALOR AGU CK1 0.2 0.179 0.256 0.067 thought to be derived from dissolution of limestone 2- AMUDAMU CK2 0.2 0.166 0.202 0.048 and shale from the study area. PO has an average IKEM CK3 0.2 0.149 0.203 0.049 of 10.5203 mg/L and ranges from 7.749 mg/L at OBOGU CK4 0.2 0.191 0.227 0.093 ONUME CK5 0.2 0.163 1 0.074 CK16 to 29.981 mg/L at CK1. The concentration of EHA-AMUFU CK6 0.2 0.189 0.223 0.069 2- PO in the groundwater could also be attributed to MBU-AMONU CK7 0.2 0.182 0.211 0.096 UGWUOSHIME CK8 0.2 0.161 0.263 0.086 onsite sanitary sewage contamination and/or leaching MBU MARKET CK9 0.1 0.165 0.203 0.091 of agricultural waste. It also contributes in lowering AKPOTI CK10 0.2 0.133 0.293 0.087 AGUMEDE CK11 0.1 0.152 0.227 0.069 the pH by forming weak tetraoxophosphate (V) acid AGU-UMUALOR CK12 0.1 0.154 1.82 0.08 through oxidation and hydration (Hongbo, NEKE CK13 0.1 0.196 0.178 0.07 NKWO-NEKE CK14 0.1 0.168 0.284 0.068 Yangyang, & Suyun, 2018). Diﬀerent color shades in IKEM-NKWO CK15 0.1 0.193 0.162 0.084 the diagram (Figure 7) show variation of major NEKE AGUAMEDE CK16 0.1 0.145 0.198 0.096 anions with respect to their location in the study area. APKOGA CK17 0.1 0.114 0.191 0.112 MGBUJI CK18 0.1 0.144 0.261 0.127 Manganese and iron are the dominant metals in the IHENYI CK19 0.1 0.152 0.317 0.123 groundwater of the study area, in the following order of EGEDEGEBE CK20 0.1 0.166 0.247 0.141 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ NEKE -ULOR CK21 0.1 0.149 0.27 0.093 abundance: Mn ˃Fe ˃Zn ˃Pb ˃Cu (Figure 7). UMU-ULOR CK22 0.1 0.214 0.173 0.122 Generally, the low concentrations of the heavy metals AGUAMEDE ULOR CK23 0.1 0.156 0.254 0.12 OGO-NDOGO CK24 0.1 0.137 0.259 0.128 reﬂect majorly geogenic heavy metal contamination of AGUAMEDE ETITE CK25 0.1 0.151 0.31 0.094 groundwater with little or no contamination from anthropogenic activities (Table 4). The host rocks are associated with siderites and pyrites which are early and/or leaching of agricultural waste. The concentra- diagenetic minerals (Rayment, 1965). The concentra- 2- tion of SO from hand-dug wells has an average of tions of the metals are below the WHO acceptable limit 9.3 mg/L and ranges from 0.64 to 11.92 mg/L at for drinking water. Variations of selected metals with CK15 and CK14, respectively. All the samples are respect to their location in the study area are shown in within the maximum allowable limit of 250 mg/L Figure 8 as shades of colors. stipulated by USEPA (1994). The high concentration of sulfate is likely due to dissolution of limestone which underlies the area. It also contributes in low- Water type and hydrochemical facies ering the pH by forming weak acids through oxida- Hydrochemical data of analyzed samples from the tion and hydration (Colin et al., 2018). study area are plotted on a piper trilinear, stiﬀ and The distribution of bicarbonate in the study area Durov diagrams for visual comparison, rock type has an average of 0.4448 mg/L and ranges from 0.16 deduction, and delineation of hydrochemical facies. 72 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 6. Variation of major cations with respect to their location in the study area. Figure 7. Variation of major anions with respect to their location in the study area. Hydrochemical facies are diﬀerent zones that possess Piper diagram similar cation and anion concentration categories. Water types and hydrochemical facies can be unraveled by the use of a piper diagram. The diamond part of the piper diagram shown (Figure 10) can be used to char- Stiﬀ diagram acterize water of diﬀerent waters (Hounslow, 1995). The dominant water types in the study area were Water plotted at the corner of diamond is primarily 2+ 2+ – 2- determined using stiﬀ diagrams. Stiﬀ patterns can composed of Ca –Mg and Cl –SO which depicts be used to show distinctive trends of water compo- areas of permanent hardness and can be classiﬁed as sition (Hem, 1985). Thesizeofthe patternis calcium/magnesium and chloride/sulﬁde type, demon- approximately equal to the total ionic content strating the dominance of alkaline earths over alkali (Ca (Hounslow, 1995). From the plots in Figure 8, + Mg> Na+ K) and strongacidic anions over weak 2+ − 55% of the stiﬀ plot shows Ca – Cl water type acidic anions (Cl+ SO >HCO ). Water at the right 4 3 + + − + + 2- − and 45% of the stiﬀ shows Na +K – Cl water corner of diamond depicts Na +K and SO +Cl type (Figure 9(a–e)). which can be classiﬁed as sodium/potassium and GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 73 Figure 8. Variation of selected metals with respect to their location in the study area. Figure 9. (a) Variation in the stiﬀ diagram for CK1–CK6. (b) Variation in the stiﬀ diagram for CK7–CK12. (c) Variation in the stiﬀ diagram for CK13–CK18. (d)Stiﬀ diagram for CK19–CK24. (e) Stiﬀ diagram for CK25. 74 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 9. (Continued). GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 75 Figure 9. (Continued). sulfate/chloride type. Figure 9 shows that 60% of the 7, along the dissolution or mixing line. Based on the cations in the water samples fall within Ca water type classiﬁcation of Lloyd and Heathcote (1985), the + + of the piper trilinear plot, 30% plotted within Na +K trend of groundwater in the study area can be attrib- + − section, and 10% indicate mixed water type having no uted Na and Cl as dominant anion/cation, indicat- cation–anion pair (Figure 10). The anions plot within ing that the waters can be related to ion exchange of + − the chloride section. This shows that the dominant Na -Cl waters. 2+ − + water types in the study area are Ca –Cl and Na +K–Cl ; this is inconformity with the results obtained Bacteriological analysis from the Stiﬀ diagrams. Coliforms Biological analysis of groundwater samples obtained Durov diagram from the study area shows signiﬁcant concentration Durov diagram (Figure 11) shows that 83% of the of coliform (Table 5). The concentration ranges from samples plot in the ﬁelds 1 and 4, along the ion 120 to 2500 mpn/100 mL (Figure 10), which is above exchange line, while 17% of the samples plot in ﬁeld WHO (2017) standard for drinking water. Coliform 76 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 10. Piper plots of the physicochemical parameters of groundwater in the study area. Figure 11. Durov plot depicting hydrochemical processes involved (Lloyd and Heathcote 1985). concentration in the groundwater is an indication Samples collected from CK6, CK8, CK9, CK11, and that the groundwater is associated with human CK12 have fecal coliform concentration above waste or animal intestine tract and its presence in 1000 mpn/100 mL. The sample CK6 around Eha- the groundwater strongly indicates sewage contami- Amufu collage of Education has the highest coliform nation (Nan, Li, Linqiong, Longfei, & Lihua, 2018). count of 2600 mpn/100 mL (Figure 12). GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 77 Table 5. Bacteriological parameters from the study area. Correlation analysis Coli form E. coli Correlation coeﬃcient is used to establish the rela- S/N Sample name mpn/100 mL mpn/100 mL tionships between parameters (Danijele, Milovan, 1 UMUALOR AGU 500 01 Ljijana, & Ivana, 2015). It helps to know how one 2 AMUDAMU 200 13 3 IKEM 170 11 parameter predicts the other. The correlation scores 4 OBOGU 400 22 for TDS, major ions, and heavy metals are pre- 5 ONUME 130 3 6 EHA-AMUFU 2600 35 sented and signiﬁcant correlation between para- 7 MBU -AMONU 160 6 meters was taken at values equal to or greater 8 UGWUOSHIME 1400 9 2+ 2+ + than 0.5 (Table 6). From Table 6,Ca ,Mg ,K , 9 MBU MARKET 1600 13 2- 10 AKPOTI 130 8 and SO appear to be the main contributors of 11 AGUMEDE 2400 20 2+ the groundwater TDS. Ca shows a high correla- 12 AGU-UMUALOR 1800 8 13 NEKE 140 3 tion (0.9998) with Mg, indicating that the two 14 NKWO -NEKE 210 9 cations are from the same source (Omono et al., 15 IKEM- NKWO 460 4 2+ 2- 2+ + 2– 2+ 16 NEKE AGUAMEDE 190 13 2013). Ca -SO ,Mg -K , and SO Mg are 4 4 17 APKOGA 200 8 also more signiﬁcant pairs. The correlation analysis 18 MGBUJI 220 7 19 IHENYI 485 6 also reveals no signiﬁcant correlation between the 20 EGEDEGEBE 160 3 selected metal types studied. 