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Indigenous knowledge and practices for the sustainable management of Ifugao forests in Cordillera, Philippines

Indigenous knowledge and practices for the sustainable management of Ifugao forests in... INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT, 2016 VOL. 12, NOS. 1–2, 5–13 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2015.1124453 Special Issue: Traditional knowledge for sustainable forest management and provision of ecosystem services Indigenous knowledge and practices for the sustainable management of Ifugao forests in Cordillera, Philippines Leni D. Camacho, Dixon T. Gevaña, †Antonio P. Carandang and Sofronio C. Camacho College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 15 December 2014 In the Philippines, many indigenous peoples such as the Ifugaos in Cordillera Mountains have Accepted 19 November 2015 continued to thrive in their relatively remote yet self-sufficient communities. Notwithstanding the transformations of many indigenous knowledge systems, practices that help promote EDITED BY forest sustainability have remained intact. This article aims to identify and describe key John Parrotta indigenous practices in the woodlot and watersheds collectively known as muyong in KEYWORDS Ifugao communities. Data were obtained through focus group discussions and key informant Indigenous knowledge; interviews with selected local farmers in Kiangan and Hungduan municipalities in Ifugao sustainable forest province. The recognition of the mutual connections between forests and rice terraces as a management; Ifugao forests; traditional belief is deeply ingrained in the heart and mind of Ifugaos. This tradition promotes muyong sustainable forest management as expressed in their respect to customary laws pertaining to land rights, adoption of upland cultivation practices following soil and water conservation principles, stand management to promote ample supply of wood and fuel wood, and biodiversity protection. However, these knowledge systems are slowly disappearing due to the changing needs and interests of the indigenous peoples as well as the proliferation of government programmes to modernize farming technologies. Hence, the government, NGOs and other concerned stakeholders need to continuously support programmes in order to protect the aesthetic and traditional value of the Ifugao landscapes. In the Philippines, about 14–17 million of the total 1 Introduction population are indigenous peoples belonging to 110 Indigenous knowledge can be broadly defined as the ethno-linguistic groups mainly concentrated in knowledge that an indigenous (local) community Northern Luzon (33%) and Mindanao (61%), with few accumulates over generations of living in a particular groups in the Visayas area (UNDP, 2010). Molintas environment (Rÿser 2011). Indigenous forestry (2004) underlined that many of these indigenous peo- knowledge systems largely encompass local technolo- ples can be found in remote forested and hilly uplands. gies, innovations, know-how, skills, practices and Some have also stood their ground successfully and beliefs uniting local people to conserve forest maintained a close link with their ancestral past. resources and their cultural values. These have devel- Many indigenous peoples in the Philippines such oped over thousands of years of direct human contact as the Ifugaos in Cordillera Mountains continued to with the environment (Armstrong et al. 2006). thrive in their relatively remote and yet self-sufficient Traditional knowledge often refers to a more general- communities. They were able to uphold their tradi- ized expression of knowledge associating a people or tions as reflected in their music, dances, rituals, folk- peoples with ‘time-honored’ ideas and practices asso- lore, wood carving, agriculture and forestry practices. ciated with an individual or family (Rÿser 2011). This For instance, they believe that many endemic trees knowledge is not limited to know-how, skills, inno- such as Ficus spp. are associated with spirits (anito), vations, practices, processes, learning and teaching, so they conserved them (Lim et al. 2012). The indi- but also includes knowledge that is associated with genous peoples also observe customary laws that lay biodiversity, traditional lifestyles and natural the foundation for justice, unity and peace within resources (WIPO 2012). While distinctions exist their tribes. between the meanings of the terms, there is also However, the advent of colonial rules from the sufficient overlap; hence, indigenous knowledge is early 1700s to the late 1940s has led to the unabated often equated or used interchangeably with the term influx of migrants into ancestral domains (Molintas traditional knowledge, local knowledge, traditional 2004). This contributed to gradual changes in many forestry practices, indigenous practices and indigen- local practices and beliefs. For instance are the ingress ous knowledge systems. of Christian missionaries introducing new faith, CONTACT Leni D. Camacho camachold@yahoo.com.ph © 2015 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 6 L. D. CAMACHO ET AL. agricultural technologies to address food security, logging, construction of roads and other infrastruc- tures for better mobility, and formal educational systems. The different indigenous knowledge systems for natural resource management such as muyong and ala-a-systems as practiced by the indigenous com- munities in the Cordillera, Philippines (i.e. Ifugaos, Isneg, Tingguians and Ikalahans) have been described in some studies (Dolinen 1995; Camacho et al. 2012). Notwithstanding the transformations of many indi- genous knowledge systems in the Philippines, there remain intact traditional forestry practices that help promote sustainable forest management. However, there are limited studies on the relevance of these indigenous knowledge and practices in the sustain- able management of the indigenous forests. This study was therefore conducted in order to identify and describe these indigenous knowledge and prac- tices as in the case of the Ifugao communities. In particular, it described key indigenous practices in Figure 1. Location map of Ifugao Province, Cordillera, woodlot or watersheds or collectively known as Philippines. muyong for the sustainable management of the Ifugao forests. ethnolinguistic groups: Ayangan and Tuwali (DENR 2014). The Ayangans are common in the northeast and southwestern portion of the province while the 2 Methods Tuwalis live at the northwestern part. About 72% of 2.1 Study site the people are mainly engaged in farming for liveli- hood and employment. Ifugao province has 11 Ifugao Province is the home of the Ifugao tribe municipalities. (Figure 1). It is one of the six provinces of The study sites are the municipalities of Kiangan Cordillera Administrative Region, situated in the and Hungduan where the Nagakadan Rice Terrace north central Luzon island with an area of about Cluster and Hapao Rice Terrace Cluster are located, 251,778 ha. It lies around a latitude of 16° 35ʹ north respectively. These two rice terrace clusters are two and a longitude of 120° 50ʹ east. The highest elevation among the World Heritage List of the United Nations is 2,523 metres above sea level (m.a.s.l.) with the rice Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in terraces lying above 500 m.a.s.l. (UNESCO 2008). It is 1995 (UNESCO 2008). However, these terraces were bounded by Magat River at the southeastern side and reclassified to the World Heritage in Danger List in many of the upland areas are abode to gigantic dip- 2001 because of the ‘human induced threats to the terocarp and pine trees. Climate belongs to Type 3 site and the need to concentrate national and inter- (based on the country’s climate type characterized by national energies on short-term and long-term reme- no very pronounced maximum rain period, with a dial and protective actions’ (UNESCO 2008). short dry season lasting only from one to three The municipality of Hungduan has a total land months) with only a short dry season from January area of 22,789 ha with 11,403 ha or 48.48% forest; to April and along wet season from May to agricultural (mostly rice terraces) with an area of December. The average monthly rainfall is between 705 ha or 3.09%, the rest are other uses (e.g. grass- 15 and 18.5 millimetres in areas with high elevation lands (30%), urban (17%), etc.) (CLUP Hungduan, and between 27.43 and 30.18 millimetres in the low- Ifugao 1998−2007). However, the municipality of land (DENR 2014). Kiangan has a total area of 818 ha, with 70 ha devoted The Ifugao province is well-known for its rice to rice farming. Other land uses in the area include terraces that are inscribed in the UNESCO World timber/forest land, grassland, residential, etc. (SEP Heritage Sites. Both the muyongs and rice terraces 2004). are the ancestral domains of the Ifugaos under the By tradition, the land being managed by the provisions of Indigenous Peoples Rights Act Ifugaos do not have titles; hence, the rights to use (Republic Act 8371 1997). There are two INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 7 programmes of the government and non-government the land are community-based and passed on organizations that promote these traditional forest through inheritance. With the implementation of the Community-Based Forest Management Program knowledge systems were also identified and described from the survey. in the country in 1995 (based on the Integrated Social Forestry Program in 1976), Certificates of Ancestral Domain Claim were issued providing security of 3 Results tenure for 50 years, which in effect legitimized the presence of indigenous communities. A number of 3.1 Muyong certificate of ancestral domain claim were awarded to According to Butic and Ngidlo (2003), the Ifugao the Ifugao, thus giving the right for the indigenous mountain ranges called pugu or duntug are predo- communities over their ancestral domain to occupy, minantly covered by privately or clan-owned forests develop and manage the land. that are collectively termed as muyong (Figure 2). In 1997, the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act was These watersheds provide ample water supply and passed, which provided for an absolute Ancestral nourishment to rice paddies and help minimize soil Domain Title