21 NEKE -ULOR 130 6 22 UMU-ULOR 150 5 23 AGUAMEDE ULOR 550 4 24 OGO-NDOGO 220 9 Principal component analysis (PCA) 25 AGUAMEDE ETITE 120 11 PCA was used to identify the most signiﬁcant para- meters from the groundwater and the relationship Environments associated with sewage contamination between them (Danijele et al., 2015). In this study, are breeding grounds for bacterial activities and can 14 variables (parameters) from 25 groundwater sam- be used to identify sewage pollution by testing for ples were used for the PCA, and 5 principal compo- Faecal coliform (Ocheri, 2006). nents extracted (Table 7) which explain 79.105% of the total sample variance. The number of signiﬁcant Escherichia coli (E. coli) PCs for interpretation was selected on the basis of The conﬁrmation of E. coli in the groundwater sample listwise missing value treatment method, with mini- in the study area also indicates fecal contamination. E. mum eigenvalue of 1 (Table 8). The ﬁrst PC (PC1) coli concentration in the study area ranges from 01 to explains 33% of the total variance and has loading for 2+ 2+ 2- 2+ 2+ 2- 35 mpn/100 mL (Figure 13) which is above the 0 mnp/ Ca ,Mg ,SO , and TDS. Ca ,Mg , and SO 4 4 100 mL WHO (2017) standard for drinking water. It are thought to be released from rock mineral dissolu- source is attributed to sewage contamination. tion of shale and limestone within the study area. The second PC (PC2) which accounts for 15.036% of the − − 2- total variance has high loading for NO ,Cl ,PO 3 4 Multivariate analysis 2+ − − 2- , and Pb .Cl ,NO , and PO are thought to be 3 4 released from sewage waste through onsite sanitary Correlation analysis, PCA, and CA tests were carried sewage system. PC3 accounts for 11.961% of the total out on the geochemical data (Tables 2 and 4). Figure 12. Variation in coliform count in the study area. 78 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 13. Variation in E. coli count in the study area. Table 6. Correlations scores for TDS, major ions, and heavy metals. − − 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ + − 2- NO Cl Ca Mg Mn Fe Zn K HCO SO 3 3 4 NO 0.1931 0.0677 0.0616 0.1022 0.1312 −0.0045 0.0722 −0.0863 −0.0124 0.3550 0.7479 0.7699 0.6268 0.5318 0.9831 0.7317 0.6818 0.9531 Cl 0.1931 0.4620 0.4654 0.1908 0.0072 −0.1866 0.0374 0.0146 0.3326 0.3550 0.0201 0.0191 0.3610 0.9726 0.3717 0.8591 0.9448 0.1043 2+ Ca 0.0677 0.4620 0.9998 0.1333 0.0399 −0.0485 0.6056 0.4067 0.7977 0.7479 0.0201 0.0000 0.5252 0.8498 0.8179 0.0013 0.0437 0.0000 2+ Mg 0.0616 0.4654 0.9998 0.1335 0.0396 −0.0464 0.6058 0.4031 0.7916 0.7699 0.0191 0.0000 −0.5247 0.8511 0.8259 0.0013 0.0457 0.0000 2+ Mn −0.1022 0.1908 −0.1333 −0.1335 −0.1239 −0.1134 −0.1750 −0.1986 −0.0257 0.6268 0.3610 0.5252 0.5247 0.5552 0.5895 0.4029 0.3413 0.9028 2+ Fe 0.1312 0.0072 0.0399 0.0396 −0.1239 0.1089 0.1219 −0.4006 −0.1174 0.5318 0.9726 0.8498 0.8511 0.5552 0.6042 0.5616 0.0472 0.5762 2+ Zn −0.0045 −0.1866 −0.0485 −0.0464 −0.1134 0.1089 0.0538 0.3061 −0.1295 0.9831 0.3717 0.8179 0.8259 0.5895 0.6042 0.7984 0.1367 0.5373 K 0.0722 0.0374 0.6056 0.6058 −0.1750 0.1219 0.0538 0.1232 0.4434 0.7317 0.8591 0.0013 0.0013 0.4029 0.5616 0.7984 0.5575 0.0264 HC0 −0.0863 0.0146 0.4067 0.4031 −0.1986 −0.4006 0.3061 0.1232 0.4802 0.6818 0.9448 0.0437 0.0457 0.3413 0.0472 0.1367 0.5575 0.0151 2- SO −0.0124 0.3326 0.7977 0.7916 −0.0257 −0.1174 −0.1295 0.4434 0.4802 0.9531 0.1043 0.0000 0.0000 0.9028 0.5762 0.5373 0.0264 0.0151 2+ Pb −0.0486 −0.3205 0.3183 0.3116 −0.1235 −0.1866 −0.4011 0.1852 0.1770 0.5738 0.8177 0.1183 0.1210 0.1294 0.5565 0.3718 0.0469 0.3754 0.3974 0.0027 TDS −0.0156 0.3742 0.9706 0.9698 −0.0980 0.0349 −0.0328 0.7163 0.3588 0.8064 0.9409 0.0654 0.0000 0.0000 0.6413 0.8686 0.8764 0.0001 0.0782 0.0000 Na 0.1654 −0.1612 −0.0428 −0.0447 −0.0476 0.1148 0.0155 0.3891 −0.2038 −0.0747 0.4295 0.4414 0.8391 0.8320 0.8211 0.5847 0.9414 0.0545 0.3286 0.7226 2- P0 0.4643 0.4082 0.0862 0.0877 −0.0086 0.2062 0.2803 −0.0261 −0.0477 0.0675 0.0194 0.0428 0.6819 0.6766 0.9673 0.3228 0.1747 0.9016 0.8208 0.7487 2+ + + variance and has high loading for Fe ,K , and Na Table 9. With a minimum score of 1.5 (Table 9), PC1 which are thought to be released from leaching of has high loading on samples CK6, CK18, CK19, and agricultural wastes. PC4 accounts for 10.779% of the CK20 which indicates that they are controlled by the 2+ 2+ total variance and has loading for Mn and Zn ; inﬂuence of weathering of host rocks. PC2 has high PC5 accounts for 7.948% of the total variance and has loading for samples CK1, CK2, CK6, CK17, and 2+ 2+ high loading for Mn and Pb . Both PC4 and PC5 CK24 which indicates that they are controlled by reﬂect geogenic heavy metal contamination. The sanitary Sewage waste and PC3 reﬂects agricultural heavy metal contamination is due to the fact that waste contamination with high loading for CK3, CK5, the host rocks are associated with siderites and CK6, CK7, CK17, CK19, and CK8. PC4 and PC5 have pyrites. high loading for samples CK3, CK7, CK8, CK17, The controlling processes of the principal compo- CK19, and CK12 which indicates host rock dissolu- nents (PC1, PC2, PC3, PC4, and PC5) are shown in tion and weathering (geogenic contamination). GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 79 Table 7. Extracted principal components with minimum distance. Three clusters were observed: the ﬁrst − 2- − eigenvalue of 1. cluster (NO ,PO , and Cl )containsthe same 3 4 Component Percent of Cumulative parameters as in PC2 and reﬂects the inﬂuence of number Eigenvalue variance percentage fecal waste contaminationofgroundwater in the 1 4.67324 33.380 33.380 2+ 2+ 2- study area. The second cluster (Ca ,Mg ,SO 2 2.10501 15.036 48.416 + 2+ ,K ,Pb ) contains the same parameters PC1 and 3 1.67455 11.961 60.377 4 1.50912 10.779 71.157 PC3, and reﬂects the inﬂuence of host rock disso- 5 1.11278 7.948 79.105 lution/weathering and agricultural waste contami- 6 0.964973 6.893 85.998 2+ 2+ 7 0.717531 5.125 91.123 nation, respectively. The third cluster (Mn ,Cu , 8 0.422905 3.021 94.144 2+ − 2+ 2+ Zn ,HCO ,Fe , and Na )iscontained in PC3, 9 0.375623 2.683 96.827 10 0.238289 1.702 98.529 PC4, and PC5 reﬂects geogenic contamination of 11 0.138923 0.992 99.521 2+ 2+ groundwater, with the exception of Fe and Na 12 0.0563546 0.403 99.923 13 0.0106025 0.076 99.999 (Figure 14). 14 0.000108714 0.001 100.000 Table 8. Component weights of the variables. Component Component Component Component Component 12 3 4 5 NO 0.0256655 −0.377815 0.141854 −0.0684572 −0.56558 Cl 0.186095 −0.403235 −0.312763 −0.303561 0.156091 Ca 0.4499 −0.0679805 −0.00777586 −0.0181252 0.0558679 Mg 0.44895 −0.0700243 −0.00890025 −0.01763 0.0623217 Mn −0.0701047 −0.0315322 −0.26074 −0.389645 0.46989 Fe −0.0187944 −0.317935 0.389649 −0.0776809 0.0233882 Zn −0.0346689 −0.219899 0.0242947 0.67324 0.247045 K 0.306844 −0.0202928 0.425226 0.0579494 0.187228 HCO 0.219514 0.159876 −0.299003 0.501587 −0.0382638 SO 0.410064 0.0906314 −0.118424 −0.0518187 −0.0870168 Pb 0.200643 0.441748 0.0609927 −0.154068 −0.442961 TDS 0.449989 −0.0135663 0.0689911 −0.0216194 0.131635 Na −0.00462057 0.00569684 0.587398 −0.0516027 0.191826 PO 0.0318357 −0.55241 −0.154125 0.0831554 −0.268225 Table 9. The controlling processes of the principal components with minimum score of 1.5. Component Component Component Component Component Row 12345 1 −0.47643 −5.1226 −1.0349 0.203091 −2.39837 2 −0.931212 −1.66034 −0.366119 0.246363 0.851449 3 −0.663769 −0.486486 −1.724 4.78788 1.1874 4 −1.45232 −0.186542 0.969995 0.756267 0.291793 5 −1.4003 −0.296373 −1.51622 −0.979722 1.36853 6 3.85881 −2.02993 1.67439 −0.034882 1.47115 7 −0.387305 0.540582 1.8066 0.843272 0.318746 8 −0.812873 0.601349 3.32149 0.917647 0.853004 9 −0.990622 0.0136959 0.927444 −0.613237 −0.286247 10 −0.860756 0.314662 0.366815 0.003098 0.147895 11 −0.765923 −0.10517 −0.303649 −0.157464 0.0679004 12 −1.44143 −0.323277 −1.43679 −2.50721 2.06087 13 −0.499512 −1.16534 1.21766 −1.10707 0.474306 14 −0.813189 −0.461153 −0.468971 −1.07331 0.353585 15 −1.00388 −0.339135 0.077707 −0.424539 −0.561162 16 −0.82623 1.38068 −0.240843 0.409815 −0.835511 17 −0.6813 1.90206 −2.12731 0.382839 −0.980213 18 5.27095 0.15448 −0.130909 −0.226581 −0.775428 19 4.82952 1.28956 −1.75375 −0.016434 1.29366 20 5.17273 0.57217 0.334075 −0.212278 −1.29228 21 −0.600366 0.615366 −0.58962 −0.301009 −0.247937 22 −1.21411 0.627798 1.35207 0.049952 −1.08674 23 −1.06961 1.44181 −0.419377 −0.290293 −1.14364 24 −0.968635 1.80458 0.611321 −0.157507 −0.727365 25 −1.27222 0.91755 −0.547121 −0.498679 −0.405401 Cluster analysis Conclusion Cluster analysis (CA) was used to cluster the Results of the physicochemical analysis suggest that geochemical variables according to their similarities all the water samples in the study area are acidic, with using Ward’s method and squared Euclidean 80 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 14. Dendrogram diagram of the groundwater parameters. very few samples having EC and TDS above their reﬂects geogenic contamination of groundwater with 2+ 2+ standard limit. The alkaline earths were dominant the exception that Fe and Na could also reﬂect over alkali and strong acidic anions over weak acidic anthropogenic activities. From the correlation analy- 2+ 2+ + 2- anions in the present study, due to ion exchange and sis, Ca ,Mg ,K , and SO appear to be the main 2+ simple mineral dissolution or mixing. The tempera- contributors of the groundwater TDS. Ca shows a ture range conﬁrmed existence of hydraulic connec- high correlation (0.9998) with Mg, indicating that the tion between the groundwater environment and the two cations are from the same source. The correlation