promoting the practice of local peoples’ erosion. customs and traditions in the development and man- Muyongs were generally described by the key agement of their land. Hence, the Ifugaos have the informants as a traditional land-use zoning system rightful ownership of their muyongs. that is usually placed along mountain peaks down to mid-slopes. These woodlots are also sources of their fuel wood, wood for house construction and 2.2 Data collection various edible fruits such as the areca nut (Areca Focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant catechu). The Bagong Pagasa Foundation Inc. (as interviews were conducted among 50 local famers in cited by Serrano & Cadaweng 2005) noted the sizes Kiangan and Hungduan municipalities of Ifugao of muyongs often range from half to three hectares Province (see the appendix). The respondents were and have emerged as a land-use system because of the distributed across the sites. The respondents were following possible reasons: chosen using purposive sampling. Respondents of FGDs include farmers and village leaders in the (1) Ifugaos are aware of the relationship between area. Key informants include selected repondents forest and water table and hence retaining from the Save the Ifugao Terraces Movement verdant cover at the hilltop will create a stable (NGO), and Municipal Environment and Natural water source. Resources Office (local government agency), govern- (2) Muyongs are deemed major source of fuel ment officials from the Department of Environment wood for the local people. and Natural Resources and Department of Agrarian (3) Size of woodlots indicates economic status; Reform, tribal farmer leaders and officials from the hence the larger the muyongs, the greater the local government units in the areas. respect and recognition a clan or family will Common indigenous forestry practices that are get from others. being practiced in the two sites were identified from the survey. The farmers own and manage a woodlot Muyong was also described by the key informants as a known as muyong and rice paddies called payoh that buffer that delineates boundaries. Other land uses form part of the Ifugao Rice Terraces. Extension that are linked with muyongs are settlement or Figure 2. A typical view of Ifugao Rice Terraces showing muyong (woodlot) and payoh (rice terraces). 8 L. D. CAMACHO ET AL. 3.2.2 Customary forest laws numboblayan/boble, natural forest or bilid, grasslands Customary laws are reflections of rich traditions and called buludna, swidden farms or uma and, most importantly, rice terraces or payoh. Peripheral vege- beliefs that guide forest conservation. Key informants tation cover of muyongs is often cleared to indicate have identified some of these laws that are relevant to boundary delineations among farm owners. This promoting the sustainable management of muyongs. helps avoid land property disputes. In some cases, These include the following: uma and abandoned swiddens have converted to muyongs to enhance forest protection and production Ficus trees are not being harvested for timber benefits. and fuel wood since they help maintain suffi- cient groundwater supply for muyongs and payoh. Local people refrain from cutting century-old 3.2 Sustainable forestry practices endemic trees such as dipterocarps because they believe that these trees harbour the spirits 3.2.1 Acquisition and transfer of land rights within of their ancestors; the tribe Before cutting old trees, they conduct rituals to The traditional land ownership systems of Ifugao can seek the permission of their ancestors. A sha- be best viewed according to important customary man locally known as mumbaki directs the policies and practices they observed. The respondents rituals. enumerated some of their traditional modes of In the olden times, selection cutting was being acquiring land: practiced since there is a specific tree species that can be used for crafting rice god and con- a. Boltan (Inheritance). The early Ifugaos (or first structing native houses, namely narra Ifuago people with old Ifugao traditions before (Pterocarpus indicus). Western influence) give their children whatever When a child is baptized, the parents plant four they own such as muyong, land, livestock and seedlings in their muyong, which indicates the houses, following primogeniture of ‘rule of the giving of their blessings to their child. first born’. The first born gets the biggest share, Maid biyang umedi, which means no trespassing while the following children get less and less. in muyong areas, is being observed to avert The primogeniture rule also involves great illegal hunting of wild animals. responsibility for the eldest who receives the biggest portion of the inheritance. Such respon- In the work of Serrano and Cadaweng (2005), sibility can be seen in the biggest contribution remarkable customary laws are also identified. to expenses when the parents are sick or have These are: died. b. Gatang or hubli (Purchase). This pertains to One may gather dead branches as fuel wood transfer of ownership in exchange of money from other muyongs even without permission from the seller to the buyer. Buyers are prefer- from the owner. Such privilege is reciprocated ably neighbours or relatives who are native in by cleaning and tending the muyong as a form of the area. payment for the fuel wood collected. c. Pallog (Trading). Trading muyong with non- If a tree is harvested, the person who gathered money commodities such as buffalo or a set of should replace it with two seedlings. The owner musical instrument (e.g. gongs). determines what tree he wants to give. d. Hakmo/Pidon/balal/hapoa (mortgage). Mortg- If a person is caught stealing from muyong,he aging is done when a person receives money or she is brought to the tribal elders and will be in exchange of a piece of land that he owns for severely reprimanded. a certain period of time. To settle boundary conflicts, an ordeal called had- e. Pun-anupan (Hunting ground). In the old days, daccan – involving the two conflicting parties – is a powerful and feared individual or clan may performed. Such an ordeal can be carried out claim exclusive rights over the hunting through butlong or a wrestling match between grounds. the representatives of each party. It can also be f. Odonmi (verbalized expression land owner- resolved through uggub or long-throwing of reeds. ship). One informs or reminds his/her relatives and neighbours of their ownership of the land by clarifying with them its boundaries. This is 3.2.3 Stand management very important since cadastral maps are usually The Ifugaos observe traditional stand management absent. practices that help sustain healthy forest cover in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 9 muyong areas. These practices were described as vital in ensuring healthy forest stands: Apuyan (Burning). This practice is carried out in the late afternoon to avoid unwanted burning Hikwatan (Cleaning). An owner makes a habit damages to adjacent areas since relative humid- to do some weeding to be able to help naturally ity is high and winds are usually slight. Burning regenerating trees to grow. may start from the side or from the top to the Tanoman (Planting). Hardwood species are pre- bottom of kaingin so that the fire movement will ferred by the owners since a big part of the be slow. Ifugao cultural identity is wood carving and Lotang (Fencing). Fences are established along house construction. Two of the most common the peripheries of swidden farms. Materials can reforestation species being planted nowadays are be branches obtained from vegetation clearing fast-growing species such as Swietenia macro- activities to avoid further cutting of trees. phylla and Gmelina arborea. The local commu- ● Mungabut (Weeding). Removal of unwanted nity also preferred planting local species such as grasses and shrubs is usually performed by narra (Pterocarpus indicus) and rain tree women. During weeding, seedlings of indigen- (Samanea saman), which are perhaps the most ous trees such as udyo (Pterocarpus indicus), popular traditional construction and wood car- amug-awon (Vitex parviflora) and dipterocarps ving species. However, planting materials (e.g. are retained. Samanea saman, Pterocparpus indicus, Lithocarpus spp. and dipterocarps) are difficult 3.2.5 Biodiversity and ecosystem services to find; hence, there is a proliferation of exotic Camacho et al. (2012) noted that muyongs are store- and fast-growing species (Swietenia macrophylla houses of biodiversity. There are about 264 species, and Gmelina arborea) considering their short mainly indigenous, belonging to 71 plant families that rotation period and widespread availability. No thrive in these conserved zones (Ngidlo 1998;Rondolo negative ecological impacts have been identified 2001). Among these, the family of Euphorbiaceae is the thus far regarding the use of exotic species. most abundant, followed by Moraceae, Meliaceae, Selective cutting. Only the mature trees are cut Leguminosae, Poaceae, Anacardiaceae and Rubiaceae. for lumber and firewood based only on the need The key informants regarded the muyong system as a of the farmer. Crooked and diseased trees are vital tradition that sustains healthy biodiversity. The preferred for fuel wood use while straight-bole is informants practice an assisted natural regeneration used for posts and wood carving. Tree species (ANR) approach that enhances the growth of timber- such as alimit and tuwol (both Ficus spp.) are oriented indigenous species such as dipterocarps, spared since they were described as important Lithocarpus spp. and pine tree (Benguet pine). Some water-conservers of muyong. Likewise, balete ANR strategies adopted in the muyong include agrofor- trees (Ficus elastica and Ficus subcordata) are estry, multiple cropping, enrichment planting and pro- also protected, as the local people believe that tection, efficient sivicultural systems, whole-tree these trees shelter the spirits of the forest. harvesting, and good wood-utilization practice (Butic & Hapi (Felling direction). The woodfeller Ngidlo 2003). observes a felling direction or hapi to avoid Furthermore, wood carving, primarily the crafting damage to residual trees and nearby farms. of religious relics such as bulul (rice god), was identi- Bibiyo (Warning signal). When cutting a tree, fied as one of the primary benefits of practicing one shouts out the name of the tree so that the muyong. Ifugaos prefer Samanea saman for wood- bad spirits leave and the people will not get hurt. crafts because it is fast growing, durable and has good resistance to fungus and termites. 