ground surface. Fifty-ﬁve percent of the stiﬀ plot analysis also revealed no signiﬁcant correlation 2+ − shows Ca – Cl water type and 45% of the stiﬀ between the selected metal types studied. + + − shows Na +K – Cl water type. The dominant Groundwater ﬂow direction is local and is controlled 2+ 2 hydrochemical facies in the study area is Ca -Mg by topographic highs, weathering and fracturing of + − 2- 2- − -Cl SO (83%) and Na+ K and SO +Cl (17%). the host rock in the area. 4 4 Groundwater types assessed and compared with Durov and Piper diagrams illustrated that simple Acknowledgments mineral dissolution or mixing and ion exchange pro- cesses are mainly responsible for variation in hydro- The author hereby acknowledges the support and assis- tance from his supervisor, colleagues, family, and depart- geochemistry of ground in the study area. ment of Geology University of Nigeria for their collective Bacteriological analysis shows that the groundwater eﬀorts in making this work a reality. is contaminated with fecal waste. Five principal com- ponents were extracted from the PCA which explains 79.105% of the total sample variance. PC1 could be Disclosure statement said to reﬂect the presence of the weathering and No potential conﬂict of interest was reported by the dissolution of host rocks, PC2 could be said to reﬂect authors. the inﬂuence of anthropogenic activities (contamina- tion from onsite sewage systems), PC3 generally reﬂects leaching of agricultural waste, and PC4 and References PC5 both generally reﬂect geogenic heavy metal con- Adelana, S. M. A., Bale, R. B., & Wu, M. (2004). Water tamination. From the CA (Figure 14), three clusters quality in a growing urban centre along the coast of − 2- were observed: the ﬁrst cluster (NO ,PO , and 3 4 south western Nigeria. In K. P. W. Seilder & R. Xi Cl ) contains the same parameters in PC2 which (Eds.), Research basic and hydrological planning (pp. 83–92). The Netherlands: Balkama. reﬂects the inﬂuence of fecal waste contamination of Adelana, S. M. A., Abiye, T. A., Nkhuwa., D. C. W., the groundwater in the study area. The second cluster 2+ 2+ 2- + 2+ Tindinugaya, C., & Oga, M. S. (2008). Urban ground- (Ca ,Mg ,SO ,K , and Pb ) contains the same water management and protection in sub-Saharan parameters with PC1 and PC3, which reﬂects the Africa. In S. M. A. Adelana & A. M. MacDonald inﬂuence of host rock dissolution/weathering and (Eds.), Applied groundwater studies in Africa, agricultural waste contamination, respectively. The International Association of Hydrogeologists, selected 2+ 2+ 2+ − 2+ papers (pp. 222–259). third cluster (Mn ,Cu ,Zn , HCO ,Fe , and 2+ Adelana, S. M. A., Bale, R. B., Olasehinde, P. I., & Wu, M. Na ) is contained in PC3, PC4, and PC5, which (2005).The impact of anthropogenic activities over GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 81 groundwater quality of coastal aquifer in Southwestern (Eds.), Current issues in Nigerian environment. Ibadan, Nigeria. Proceedings on Aquifer vulnerability and Risks. Nigeria: Ibadan Danidan Press. 2nd International Workshop and 4th Congress on the Lloyd, J. A., & Heathcote, J. A. (1985). Natural inorganic Protection and Management of Groundwater. Raggia di hydrochemistry in relation to groundwater: An introduc- Colornoparma. tion (pp. 296). New York: Oxford Uni. Press. Adelana, S. M. A., Bale, R. B., & Wu, M. (2003). Quality of Nan, Y., Li., Y., Linqiong, W., Longfei, W., & Lihua, N. assessment of pollution vulnerability of groundwater in (2018). Hydrodynamic conditions inﬂuence bacterial Lagos metropolis, SW Nigeria. Proceedings of the Aquifer growth and phenol biodegradation of strains with dif- Vulnerability Risk Conference AURO3 Salamenia ferent morphology and motility. Water Air and Soil Mexico, 2,1–17. Pollution, 229(3), 93–98. Ajala, O. (2005). Environmental impact of urbanization, National population commission. (2006). Population ﬁg- culture and the Nigeria. In Fadare, et al (Eds.), ures. Enugu: NPC. Globalisation, culture and Nigerian built environment Nnodo, V. C., & Illo, C. I. (2002). Bacteriological and (pp. 192–199). OAU: Faculty of Environmental Design physicochemical examination of well water in Enugu and Management. South, local government area of Enugu State. 4, 411–417. Ayantobo,O. O., Oluwasanya,G.O.,Idowu,O.A.,& Ocheri, M. I. (2006). Analysis of water consumption pat- Eruola,A. O.(2012). Water quality from hand dug tern in Makurdi metropolis. Journal of Geography and wells in Ibadan. Proceeding, Nigerian Hydrological Development, 1(1), 71–83. Sciences conference on Hydrology for disaster manage- Ocheri, M.I.,&Odoma, L.A. (2013). Baseline investigation ment. Abeokuta: Federal University of Agriculture. of groundwater quality of Lokoja, Nigeria. In C. C. Colin, J. W., Jennifer, N. P., John, G., Christopher, M. C., Mbajiogu, M. CObeta, & C. Anyanwu (Eds.), Scott, G., & Lynch, J. A. (2018). Estimating base cation Proceedings, Nigerian Association of Hydrological weathering rates in the USA: Challenges of uncertain soil Sciences conference on Water Resources and National mineralogy and speciﬁc surface area with applications of Development (pp. 65–71). Nsukka: University of Nigeria.. the PROFILE model. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 229 Ogunbadewa, E. Y. (2002). Some pysico-chemical proper- (3), 61–90. ties of water from hand-dug wells in the basement com- Danijele, V., Milovan, V., Ljijana, T., & Ivana, M. R. (2015). plex of south-western Nigeria. Journal of Water Supply: Application of multivariate statistical techniques in the Research and Technology, 51, 407–417. water quality assessment of Danube river, Serbia. Omofonmwam, S. I., & Eseigbe. (2009). The eﬀect of solid Environmental Protection, 41(4), 96–103. wastes on the quality of ground water in Benin Metropolis, Dapo, O. (1990). Soak-away system and possible ground- Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 26,99–105. water pollution problems in developing countries. The Omono, O. V., Onwuka, O. S., & Okogbue, C. O. (2013). Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, Characterisation of groundwater in three settlement 110(3), 108–112. areas of Enugu metropolis, southern Nigeria. Donlagic, N., Odobasic, A., & Bratovic, A. (2007). Inﬂuence Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. www.ncbi. of agricultural on water quality: Signiﬁcance of heavy nih.gov/pubmed/24037228 metals monitoring. Agricultural Conspectus Scientiﬁcus, Omotoyinbo, O. (2007). Determination of contamination 72(4), 337–381. of underground water (hand dug well) by organic waste: Echinola, O. D., & Cooker, J. J. (2002). Quality of ground A case study of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of water and health hazards implication in Agbowo area of Education and Science, 3,43–50. Ibadan Metropolis, southern Nigeria. Proceedings of a Onwuka, O. S., Uma., K. O., & Ezeigbo, H. I. (2004). national conference on population, Environment and sus- Potability of shallow groundwater in Enugu town, south- tainable development in Nigeria. University of Ado-Ekiti eastern Nigeria. Global Journal of Environmental Science, Nigeria. 3(2), 33–39. Hem, J. D. (1985). Study and interpretation of the chemical Ovrawah, L., & Hymore, F. K. (2001). Quality of water characteristics of natural water (3rd ed). U.S. Geological from hand dug wells in the Warri environs of Niger Survey, water supply paper, 2254. Delta Region. African Journal of Environmental Science Hongbo, L., Yangyang, Y., & Suyun, X. (2018). Removal and Technology., 31,69–79. and transformation of pollutants in a two-line denitrify- Rayment, R. (1965). Aspect of the geology of Nigeria (pp. ing phosphorus removal process treating low C/N muni- 133). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University press. cipal wastewater: Inﬂuence of hydraulic retention time. Uma, K. O. (2003). Hydrogeology of the perched aquifer Water Air and Soil Pollution, 229(3), 90–117. systems in the Hilly terrains of Nsukka Town, Enugu Hounslow, A. (1995). Water quality data analysis and state, S.E. Nigeria. Water Resources Journ. Nigerian interpretation (pp. 397). New York: Lewis Publishers. Association of Hydrogeologists, 14,27–50. Ishaku, J. M., & Ezeigbo, H. I. (2010). Groundwater quality USEPA. (1994). Quality criteria for water. EPA 440/5-86- monitoring in Jemeta-Yola Area of northeastern Nigeria. 001 (pp. 20460). Washington, DC. Journal of Water Resources, 20(2), 1–14. WHO. (2017). Guidelines for drinking water quality, fourth Kehinde, M. O. (1998). The impact of industrial growth on edition incorporating ﬁrst addendum Edn. groundwater quality and availability. In A. Osuntokun V.1Recommendation (pp. 515). Geneva: WHO. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Geology Ecology and Landscapes Taylor & Francis http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/taylor-francis/assessment-of-the-impact-of-onsite-sanitary-sewage-system-and-x2uOak1MAW

Loading next page...

References

References for this paper are not available at this time. We will be adding them shortly, thank you for your patience.

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Copyright: © 2018 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
ISSN: 2474-9508
DOI: 10.1080/24749508.2018.1493635
Publisher site: See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 2019, VOL. 3, NO. 1, 65–81 INWASCON https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2018.1493635 Assessment of the impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricultural wastes on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs, south-eastern Nigeria Obialo Solomon Onwuka, Chimankpam Kenneth Ezugwu and Stanley Ikenna Ifediegwu Department of Geology, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 9 April 2018 Physicochemical, multivariate, and bacteriological analyses were integrated to assess the Accepted 24 June 2018 impact of onsite sanitary sewage and agricultural waste on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs. Results of the physicochemical analysis suggest that groundwater samples in KEYWORDS the study area are acidic, with very few samples having electrical conductivity and total Bacteriological examination; dissolved solids above WHO standard for drinking water. The abundance of the major ions are geogenic processes; 2+ 2+ + + − 2- − − 2- in the following order: Ca ˃Mg ˃K ˃Na ˃ Cl =PO ˃NO ˃HCO ˃SO . Fifty-ﬁve groundwater ﬂow direction; 4 3 3 4 2+ − + + percent of the stiﬀ plot shows Ca – Cl water type and 45% of the stiﬀ shows Na +K – Ikem town; sewage system − 2+ 2+ − 2- Cl water type. The dominant hydrochemical facies in the study area are Ca –Mg –Cl SO + + 2- − (83%) and Na +K and SO +Cl (17%). Durov and Piper diagrams illustrated that simple mineral dissolution and ion exchange processes are mainly responsible for variation in the hydrogeochemistry. Bacteriological analysis shows that the groundwater is contaminated with faecal waste. The principal component analysis, correlation, and cluster analysis reﬂect Faecal matter contamination through onsite sanitary sewage system, leaching of agricultural waste into the groundwater and weathering and dissolution of host rocks. Groundwater ﬂow direction is local and controlled by topographic highs, weathering and fracturing of the host rock in the study area. Introduction identify factors controlling groundwater quality in Emene, Enugu State. Ayantobo, Oluwasanya, Idowu, Groundwater in urban and semi-urban areas is and Eruola (2012) assessed the quality of hand-dug increasingly contaminated, essentially due to increase wells and noted nitrate, fecal coliform, and total coli- in domestic waste and agricultural activities form at objectionable levels and that they were pro- (Kehinde, 1998; Adelana et al. 2003; Adelana, Bale., nounced in wells located close to the sewage systems. & Wu, 2004; Adelana, Bale, Olasehinde, & Wu, 2005; Omotoyinbo (2007) stated that the pollution of Ajala, 2005; Ocheri, 2006; Adelana, Abiye, Nkhuwa., organic and inorganic waste in Ado-Ekiti is attributed Tindinugaya, & Oga, 2008). Many studies have been to the location of wells in terms of distance to onsite conducted on groundwater quality with focus on the sewage system and proximity to agricultural waste. eﬀect of onsite sanitary sewage and agricultural Dapo (1990) stated that developing countries do not wastes on groundwater quality. Ocheri and Odoma have adequate sanitation system. Donlagic, Odobasic, (2013) established correlation between coliform and and Bratovic (2007) stated that uncontrolled uses of nitrates, total dissolved solids (TDS) and calcium, fertilizer and pesticides are responsible for contam- calcium, lead, and geology, to ascertain groundwater ination of shallow groundwater; they also highlighted quality in hand-dug wells with close proximity to a that animal wastes harbor pathogenic organisms sewage and agricultural waste contamination. Ishaku which contaminate groundwater. Uma (2003) high- and Ezeigbo (2010) analyzed the quality of ground- lighted that shallow water table and moderate perme- water in Jimeta - Yola and found that the concentra- ability of the lateritic host rock have rendered the tion of chloride, nitrate, and TDS and coliforms perched aquifer around Enugu metropolis, vulnerable exceeds WHO allowable limits for drinking water to sewage buried in septic tanks and soakaway sys- and is more abundant in the rainy season. Onwuka, tems. Concerns over the quality of water harnessed Uma, and Ezeigbo (2004) assessed the potability of especially from hand-dug wells have received wide shallow groundwater using parameters of waste deri- attention among the following researchers: Echinola vable chemical components such as nitrate, chloride, and Cooker (2002), Nnodo and Illo (2002), sulfate, and indicator micro-organism of fecal coli- Ogunbadewa (2002), Omofonmwam and Eseigbe form. Similarly, Omono, Onwuka, and Okogbue (2009), Onwuka et al. (2004), and Ovrawah and (2013) used principal component analysis (PCA) to CONTACT Chimankpam Kenneth Ezugwu chimankpamkenneth2014@gmail.com Department of Geology, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria © 2018 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 66 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Hymore (2001). Their ﬁndings consistently showed East Local Government Area on the west both in that water from shallow hand-dug wells is more pol- Enugu State. It has a total land cover of about 1283 luted by anthropogenic activities than by geogenic km , which is within the Guinea Savanna region of the processes. This work tends to integrate physicochem- state. The annual precipitation is about 184 mm. The ical analysis, selected heavy metal analysis, and bac- major towns in the study area include Eha-Amufu, teriological and multivariate analyses to access the Ikem, Mbu, and Nekeand Umualor. The population of impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricul- the study area is about 169,811 persons (NPC, 2006). tural wastes on groundwater quality. Within the study area, no work has been done on groundwater Topography and drainage quality; about 80% of the population earns their live- lihood through commercial agriculture, accomplished The study area shows varying elevation ranging from by high use of fertilizers, insecticides, and manure to 250 m in the northwestern part of the study area to enhance crop yield. These could be a major source of 90 m in the southeastern part of the area (Figure 2). groundwater pollution in the study area. Onsite sani- Due to the high elevation in the northern part of the tary sewage system and open defecation are the major study area, most of rivers took their source there and ﬂow sewage systems in the study area; little or no attempt southward forming distributaries along their ﬂow paths. is made to ascertain the porosity and permeability of The drainage pattern is dendritic (Figure 3). The main rocks, topography, direction of groundwater ﬂow, rivers in the study area are Ebonyi and Amanyi Rivers. and depth to water table before sitting toilets facil- The Ebonyi River ﬂows northwestward to the central ities. Hand-dug wells are designed and located with- part of the study area, where it joins the Amanyi River. out proper site investigation as to ascertain nearness The streams in the study area are seasonal. Water level in to pollution source centers. The depth to ground- hand-dug wells, within or close to the streams and rivers, water in the study area is shallow and based on ﬁeld occurs at an average depth of 6–15 m (Table 1). Some examination and survey is prone to contamination. hand-dug wells in the northwestern part of the study area dry up simultaneously with the streams and rivers during dry season. The study area The study area is Ikem and its environs in the Isi-uzo Geology of the area Local Government area of Enugu State (Figure 1). It is bounded by 6°39ʹ57.25″N and 6°48’37.25″Nlatitudes The study area is underlain by the Nkporo Formation and 7°39ʹ41.98″E and 7°50’56.98″E longitudes. It shears and Agwu Formation (Figure 4). The Nkporo boundary on the east with Ado and Okpokwu Local Formation of late Campanian age is the basal facies Government Areas of Benue State, Ishielu Local of the late Cretaceous sedimentary cycle in the Government Area of Ebonyi State on the south, Anambra basin. The lithology of the Nkporo Akpoga - Imilike on the north, and Nike in Enugu Formation consists mainly of carbonaceous shales, Figure 1. Location of the study area on a vegetation map of Nigeria (After Obaje, 2009). GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 67 Figure 2. Drainage map of the study area. Figure 3. Topographic map of the study area. sandstone, and coals within the upper half deposited sediments are normally associated with siderites and in lower ﬂood plain and swampy environments. The pyrites, which are early diagenetic minerals 68 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Table 1. Head values of groundwater in the study area. Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Elevation (m) Water depth (m) Head value (m) ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6°42 04.74 7° 38 18.98 151 11 140 ˈ ˈˈ ˈˈ 6° 44 11.35 7°38ˈ02.05 190 10 180 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6°43 35.13 7° 38 02.05 195 15 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 42 33.94 7° 40 24.19 160 10 150 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 41 38.42 7° 40 39.12 151 11 130 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 43 21.26 7° 41 51.50 161 11 150 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 40 49.72 7° 39 38.53 150 10 140 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 46 54.25 7° 39 23.25 170 10 160 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 47 19.79 7° 40 43.39 155 15 140 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 46 49.28 7° 42 23.34 157 7 150 ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6°44ˈ 54.17 7° 41 26.62 190 10 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 46 08.98 7° 42 07.59 180 10 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 49 00.49 7° 40 09.92 181 11 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 48 24.87 7° 40 01.14 111 11 100 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 46 04.35 7° 41 42.07 170 10 160 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 47 01.28 07° 44 40.68 162 12 150 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 48 16.47 7° 42 57.32 181 11 170 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 45 53.37 7° 44 49.06 170 10 160 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 48 22.64 7° 44 19.56 94 9 85 ˈ ˈˈ ˈˈ 6° 47 05.79 7° 46ˈ 47.50 130 10 130 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 45 10.79 7° 46 40.05 147 7 110 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 49 27.38 7° 46 23.49 120 10 110 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 45 43.79 7° 46 34.32 140 10 130 ˈ ˈˈ ˈ ˈˈ 6° 45 11.79 7° 48 16.97 131 11 120 Figure 4. Geologic map of the study area. GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 69 (Rayment, 1965). The Owelli Sandstone is the major local and is controlled by topographic highs and sand member of the Nkporo Formation. The area is fractures in the area (Figure5). In Figure 4,diﬀerent also underlain by the Awgu Formation; it overlies the color shades represent hydraulic heads. EzeAku Shale conformably. The lithology is bluish- gray well-bedded shale interbedded with ﬁne yellow Groundwater chemistry calcareous sandstone and shaly limestone, with a total thickness of 900 m. The strata are greatly folded and Water