3.2.4 Upland cultivation In order to regulate timber harvesting, a muyong Swidden farming was described as the oldest form of resources permit is also being required by the gov- agroforestry practice in Ifugao. Key informants ernment (through the Department of Environment described that swidden farms or uma are confined and Natural Resources or DENR) before a farmer to areas that are not being used for muyong and rice can cut and transport timber and timber products terraces. Swidden farming practice involves clearing a such as handicrafts. The guidelines governing the patch of sloping grasslands and secondary forests. issuance of the muyong resources permit in the They plant sweet potato or corn for about two to Province of Ifugao are contained under the DENR five years, followed by a fallow period (tahgwunon) Memorandum Circular No. 96–02 issued in 1996, for another five years. The fallow system contributes which include submission of the requirements (i.e. to forest cover. Several indigenous swidden farming location and size of the muyong and the number of practices that help promote land stability and pro- tree species planted, certificate of residency in the ductivity were described: area and raw material requirement). There is also 10 L. D. CAMACHO ET AL. Table 1. Perceived changes in land uses in relation to 3.2.6 Forest extension programmes muyong system. The inscription of Ifugao Rice Terraces in the Land use Perceived changes Role of muyong system UNESCO World Heritage List proved beneficial in Natural Natural forest cover has Biodiversity has increased attracting more agriculture and forestry programmes forest increased since the early due to natural (bilid) 1990s. This can be because regeneration process. in Ifugao. One of these is the FAO’s Globally of the abandonment of Muyong helps in Important Agricultural Heritage Sites (GIAHS nd) many swidden farms from providing seeds and project, which aims to conserve the agricultural heri- their supposedly fallow regenerants for the stage. nearby bilid. tage systems and their significant biodiversity, asso- Agroforestry Erosion-prone swidden Lessened soil erosion in ciated landscapes, multiple goods and other (uma) farms have decreased and sloping swidden farms become part of the natural since diversified planting ecosystem services. Key informants believe that the forests because of their was adopted. Alnus spp, GIAHS project is valuable in protecting their long fallow period and Calamus spp. were (20 years) introduced in muyong muyongs and payoh. Specifically, they believe that and uma. this project can help in the following ways: Tree Land cover increased by as Tree plantations were plantation much as 10% since 1990 established in degraded/ due to reforestation and open muyongs. Multi- Promote land and water conservation, rehabili- introduction of coffee storey agroforestry tation and protection of the natural landscapes. orchard. technique was adopted to help create income from Resolve ownership and policy issues impinging timber as well as non- rice terraces and other GIAHS landscapes’ con- timber resources such as fruits, vines, honey, coffee servation and management. and others. Develop institutional support mechanisms for Natural Only occurs in small None. Planting crops or grassland patches; did not change timber is nearly short-term and long-term sustainability and the (buludna) considerably since impossible in these areas. adaptive management of GIAHS. grasslands are mostly common along deep Create awareness and recognition of customary ravines and hilly institutions and forms of social organization that mountainside. underpin the traditional agricultural systems Settlement With as much 1.7% annual Despite the increasing population growth rate, demand for settlement through simultaneous educational, environmental, settlement area has space, many muyongs agricultural and rebuilding values programmes. increased by about 30% have remained intact since the 1990s. since they are Develop a niche for eco-agro-tourism industry. communally owned. Develop a niche for marketing farm products. Settlement development was more common in ● Develop alternative livelihood/ economic activ- areas along or nearby ities that are based on and compatible with the roads and town centre. bio-physical, socio-economic and cultural Rice fields Not much change in cover Muyongs are kept to (payoh) since irrigation water provide water for the characteristics. supply is scarce, farmer payoh especially during numbers are decreasing, the dry months. farmers have aged and In terms of indigenous knowledge promotion, the capital requirement for respondents lauded the beneficial outcomes of the gov- planting has increased. ernment’s School of Living Traditions (SLT) programme. This is an educational programme that aims at raising the awareness and appreciation of youths about their restriction on the allowable volume/number of spe- own traditional