samples were taken from 25 hand-dug wells in fractured (Rayment, 1965). the study area, and were analyzed for major anions, cations, and four selected heavy metals associated with sewage and agricultural wastes. The physical Materials and methods parameters, major ions analyzed, and selected metals are shown in Tables 2, 3, and 4, respectively. This study adopted the sample survey method which Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) and the TDS of involves direct observation, collection of water sam- the groundwater in the study area averaged 5.1 and ples, and laboratory analysis of the water samples 210 mg/L, respectively, indicating acidic ground- among others. A 3-day reconnaissance survey of the water. The minimum pH was obtained from the study environment was conducted from 18th to 21st groundwater sample at locations 6 and 1 (CK6 and June 2017. The investigation commenced with the CK1, respectively). The acidic nature of the ground- use of global positioning systems to mark out the water can be attributed to oxidation of sulﬁde miner- locations of 25 water wells investigated in the study. als, sulfur contained in the host rocks, and the Four groundwater samples from each well were col- inﬂuence of anthropogenic activities (Collin et al. lected in 1 L plastic containers from 20th and 24th 2018). The EC of the groundwater varied from August 2017. One set of samples was used for the 0.08 µs/cm at locations CK2 and CK25 to 1.96 µs/ cation determination, the second set for the anion cm at location CK6 (Table 2). The variation in EC is determination, the third set for biological analysis, attributed to diﬀerent degrees of enrichment in the and the fourth set for selected heavy metal analysis. deposition environment during accumulation and Physical parameters such as acidity (pH), tempera- anthropogenic activities. There is ﬂuctuation in the ture, and electrical conductivity (EC) that change temperature of groundwater in the area of study. The rapidly with time were measured in the ﬁeld. Total temperature ranges between 10°C and 31°C. The bacteria and fecal coliform counts were determined values conﬁrmed existence of hydraulic connection by using the Millipore ﬁltration method. The pH was between the groundwater environment and the determined by using a Hach portable pH/ISE meter. ground surface based on the similarity with surface The meter was calibrated with buﬀers pH 4.0 and 9.0 water temperature and wide range of groundwater prior to measurement. EC and TDS were determined temperature (10°C −31°C). by wissenschaftlich-Technische-Werkstatten (WTW) The dominant cations in the groundwater, in conductivity meter. 0.8M EDTA titration cartridge 2+ 2+ + + order of abundance, are Ca ˃Mg ˃K ˃Na was selected and titrated against the water samples. 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ (Table 3). The calcium concentrations from hand- Heavy metals, such as Pb ,Cu ,Zn , and Mn , dug wells range from 10 mg/L at location CK22 to were determined by digital bulk 205 atomic absorp- 2- − 2+ 195 mg/L at locations CK7 and CK18, respectively. tion spectrophotometer. SO ,NO , and Fe were 4 3 Magnesium ion ranged from 1.65 mg/L at location determined by Hach DR/2000 spectrophotometer. Ck5 to 33.78mg/L at location CK6 (Figure 6). The Multivariate analysis was carried out using sources of calcium and magnesium in the water sam- Statgraphics software. Three statistical tests carried ples from the study area are thought to be from the out are the correlation analysis, cluster analysis dissolution of the limestone and shale in the study (CA), and PCA. Hydrochemical plots were drawn area. using Rockworks16; maps were made using ArcGIS The concentration of sodium varied from 10.2 and Surfer10. 0.188 mg/L at location CK23 to 113 mg/L at location CK12. All the samples have sodium concentrations Results and discussion within the permissible limit of 200 mg/L stipulated by WHO (2017). The concentration of K in the Groundwater ﬂow system groundwater varied from 0.59 mg/L at location The hydraulic head data alongside the wells coordi- CK22 to 39 mg/L at location CK9. The sources of nate were used to generate the hydraulic head map sodium in the water samples are attributed to host (Table 1). On a general note, regional groundwater rock dissolution, while the source of potassium is ﬂow direction is not expected in the area, owing to its thought to be from host rock dissolution and/or shaly lithology, patched sandy aquifer, and the undu- leaching of agricultural waste. Diﬀerent color shades lating topography. Groundwater ﬂow direction is in the diagram (Figure 6) show variation of major 70 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 5. Groundwater ﬂow map of the study area. Table 2. The analyzed physical parameters. cations with respect to their location in the study EC TDS Temp area. Chloride and phosphate are the dominant Sample name ID µs/cm mg/L PH (°C) anions in the groundwater in the study area. The UMUALOR AGU CK1 0.12 54 6.5 25 dominant anion in the order of abundance is AMUDAMU CK2 0.08 43 6 20 − 2- − − 2- Cl ˃PO ˃NO ˃HCO ˃SO (Table 3). Nitrate 4 3 3 4 IKEM CK3 0.19 82 5.7 25 OBOGU CK4 0.19 76 5.9 28 concentration in hand-dug wells is lower than ONUME CK5 1.11 55 5.2 31 10 mg/L allowable limit for drinking water, with the EHA-AMUFU CK6 1.97 1145 6.5 30 MBU-AMONU CK7 0.36 188 6.1 10 exception of CK6, CK14, and CK24. The maximum UGWUOSHIME CK8 0.85 168 6.4 23 value is 1.9 mg/L which was recorded in CK6. MBU MARKET CK9 0.13 61 6.1 30 NO has an average of 0.08996 mg/land ranges AKPOTI CK10 0.36 171 5.8 31 AGUMEDE CK11 0.22 103 5.7 22 from 0.015 mg/L at CK 19 to 1.9 mg/L at CK6. The AGU-UMUALOR CK12 0.13 59 5.5 28 source of nitrate in the study area could be attributed NEKE CK13 0.25 108 5.5 30 NKWO-NEKE CK14 0.18 93 5.3 30 to onsite sanitary sewage contamination and/or IKEM-NKWO CK15 0.14 67 5.4 26 leaching of agricultural waste. It also contributes in NEKE AGUAMEDE CK16 0.12 0.42 5.3 28 APKOGA CK17 0.05 0.23 5.3 28 lowering the pH by forming weak acids (tetraoxoni- MGBUJI CK18 1.84 949 6.2 25 trate V acid) through oxidation and hydration. In this IHENYI CK19 2.12 1066 6.4 21 EGEDEGEBE CK20 1.92 1013 6.6 26 work, the chloride concentrations from hand-dug NEKE-ULOR CK21 0.22 106 6.4 30 wells are within the permissible limit of 250 mg/L UMU-ULOR CK22 0.09 40 5.7 30 for drinking water prescribed by WHO (2017). Cl AGUAMEDE ULOR CK23 0.18 81 5.6 31 OGO-NDOGO CK24 0.14 65 6.7 28 has an average of 143.168 mg/L and ranges from AGUAMEDE ETITE CK25 0.08 33 6.1 30 13.49 mg/L at CK8 to 248.5 mg/L at CK1. The source CK represents groundwater sample at particular location. could also be onsite sanitary sewage contamination GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 71 Table 3. The analyzed major ions. mg/L + 2+ 2+ 2 2- Sample name ID Na K Ca Mg HCO PO Cl NO SO 3 4 3 4 UMUALOR AGU CK1 50.83 3.43 27.51 4.53 9.00 29.98 248.51 0.16 1.25 AMUDAMU CK2 111.65 18.05 32.52 5.36 7.00 12.82 65.00 0.08 1.56 IKEM CK3 238.71 5.05 27.51 4.53 6.00 11.62 92.31 0.08 1.73 OBOGU CK4 37.45 15.25 12.56 24.51 4.00 9.13 44.88 0.08 1.64 ONUME CK5 215.6 3.75 10.00 1.65 3.00 9.96 177.51 0.07 5.5 EHA-AMUFU CK6 26.75 21.43 205.11 33.80 4.00 11.16 220.10 0.11 1.76 MBU-AMONU CK7 18.73 9.64 17.55 6.11 1.00 9.77 42.61 0.08 11 UGWUOSHIME CK8 231.11 39.86 20.00 10.00 1.00 10.05 13.00 0.09 2.08 MBU MARKET CK9 40.13 3.74 23.00 17.00 2.00 8.57 16.33 0.11 1.94 AKPOTI CK10 6.52 2.98 12.12 6.00 0.98 8.30 9.00 0.16 1.61 AGUMEDE CK11 6.13 10.46 22.51 3.71 4.00 9.13 38.00 0.09 2.46 AGU-UMUALOR CK12 1.84 2.13 180.00 2.12 6.00 10.33 28.00 0.09 6.49 NKWO– NEKE CK14 4.92 4.25 25.00 4.12 10.00 8.11 50.00 0.09 0.64 IKEM-NKWO CK15 3.67 6.12 25.00 4.12 8.00 9.68 75.00 0.09 2.76 NEKE AGUAMEDE CK16 4.29 5.61 19.00 2.06 3.14 7.74 85.25 0.14 1.66 APKOGA CK17 4.29 2.98 18.00 9.00 11.88 8.57 149.18 0.08 4.98 MGBUJI CK18 1.23 10.97 195.00 32.19 0.22 9.50 83.00 0.13 1.69 IHENYI CK19 4.91 4.55 50.00 28.4 0.24 12.73 8.00 0.02 3.98 EGEDEGEBE CK20 1.84 5.63 75.00 28.46 0.16 9.96 36.99 0.12 2.72 NEKE– ULOR CK21 254.00 1.91 32.51 0.00 0.18 9.13 85.88 0.08 2.38 UMU-ULOR CK22 0.31 0.59 10.00 1.65 0.16 9.04 35.51 0.09 10.77 AGUAMEDE ULOR CK23 0.18 0.64 12.56 2.06 0.18 8.94 56.81 0.09 5.22 OGO-NDOGO CK24 0.44 0.71 15.00 2.47 0.18 8.30 9.87 0.09 3.77 AGUAMEDE ETITE CK25 0.25 0.67 10.10 1.65 0.16 9.68 93.31 0.08 2.21 Table 4. The analyzed heavy metals. 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ to 10 mg/L at CK24 and CK15, respectively Zn Fe Mn Pb (Figure 7). The concentrations of bicarbonates are Sample name ID µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L UMUALOR AGU CK1 0.2 0.179 0.256 0.067 thought to be derived from dissolution of limestone 2- AMUDAMU CK2 0.2 0.166 0.202 0.048 and shale from the study area. PO has an average IKEM CK3 0.2 0.149 0.203 0.049 of 10.5203 mg/L and ranges from 7.749 mg/L at OBOGU CK4 0.2 0.191 0.227 0.093 ONUME CK5 0.2 0.163 1 0.074 CK16 to 29.981 mg/L at CK1. The concentration of EHA-AMUFU CK6 0.2 0.189 0.223 0.069 2- PO in the groundwater could also be attributed to MBU-AMONU CK7 0.2 0.182 0.211 0.096 UGWUOSHIME CK8 0.2 0.161 0.263 0.086 onsite sanitary sewage contamination and/or leaching MBU MARKET CK9 0.1 0.165 0.203 0.091 of agricultural waste. It also contributes in lowering AKPOTI CK10 0.2 0.133 0.293 0.087 AGUMEDE CK11 0.1 0.152 0.227 0.069 the pH by forming weak tetraoxophosphate (V) acid AGU-UMUALOR CK12 0.1 0.154 1.82 0.08 through oxidation and hydration (Hongbo, NEKE CK13 0.1 0.196 0.178 0.07 NKWO-NEKE CK14 0.1 0.168 0.284 0.068 Yangyang, & Suyun, 2018). Diﬀerent color shades in IKEM-NKWO CK15 0.1 0.193 0.162 0.084 the diagram (Figure 7) show variation of major NEKE AGUAMEDE CK16 0.1 0.145 0.198 0.096 anions with respect to their location in the study area. APKOGA CK17 0.1 0.114 0.191 0.112 MGBUJI CK18 0.1 0.144 0.261 0.127 Manganese and iron are the dominant metals in the IHENYI CK19 0.1 0.152 0.317 0.123 groundwater of the study area, in the following order of EGEDEGEBE CK20 0.1 0.166 0.247 0.141 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ NEKE -ULOR CK21 0.1 0.149 0.27 0.093 abundance: Mn ˃Fe ˃Zn ˃Pb ˃Cu (Figure 7). UMU-ULOR CK22 0.1 0.214 0.173 0.122 Generally, the low concentrations of the heavy metals AGUAMEDE ULOR CK23 0.1 0.156 0.254 0.12 OGO-NDOGO CK24 0.1 0.137 0.259 0.128 reﬂect majorly geogenic heavy metal contamination of AGUAMEDE ETITE CK25 0.1 0.151 0.31 0.094 groundwater with little or no contamination from anthropogenic activities (Table 4). The host rocks are associated with siderites and pyrites which are early and/or leaching of agricultural waste. The concentra- diagenetic minerals (Rayment, 1965). The concentra- 2- tion of SO from hand-dug wells has an average of tions of the metals are below the WHO acceptable limit 9.3 mg/L and ranges from 0.64 to 11.92 mg/L at for drinking water. Variations of selected metals with CK15 and CK14, respectively. All the samples are respect to their location in the study area are shown in within the maximum allowable limit of 250 mg/L Figure 8 as shades of colors. stipulated by USEPA (1994). The high concentration of sulfate is likely due to dissolution of limestone which underlies the area. It also contributes in low- Water type and hydrochemical facies ering the pH by forming weak acids through oxida- Hydrochemical data of analyzed samples from the tion and hydration (Colin et al., 2018). study area are plotted on a piper trilinear, stiﬀ and The distribution of bicarbonate in the study area Durov diagrams for visual comparison, rock type has an average of 0.4448 mg/L and ranges from 0.16 deduction, and delineation of hydrochemical facies. 72 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 6. Variation of major cations with respect to their location in the study area. Figure 7. Variation of major anions with respect to their location in the study area. Hydrochemical facies are diﬀerent zones that possess Piper diagram similar cation and anion concentration categories. Water types and hydrochemical facies can be unraveled by the use of a piper diagram. The diamond part of the piper diagram shown (Figure 10) can be used to char- Stiﬀ diagram acterize water of diﬀerent waters (Hounslow, 1995). The dominant water types in the study area were Water plotted at the corner of diamond is primarily 2+ 2+ – 2- determined using stiﬀ diagrams. Stiﬀ patterns can composed of Ca –Mg and Cl –SO which depicts be used to show distinctive trends of water compo- areas of permanent hardness and can be classiﬁed as sition (Hem, 1985). Thesizeofthe patternis calcium/magnesium and chloride/sulﬁde type, demon- approximately equal to the total ionic content strating the dominance of alkaline earths over alkali (Ca (Hounslow, 1995). From the plots in Figure 8, + Mg> Na+ K) and strongacidic anions over weak 2+ − 55% of the stiﬀ plot shows Ca – Cl water type acidic anions (Cl+ SO >HCO ). Water at the right 4 3 + + − + + 2- − and 45% of the stiﬀ shows Na +K – Cl water corner of diamond depicts Na +K and SO +Cl type (Figure 9(a–e)). which can be classiﬁed as sodium/potassium and GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 73 Figure 8. Variation of selected metals with respect to their location in the study area. Figure 9. (a) Variation in the stiﬀ diagram for CK1–CK6. (b) Variation in the stiﬀ diagram for CK7–CK12. (c) Variation in the stiﬀ diagram for CK13–CK18. (d)Stiﬀ diagram for CK19–CK24. (e) Stiﬀ diagram for CK25. 74 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 9. (Continued). GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 75 Figure 9. (Continued). sulfate/chloride type. Figure 9 shows that 60% of the 7, along the dissolution or mixing line. Based on the cations in the water samples fall within Ca water type classiﬁcation of Lloyd and Heathcote (1985), the + + of the piper trilinear plot, 30% plotted within Na +K trend of groundwater in the study area can be attrib- + − section, and 10% indicate mixed water type having no uted Na and Cl as dominant anion/cation, indicat- cation–anion pair (Figure 10). The anions plot within ing that the waters can be related to ion exchange of + − the chloride section. This shows that the dominant Na -Cl waters. 2+ − + water types in the study area are Ca –Cl and Na +K–Cl ; this is inconformity with the results obtained Bacteriological analysis from the Stiﬀ diagrams. Coliforms Biological analysis of groundwater samples obtained Durov diagram from the study area shows signiﬁcant concentration Durov diagram (Figure 11) shows that 83% of the of coliform (Table 5). The concentration ranges from samples plot in the ﬁelds 1 and 4, along the ion 120 to 2500 mpn/100 mL (Figure 10), which is above exchange line, while 17% of the samples plot in ﬁeld WHO (2017) standard for drinking water. Coliform 76 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 10. Piper plots of the physicochemical parameters of groundwater in the study area. Figure 11. Durov plot depicting hydrochemical processes involved (Lloyd and Heathcote 1985). concentration in the groundwater is an indication Samples collected from CK6, CK8, CK9, CK11, and that the groundwater is associated with human CK12 have fecal coliform concentration above waste or animal intestine tract and its presence in 1000 mpn/100 mL. The sample CK6 around Eha- the groundwater strongly indicates sewage contami- Amufu collage of Education has the highest coliform nation (Nan, Li, Linqiong, Longfei, & Lihua, 2018). count of 2600 mpn/100 mL (Figure 12). GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 77 Table 5. Bacteriological parameters from the study area. Correlation analysis Coli form E. coli Correlation coeﬃcient is used to establish the rela- S/N Sample name mpn/100 mL mpn/100 mL tionships between parameters (Danijele, Milovan, 1 UMUALOR AGU 500 01 Ljijana, & Ivana, 2015). It helps to know how one 2 AMUDAMU 200 13 3 IKEM 170 11 parameter predicts the other. The correlation scores 4 OBOGU 400 22 for TDS, major ions, and heavy metals are pre- 5 ONUME 130 3 6 EHA-AMUFU 2600 35 sented and signiﬁcant correlation between para- 7 MBU -AMONU 160 6 meters was taken at values equal to or greater 8 UGWUOSHIME 1400 9 2+ 2+ + than 0.5 (Table 6). From Table 6,Ca ,Mg ,K , 9 MBU MARKET 1600 13 2- 10 AKPOTI 130 8 and SO appear to be the main contributors of 11 AGUMEDE 2400 20 2+ the groundwater TDS. Ca shows a high correla- 12 AGU-UMUALOR 1800 8 13 NEKE 140 3 tion (0.9998) with Mg, indicating that the two 14 NKWO -NEKE 210 9 cations are from the same source (Omono et al., 15 IKEM- NKWO 460 4 2+ 2- 2+ + 2– 2+ 16 NEKE AGUAMEDE 190 13 2013). Ca -SO ,Mg -K , and SO Mg are 4 4 17 APKOGA 200 8 also more signiﬁcant pairs. The correlation analysis 18 MGBUJI 220 7 19 IHENYI 485 6 also reveals no signiﬁcant correlation between the 20 EGEDEGEBE 160 3 selected metal types studied. 21 NEKE -ULOR 130 6 22 UMU-ULOR 150 5 23 AGUAMEDE ULOR 550 4 24 OGO-NDOGO 220 9 Principal component analysis (PCA) 25 AGUAMEDE ETITE 120 11 PCA was used to identify the most signiﬁcant para- meters from the groundwater and the relationship Environments associated with sewage contamination between them (Danijele et al., 2015). In this study, are breeding grounds for bacterial activities and can 14 variables (parameters) from 25 groundwater sam- be used to identify sewage pollution by testing for ples were used for the PCA, and 5 principal compo- Faecal coliform (Ocheri, 2006). nents extracted (Table 7) which explain 79.105% of the total sample variance. The number of signiﬁcant Escherichia coli (E. coli) PCs for interpretation was selected on the basis of The conﬁrmation of E. coli in the groundwater sample listwise missing value treatment method, with mini- in the study area also indicates fecal contamination. E. mum eigenvalue of 1 (Table 8). The ﬁrst PC (PC1) coli concentration in the study area ranges from 01 to explains 33% of the total variance and has loading for 2+ 2+ 2- 2+ 2+ 2- 35 mpn/100 mL (Figure 13) which is above the 0 mnp/ Ca ,Mg ,SO , and TDS. Ca ,Mg , and SO 4 4 100 mL WHO (2017) standard for drinking water. It are thought to be released from rock mineral dissolu- source is attributed to sewage contamination. tion of shale and limestone within the study area. The second PC (PC2) which accounts for 15.036% of the − − 2- total variance has high loading for NO ,Cl ,PO 3 4 Multivariate analysis 2+ − − 2- , and Pb .Cl ,NO , and PO are thought to be 3 4 released from sewage waste through onsite sanitary Correlation analysis, PCA, and CA tests were carried sewage system. PC3 accounts for 11.961% of the total out on the geochemical data (Tables 2 and 4). Figure 12. Variation in coliform count in the study area. 78 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 13. Variation in E. coli count in the study area. Table 6. Correlations scores for TDS, major ions, and heavy metals. − − 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ + − 2- NO Cl Ca Mg Mn Fe Zn K HCO SO 3 3 4 NO 0.1931 0.0677 0.0616 0.1022 0.1312 −0.0045 0.0722 −0.0863 −0.0124 0.3550 0.7479 0.7699 0.6268 0.5318 0.9831 0.7317 0.6818 0.9531 Cl 0.1931 0.4620 0.4654 0.1908 0.0072 −0.1866 0.0374 0.0146 0.3326 0.3550 0.0201 0.0191 0.3610 0.9726 0.3717 0.8591 0.9448 0.1043 2+ Ca 0.0677 0.4620 0.9998 0.1333 0.0399 −0.0485 0.6056 0.4067 0.7977 0.7479 0.0201 0.0000 0.5252 0.8498 0.8179 0.0013 0.0437 0.0000 2+ Mg 0.0616 0.4654 0.9998 0.1335 0.0396 −0.0464 0.6058 0.4031 0.7916 0.7699 0.0191 0.0000 −0.5247 0.8511 0.8259 0.0013 0.0457 0.0000 2+ Mn −0.1022 0.1908 −0.1333 −0.1335 −0.1239 −0.1134 −0.1750 −0.1986 −0.0257 0.6268 0.3610 0.5252 0.5247 0.5552 0.5895 0.4029 0.3413 0.9028 2+ Fe 0.1312 0.0072 0.0399 0.0396 −0.1239 0.1089 0.1219 −0.4006 −0.1174 0.5318 0.9726 0.8498 0.8511 0.5552 0.6042 0.5616 0.0472 0.5762 2+ Zn −0.0045 −0.1866 −0.0485 −0.0464 −0.1134 0.1089 0.0538 0.3061 −0.1295 0.9831 0.3717 0.8179 0.8259 0.5895 0.6042 0.7984 0.1367 0.5373 K 0.0722 0.0374 0.6056 0.6058 −0.1750 0.1219 0.0538 0.1232 0.4434 0.7317 0.8591 0.0013 0.0013 0.4029 0.5616 0.7984 0.5575 0.0264 HC0 −0.0863 0.0146 0.4067 0.4031 −0.1986 −0.4006 0.3061 0.1232 0.4802 0.6818 0.9448 0.0437 0.0457 0.3413 0.0472 0.1367 0.5575 0.0151 2- SO −0.0124 0.3326 0.7977 0.7916 −0.0257 −0.1174 −0.1295 0.4434 0.4802 0.9531 0.1043 0.0000 0.0000 0.9028 0.5762 0.5373 0.0264 0.0151 2+ Pb −0.0486 −0.3205 0.3183 0.3116 −0.1235 −0.1866 −0.4011 0.1852 0.1770 0.5738 0.8177 0.1183 0.1210 0.1294 0.5565 0.3718 0.0469 0.3754 0.3974 0.0027 TDS −0.0156 0.3742 0.9706 0.9698 −0.0980 0.0349 −0.0328 0.7163 0.3588 0.8064 0.9409 0.0654 0.0000 0.0000 0.6413 0.8686 0.8764 0.0001 0.0782 0.0000 Na 0.1654 −0.1612 −0.0428 −0.0447 −0.0476 0.1148 0.0155 0.3891 −0.2038 −0.0747 0.4295 0.4414 0.8391 0.8320 0.8211 0.5847 0.9414 0.0545 0.3286 0.7226 2- P0 0.4643 0.4082 0.0862 0.0877 −0.0086 0.2062 0.2803 −0.0261 −0.0477 0.0675 0.0194 0.0428 0.6819 0.6766 0.9673 0.3228 0.1747 0.9016 0.8208 0.7487 2+ + + variance and has high loading for Fe ,K , and Na Table 9. With a minimum score of 1.5 (Table 9), PC1 which are thought to be released from leaching of has high loading on samples CK6, CK18, CK19, and agricultural wastes. PC4 accounts for 10.779% of the CK20 which indicates that they are controlled by the 2+ 2+ total variance and has loading for Mn and Zn ; inﬂuence of weathering of host rocks. PC2 has high PC5 accounts for 7.948% of the total variance and has loading for samples CK1, CK2, CK6, CK17, and 2+ 2+ high loading for Mn and Pb . Both PC4 and PC5 CK24 which indicates that they are controlled by reﬂect geogenic heavy metal contamination. The sanitary Sewage waste and PC3 reﬂects agricultural heavy metal contamination is due to the fact that waste contamination with high loading for CK3, CK5, the host rocks are associated with siderites and CK6, CK7, CK17, CK19, and CK8. PC4 and PC5 have pyrites. high loading for samples CK3, CK7, CK8, CK17, The controlling processes of the principal compo- CK19, and CK12 which indicates host rock dissolu- nents (PC1, PC2, PC3, PC4, and PC5) are shown in tion and weathering (geogenic contamination). GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 79 Table 7. Extracted principal components with minimum distance. Three clusters were observed: the ﬁrst − 2- − eigenvalue of 1. cluster (NO ,PO , and Cl )containsthe same 3 4 Component Percent of Cumulative parameters as in PC2 and reﬂects the inﬂuence of number Eigenvalue variance percentage fecal waste contaminationofgroundwater in the 1 4.67324 33.380 33.380 2+ 2+ 2- study area. The second cluster (Ca ,Mg ,SO 2 2.10501 15.036 48.416 + 2+ ,K ,Pb ) contains the same parameters PC1 and 3 1.67455 11.961 60.377 4 1.50912 10.779 71.157 PC3, and reﬂects the inﬂuence of host rock disso- 5 1.11278 7.948 79.105 lution/weathering and agricultural waste contami- 6 0.964973 6.893 85.998 2+ 2+ 7 0.717531 5.125 91.123 nation, respectively. The third cluster (Mn ,Cu , 8 0.422905 3.021 94.144 2+ − 2+ 2+ Zn ,HCO ,Fe , and Na )iscontained in PC3, 9 0.375623 2.683 96.827 10 0.238289 1.702 98.529 PC4, and PC5 reﬂects geogenic contamination of 11 0.138923 0.992 99.521 2+ 2+ groundwater, with the exception of Fe and Na 12 0.0563546 0.403 99.923 13 0.0106025 0.076 99.999 (Figure 14). 