agriculture, music, dances, rituals, wood- cies to be harvested as raw materials for livelihood carving and other arts. Learning modules were devel- projects. Likewise, maintenance of muyong is oped to better impart indigenous knowledge systems required according to the accepted practices and and practices in the formal schools, particularly primary rules of the DENR. Moreover, clear cutting of tree and secondary education. The programme was made species within the area is prohibited. This permit possible through the collaboration of National serves as a policy instrument to regulate timber Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCAA), extraction in muyong and bilid. National Commission for Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), Table 1 further shows the focus group’s perception Department of Education (DepEd) and Save the Ifugao of the importance of muyong vis-à-vis the perceived Terraces Movement (an NGO). changes in land-use changes. The muyong system was perceived as vital in sustaining other land uses such as natural forest, agroforestry farms, tree plantations, 3.2.7 Perceived problems in the Ifugao forests grasslands and rice fields. Despite the demands for Two major threats to the integrity of muyongs and settlement and agricultural spaces to support a grow- payoh were identified by the FGD participants. One is ing population, the perceived critical roles of muyong the transition from the traditional organic to inor- in soil and water conservation, regeneration, orchard ganic farming methods, which has generated negative and agroforestry livelihood source have helped the impacts on soil and water. The use of synthetic ferti- local community firmly keep their muyongs healthy. lizers was perceived to have degraded soil drainage INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 11 and fertility. Furthermore, the use of inorganic tech- Funding nology was believed to have incited infestation of This work was supported by ‘On-the-Job Research earthworms and snails in payoh. Second, the aban- Capacity Building for Sustainable Agriculture in donment of muyongs and terraces was underscored as Developing Countries’ funded by the Ministry of a pressing concern. Participants have attributed this Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan and coordi- nated by the United Nations University Institute for to declining interest in farming, as many prefer Sustainability and Peace. exploring other livelihood opportunities elsewhere for better income. Furthermore, children were also perceived to have a low interest in continuing their References farming traditions as they desire to pursue other jobs after completing their studies. Amend T, Brown J, Kothari A, Phillips A, Stolton S, editor. 2008. Protected landscapes and agrobiodiversity values. Protected landscapes and seascapes. Vol. 1. 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Traditional forest-related knowledge: sustaining or possessed by ICCs/IPs themselves or through their communities, ecosystems and biocultural diveristy. ancestors, communally or individually since time World Forests XII. Dordrecht: Springer. immemorial’ as stipulated in the Republic Act 8371 Molintas J. 2004. The Philippine indigenous peoples’ strug- or Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997. gle for land and life: challenging legal texts. Ariz J Int 3. A muyong cutting permit is issued by the DENR to Comp Law. 21:265–306. Ifugao individuals or families who intend to harvest Ngidlo R. 1998. Conserving biodiversity: the case of the timber from their respective muyong. Ifugao farming system. Los Baños, Philippines: PCARRD. Republic Act No. 8371. 1997. An Act to recognize, protect and promote the rights of indigenous cultural commu- Disclosure statement nities/indigenous people, creating a national commission No potential conflict of interest was reported by the of indigenous people, establishing implementing authors. mechanisms, appropriating funds therefor, and for 12 L. D. CAMACHO ET AL. other purposes. Congress of the Philippines (Tenth 5. Are there formal or non-formal organizations in the com- Congress); 1997 Oct 29; Manila. munity who are in charge of muyong?Ifyes,whatare these Rondolo M. 2001. Fellowship report. Tropical forest update (customary groups or created by NGO or gov’tfor the project) Vol. 11. No. 4. Japan: ITTO. 6. Who (group or individuals) have better access in Rÿser RC. 2011. Indigenous people and traditional knowl- major decision-making and planning activities in muyongs edge [Internet]. Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability. (cutting, boundary delineation)? [cited 2014 Sep 1]. Available from: http://www.academia. How do community ‘members’ participate in decision- edu/841635/Indigenous_and_Traditional_Knowledge making and planning activities on muyong (planning, uti- Serrano RC, Cadaweng EA. 2005. The Ifugao muyong: lization, monitoring and evaluations)? sustaining water, culture and life. In: B. Durst et. al. Do you have muyong plans or documents? editor. In search of excellence: exemplary forest manage- 7. Are there gender roles in muyong system? Please ment in Asia and the Pacific. RAP Publication 2005/02. enumerate and describe? Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the 8. Are there new technologies in muyong (externally United Nations; p. 103112. introduced)? Do these technologies agree or disagree with UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and traditional forestry/agricultural practices? (possible before Cultural Organization). 2008. Impacts: the effects of and after UNESCO inscription comparison) tourism on culture and the environment in Asia and Are there modifications in traditional forest manage- the Pacific: sustainable tourism and the preservation of ment practices to ensure food security and healthy forest the World Heritage sites of Ifugao Rice Terraces, cover? Philippines; Bangkok. II. Forest extent and conditions United Nations Development Programme Philippines. 1. How do you perceive changes in forest cover? 2010. Indigenous peoples in the Philippines. UNDP (increase or decrease, by how much in area or percentage) Philippines [Internet]. [cited 2014 Sep 1]. Available - Area covered by natural forests (pine, rain tree, from: http://www.undp.org/content/philippines/en/ dipterocarp) home/library/democratic_governance/FastFacts-IPs. - Area covered by secondary forest (previously logged html. stands) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). 2012. - Area covered by plantations (Gmelina, Mahogany World intellectual property rights indicators. Geneva: planted) WIPO; 198pp. - Area covered by grasses (cogon, runo and other shrublands) - Settlement areas Appendix - Area covered by terraces/rice paddies III. Ecosystem health Guide Questions Used for Key Informants Interviews and - Deforestation trend, increasing or decreasing? (before Focus Group Discussions Activities on the Indigenous and after 1995); what traditional knowledge help conserve Knowledge and Practices for the Sustainable Management forests? of Ifugao Forests in Cordillera, Philippines - Trend in areas covered with rice paddies (before and I. Criteria: Enabling condition for SFM after 1995); what traditional knowledge help conserve 1. What are the customary laws, traditions, rituals paddies? related to conservation of muyongs? - Any incidence(s) of landslide, forest fire that can be Wood, water, land, wildlife, mountain attributed to mismanagement of forest? 2. How many households are still practicing traditional - Do you think poor forest management will affect muyong today? (in percentage) (comparing before and after agricultural production and aesthetic value of the terraces? UNESCO inscription in 1995) Please describe? What factors enhance/degrade traditional forest man- IV. Forest production agement? socio-economic, political, cultural? - Perceived changes in timber yield (for wood carving, 3. Are there conflicts between customary and govern- house construction etc.; please specify species) possible ment policies and regulations on muyong management? before and after 1995 comparison - Tenure rights (occupancy) - Perceived changes in non-timber yield (for fuel wood, - Forest utilization rights (e.g. need to secure muyong medicine, etc.) possible before and after 1995 comparison permit) - Perceived changes in farm yield (rice: tinawon and - Others. other traditional varieties; non-traditional varieties) possi- 4. Are there financial support (from UNESCO, gov’t., ble before and after 1995 comparison NGOs) for farmers to conserve muyong sites?projectson - How do traditional knowledge affect the profitability/ watershed protection, sustainable agriculture, reforestation, etc. marketability of forest and non-forest products? Are/were these sustainable? V. Biological diversity Do you consider external (UNESCO, DENR, National - Are there specific muyong practices that aim to pro- Commission for Indigenous Peoples, or NGOs) fundings, mote habitat protection? Please describe projects or programs helpful/harmful to promote/conserve - Are there species (flora and fauna) dwindling in muyong practice/s? Why? number? Policies - Do new and non-traditional technologies (forest and Funds agriculture) affect biodiversity? How? Promotion of tourism - Are there pests and diseases affecting muyong sites? Promotion of forest conservation Possible before and after 1995 comparison INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 13 VI. Soil and water protection - What traditional knowledge help improve soil - Water supply (decrease or increase) stability - What traditional knowledge help sustain water supply VII. Economic, social and cultural aspect - Water quality (improve or degrade) - Existence of mechanisms for equitable sharing of costs - What traditional knowledge help improve water quality and benefits - Soil fertility (improve or degrade) - Existence of conflict resolution mechanisms for resol- - What traditional knowledge help improve soil fertility ving disputes among stakeholders http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management Taylor & Francis

Indigenous knowledge and practices for the sustainable management of Ifugao forests in Cordillera, Philippines