14 0.000108714 0.001 100.000 Table 8. Component weights of the variables. Component Component Component Component Component 12 3 4 5 NO 0.0256655 −0.377815 0.141854 −0.0684572 −0.56558 Cl 0.186095 −0.403235 −0.312763 −0.303561 0.156091 Ca 0.4499 −0.0679805 −0.00777586 −0.0181252 0.0558679 Mg 0.44895 −0.0700243 −0.00890025 −0.01763 0.0623217 Mn −0.0701047 −0.0315322 −0.26074 −0.389645 0.46989 Fe −0.0187944 −0.317935 0.389649 −0.0776809 0.0233882 Zn −0.0346689 −0.219899 0.0242947 0.67324 0.247045 K 0.306844 −0.0202928 0.425226 0.0579494 0.187228 HCO 0.219514 0.159876 −0.299003 0.501587 −0.0382638 SO 0.410064 0.0906314 −0.118424 −0.0518187 −0.0870168 Pb 0.200643 0.441748 0.0609927 −0.154068 −0.442961 TDS 0.449989 −0.0135663 0.0689911 −0.0216194 0.131635 Na −0.00462057 0.00569684 0.587398 −0.0516027 0.191826 PO 0.0318357 −0.55241 −0.154125 0.0831554 −0.268225 Table 9. The controlling processes of the principal components with minimum score of 1.5. Component Component Component Component Component Row 12345 1 −0.47643 −5.1226 −1.0349 0.203091 −2.39837 2 −0.931212 −1.66034 −0.366119 0.246363 0.851449 3 −0.663769 −0.486486 −1.724 4.78788 1.1874 4 −1.45232 −0.186542 0.969995 0.756267 0.291793 5 −1.4003 −0.296373 −1.51622 −0.979722 1.36853 6 3.85881 −2.02993 1.67439 −0.034882 1.47115 7 −0.387305 0.540582 1.8066 0.843272 0.318746 8 −0.812873 0.601349 3.32149 0.917647 0.853004 9 −0.990622 0.0136959 0.927444 −0.613237 −0.286247 10 −0.860756 0.314662 0.366815 0.003098 0.147895 11 −0.765923 −0.10517 −0.303649 −0.157464 0.0679004 12 −1.44143 −0.323277 −1.43679 −2.50721 2.06087 13 −0.499512 −1.16534 1.21766 −1.10707 0.474306 14 −0.813189 −0.461153 −0.468971 −1.07331 0.353585 15 −1.00388 −0.339135 0.077707 −0.424539 −0.561162 16 −0.82623 1.38068 −0.240843 0.409815 −0.835511 17 −0.6813 1.90206 −2.12731 0.382839 −0.980213 18 5.27095 0.15448 −0.130909 −0.226581 −0.775428 19 4.82952 1.28956 −1.75375 −0.016434 1.29366 20 5.17273 0.57217 0.334075 −0.212278 −1.29228 21 −0.600366 0.615366 −0.58962 −0.301009 −0.247937 22 −1.21411 0.627798 1.35207 0.049952 −1.08674 23 −1.06961 1.44181 −0.419377 −0.290293 −1.14364 24 −0.968635 1.80458 0.611321 −0.157507 −0.727365 25 −1.27222 0.91755 −0.547121 −0.498679 −0.405401 Cluster analysis Conclusion Cluster analysis (CA) was used to cluster the Results of the physicochemical analysis suggest that geochemical variables according to their similarities all the water samples in the study area are acidic, with using Ward’s method and squared Euclidean 80 O. S. ONWUKA ET AL. Figure 14. Dendrogram diagram of the groundwater parameters. very few samples having EC and TDS above their reﬂects geogenic contamination of groundwater with 2+ 2+ standard limit. The alkaline earths were dominant the exception that Fe and Na could also reﬂect over alkali and strong acidic anions over weak acidic anthropogenic activities. From the correlation analy- 2+ 2+ + 2- anions in the present study, due to ion exchange and sis, Ca ,Mg ,K , and SO appear to be the main 2+ simple mineral dissolution or mixing. The tempera- contributors of the groundwater TDS. Ca shows a ture range conﬁrmed existence of hydraulic connec- high correlation (0.9998) with Mg, indicating that the tion between the groundwater environment and the two cations are from the same source. The correlation ground surface. Fifty-ﬁve percent of the stiﬀ plot analysis also revealed no signiﬁcant correlation 2+ − shows Ca – Cl water type and 45% of the stiﬀ between the selected metal types studied. + + − shows Na +K – Cl water type. The dominant Groundwater ﬂow direction is local and is controlled 2+ 2 hydrochemical facies in the study area is Ca -Mg by topographic highs, weathering and fracturing of + − 2- 2- − -Cl SO (83%) and Na+ K and SO +Cl (17%). the host rock in the area. 4 4 Groundwater types assessed and compared with Durov and Piper diagrams illustrated that simple Acknowledgments mineral dissolution or mixing and ion exchange pro- cesses are mainly responsible for variation in hydro- The author hereby acknowledges the support and assis- tance from his supervisor, colleagues, family, and depart- geochemistry of ground in the study area. ment of Geology University of Nigeria for their collective Bacteriological analysis shows that the groundwater eﬀorts in making this work a reality. is contaminated with fecal waste. Five principal com- ponents were extracted from the PCA which explains 79.105% of the total sample variance. PC1 could be Disclosure statement said to reﬂect the presence of the weathering and No potential conﬂict of interest was reported by the dissolution of host rocks, PC2 could be said to reﬂect authors. the inﬂuence of anthropogenic activities (contamina- tion from onsite sewage systems), PC3 generally reﬂects leaching of agricultural waste, and PC4 and References PC5 both generally reﬂect geogenic heavy metal con- Adelana, S. M. A., Bale, R. B., & Wu, M. (2004). Water tamination. From the CA (Figure 14), three clusters quality in a growing urban centre along the coast of − 2- were observed: the ﬁrst cluster (NO ,PO , and 3 4 south western Nigeria. In K. P. W. Seilder & R. Xi Cl ) contains the same parameters in PC2 which (Eds.), Research basic and hydrological planning (pp. 83–92). The Netherlands: Balkama. reﬂects the inﬂuence of fecal waste contamination of Adelana, S. M. A., Abiye, T. A., Nkhuwa., D. C. W., the groundwater in the study area. The second cluster 2+ 2+ 2- + 2+ Tindinugaya, C., & Oga, M. S. (2008). Urban ground- (Ca ,Mg ,SO ,K , and Pb ) contains the same water management and protection in sub-Saharan parameters with PC1 and PC3, which reﬂects the Africa. In S. M. A. Adelana & A. M. MacDonald inﬂuence of host rock dissolution/weathering and (Eds.), Applied groundwater studies in Africa, agricultural waste contamination, respectively. The International Association of Hydrogeologists, selected 2+ 2+ 2+ − 2+ papers (pp. 222–259). third cluster (Mn ,Cu ,Zn , HCO ,Fe , and 2+ Adelana, S. M. A., Bale, R. B., Olasehinde, P. I., & Wu, M. Na ) is contained in PC3, PC4, and PC5, which (2005).The impact of anthropogenic activities over GEOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND LANDSCAPES 81 groundwater quality of coastal aquifer in Southwestern (Eds.), Current issues in Nigerian environment. Ibadan, Nigeria. Proceedings on Aquifer vulnerability and Risks. Nigeria: Ibadan Danidan Press. 2nd International Workshop and 4th Congress on the Lloyd, J. A., & Heathcote, J. A. (1985). Natural inorganic Protection and Management of Groundwater. Raggia di hydrochemistry in relation to groundwater: An introduc- Colornoparma. tion (pp. 296). New York: Oxford Uni. Press. Adelana, S. M. A., Bale, R. B., & Wu, M. (2003). Quality of Nan, Y., Li., Y., Linqiong, W., Longfei, W., & Lihua, N. assessment of pollution vulnerability of groundwater in (2018). Hydrodynamic conditions inﬂuence bacterial Lagos metropolis, SW Nigeria. Proceedings of the Aquifer growth and phenol biodegradation of strains with dif- Vulnerability Risk Conference AURO3 Salamenia ferent morphology and motility. Water Air and Soil Mexico, 2,1–17. Pollution, 229(3), 93–98. Ajala, O. (2005). Environmental impact of urbanization, National population commission. (2006). Population ﬁg- culture and the Nigeria. In Fadare, et al (Eds.), ures. Enugu: NPC. Globalisation, culture and Nigerian built environment Nnodo, V. C., & Illo, C. I. (2002). Bacteriological and (pp. 192–199). OAU: Faculty of Environmental Design physicochemical examination of well water in Enugu and Management. South, local government area of Enugu State. 4, 411–417. Ayantobo,O. O., Oluwasanya,G.O.,Idowu,O.A.,& Ocheri, M. I. (2006). Analysis of water consumption pat- Eruola,A. O.(2012). Water quality from hand dug tern in Makurdi metropolis. Journal of Geography and wells in Ibadan. Proceeding, Nigerian Hydrological Development, 1(1), 71–83. Sciences conference on Hydrology for disaster manage- Ocheri, M.I.,&Odoma, L.A. (2013). Baseline investigation ment. Abeokuta: Federal University of Agriculture. of groundwater quality of Lokoja, Nigeria. In C. C. Colin, J. W., Jennifer, N. P., John, G., Christopher, M. C., Mbajiogu, M. CObeta, & C. Anyanwu (Eds.), Scott, G., & Lynch, J. A. (2018). Estimating base cation Proceedings, Nigerian Association of Hydrological weathering rates in the USA: Challenges of uncertain soil Sciences conference on Water Resources and National mineralogy and speciﬁc surface area with applications of Development (pp. 65–71). Nsukka: University of Nigeria.. the PROFILE model. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 229 Ogunbadewa, E. Y. (2002). Some pysico-chemical proper- (3), 61–90. ties of water from hand-dug wells in the basement com- Danijele, V., Milovan, V., Ljijana, T., & Ivana, M. R. (2015). plex of south-western Nigeria. Journal of Water Supply: Application of multivariate statistical techniques in the Research and Technology, 51, 407–417. water quality assessment of Danube river, Serbia. Omofonmwam, S. I., & Eseigbe. (2009). The eﬀect of solid Environmental Protection, 41(4), 96–103. wastes on the quality of ground water in Benin Metropolis, Dapo, O. (1990). Soak-away system and possible ground- Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 26,99–105. water pollution problems in developing countries. The Omono, O. V., Onwuka, O. S., & Okogbue, C. O. (2013). Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, Characterisation of groundwater in three settlement 110(3), 108–112. areas of Enugu metropolis, southern Nigeria. Donlagic, N., Odobasic, A., & Bratovic, A. (2007). Inﬂuence Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. www.ncbi. of agricultural on water quality: Signiﬁcance of heavy nih.gov/pubmed/24037228 metals monitoring. Agricultural Conspectus Scientiﬁcus, Omotoyinbo, O. (2007). Determination of contamination 72(4), 337–381. of underground water (hand dug well) by organic waste: Echinola, O. D., & Cooker, J. J. (2002). Quality of ground A case study of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of water and health hazards implication in Agbowo area of Education and Science, 3,43–50. Ibadan Metropolis, southern Nigeria. Proceedings of a Onwuka, O. S., Uma., K. O., & Ezeigbo, H. I. (2004). national conference on population, Environment and sus- Potability of shallow groundwater in Enugu town, south- tainable development in Nigeria. University of Ado-Ekiti eastern Nigeria. Global Journal of Environmental Science, Nigeria. 3(2), 33–39. Hem, J. D. (1985). Study and interpretation of the chemical Ovrawah, L., & Hymore, F. K. (2001). Quality of water characteristics of natural water (3rd ed). U.S. Geological from hand dug wells in the Warri environs of Niger Survey, water supply paper, 2254. Delta Region. African Journal of Environmental Science Hongbo, L., Yangyang, Y., & Suyun, X. (2018). Removal and Technology., 31,69–79. and transformation of pollutants in a two-line denitrify- Rayment, R. (1965). Aspect of the geology of Nigeria (pp. ing phosphorus removal process treating low C/N muni- 133). Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University press. cipal wastewater: Inﬂuence of hydraulic retention time. Uma, K. O. (2003). Hydrogeology of the perched aquifer Water Air and Soil Pollution, 229(3), 90–117. systems in the Hilly terrains of Nsukka Town, Enugu Hounslow, A. (1995). Water quality data analysis and state, S.E. Nigeria. Water Resources Journ. Nigerian interpretation (pp. 397). New York: Lewis Publishers. Association of Hydrogeologists, 14,27–50. Ishaku, J. M., & Ezeigbo, H. I. (2010). Groundwater quality USEPA. (1994). Quality criteria for water. EPA 440/5-86- monitoring in Jemeta-Yola Area of northeastern Nigeria. 001 (pp. 20460). Washington, DC. Journal of Water Resources, 20(2), 1–14. WHO. (2017). Guidelines for drinking water quality, fourth Kehinde, M. O. (1998). The impact of industrial growth on edition incorporating ﬁrst addendum Edn. groundwater quality and availability. In A. Osuntokun V.1Recommendation (pp. 515). Geneva: WHO.

Journal

Geology Ecology and Landscapes – Taylor & Francis

Published: Jan 2, 2019

Keywords: Bacteriological examination; geogenic processes; groundwater flow direction; Ikem town; sewage system

References

The impact of anthropogenic activities over groundwater quality of coastal aquifer in Southwestern Nigeria
Quality of assessment of pollution vulnerability of groundwater in Lagos metropolis, SW Nigeria
Water quality from hand dug wells in Ibadan
Estimating base cation weathering rates in the USA: Challenges of uncertain soil mineralogy and specific surface area with applications of the PROFILE model
Application of multivariate statistical techniques in the water quality assessment of Danube river, Serbia
Soak-away system and possible groundwater pollution problems in developing countries
Influence of agricultural on water quality: Significance of heavy metals monitoring
Quality of ground water and health hazards implication in Agbowo area of Ibadan Metropolis, southern Nigeria
Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water (3rd ed)
Removal and transformation of pollutants in a two-line denitrifying phosphorus removal process treating low C/N municipal wastewater: Influence of hydraulic retention time
Groundwater quality monitoring in Jemeta-Yola Area of northeastern Nigeria
Hydrodynamic conditions influence bacterial growth and phenol biodegradation of strains with different morphology and motility
Bacteriological and physicochemical examination of well water in Enugu South, local government area of Enugu State
Analysis of water consumption pattern in Makurdi metropolis
Some pysico-chemical properties of water from hand-dug wells in the basement complex of south-western Nigeria
The effect of solid wastes on the quality of ground water in Benin Metropolis, Nigeria
Characterisation of groundwater in three settlement areas of Enugu metropolis, southern Nigeria
Determination of contamination of underground water (hand dug well) by organic waste: A case study of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
Potability of shallow groundwater in Enugu town, southeastern Nigeria
Quality of water from hand dug wells in the Warri environs of Niger Delta Region
Hydrogeology of the perched aquifer systems in the Hilly terrains of Nsukka Town, Enugu state, S.E. Nigeria. Water Resources Journ

Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Assessment of the impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricultural wastes on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs, south-eastern Nigeria

Assessment of the impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricultural wastes on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs, south-eastern Nigeria

Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Assessment of the impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricultural wastes on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs, south-eastern Nigeria

Assessment of the impact of onsite sanitary sewage system and agricultural wastes on groundwater quality in Ikem and its environs, south-eastern Nigeria

References

Abstract

Journal

Recommended Articles

References

Our policy towards the use of cookies