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT, 2016 VOL. 12, NOS. 1–2, 5–13 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2015.1124453 Special Issue: Traditional knowledge for sustainable forest management and provision of ecosystem services Indigenous knowledge and practices for the sustainable management of Ifugao forests in Cordillera, Philippines Leni D. Camacho, Dixon T. Gevaña, †Antonio P. Carandang and Sofronio C. Camacho College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 15 December 2014 In the Philippines, many indigenous peoples such as the Ifugaos in Cordillera Mountains have Accepted 19 November 2015 continued to thrive in their relatively remote yet self-sufficient communities. Notwithstanding the transformations of many indigenous knowledge systems, practices that help promote EDITED BY forest sustainability have remained intact. This article aims to identify and describe key John Parrotta indigenous practices in the woodlot and watersheds collectively known as muyong in KEYWORDS Ifugao communities. Data were obtained through focus group discussions and key informant Indigenous knowledge; interviews with selected local farmers in Kiangan and Hungduan municipalities in Ifugao sustainable forest province. The recognition of the mutual connections between forests and rice terraces as a management; Ifugao forests; traditional belief is deeply ingrained in the heart and mind of Ifugaos. This tradition promotes muyong sustainable forest management as expressed in their respect to customary laws pertaining to land rights, adoption of upland cultivation practices following soil and water conservation principles, stand management to promote ample supply of wood and fuel wood, and biodiversity protection. However, these knowledge systems are slowly disappearing due to the changing needs and interests of the indigenous peoples as well as the proliferation of government programmes to modernize farming technologies. Hence, the government, NGOs and other concerned stakeholders need to continuously support programmes in order to protect the aesthetic and traditional value of the Ifugao landscapes. In the Philippines, about 14–17 million of the total 1 Introduction population are indigenous peoples belonging to 110 Indigenous knowledge can be broadly defined as the ethno-linguistic groups mainly concentrated in knowledge that an indigenous (local) community Northern Luzon (33%) and Mindanao (61%), with few accumulates over generations of living in a particular groups in the Visayas area (UNDP, 2010). Molintas environment (Rÿser 2011). Indigenous forestry (2004) underlined that many of these indigenous peo- knowledge systems largely encompass local technolo- ples can be found in remote forested and hilly uplands. gies, innovations, know-how, skills, practices and Some have also stood their ground successfully and beliefs uniting local people to conserve forest maintained a close link with their ancestral past. resources and their cultural values. These have devel- Many indigenous peoples in the Philippines such oped over thousands of years of direct human contact as the Ifugaos in Cordillera Mountains continued to with the environment (Armstrong et al. 2006). thrive in their relatively remote and yet self-sufficient Traditional knowledge often refers to a more general- communities. They were able to uphold their tradi- ized expression of knowledge associating a people or tions as reflected in their music, dances, rituals, folk- peoples with ‘time-honored’ ideas and practices asso- lore, wood carving, agriculture and forestry practices. ciated with an individual or family (Rÿser 2011). This For instance, they believe that many endemic trees knowledge is not limited to know-how, skills, inno- such as Ficus spp. are associated with spirits (anito), vations, practices, processes, learning and teaching, so they conserved them (Lim et al. 2012). The indi- but also includes knowledge that is associated with genous peoples also observe customary laws that lay biodiversity, traditional lifestyles and natural the foundation for justice, unity and peace within resources (WIPO 2012). While distinctions exist their tribes. between the meanings of the terms, there is also However, the advent of colonial rules from the sufficient overlap; hence, indigenous knowledge is early 1700s to the late 1940s has led to the unabated often equated or used interchangeably with the term influx of migrants into ancestral domains (Molintas traditional knowledge, local knowledge, traditional 2004). This contributed to gradual changes in many forestry practices, indigenous practices and indigen- local practices and beliefs. For instance are the ingress ous knowledge systems. of Christian missionaries introducing new faith, CONTACT Leni D. Camacho camachold@yahoo.com.ph © 2015 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 6 L. D. CAMACHO ET AL. agricultural technologies to address food security, logging, construction of roads and other infrastruc- tures for better mobility, and formal educational systems. The different indigenous knowledge systems for natural resource management such as muyong and ala-a-systems as practiced by the indigenous com- munities in the Cordillera, Philippines (i.e. Ifugaos, Isneg, Tingguians and Ikalahans) have been described in some studies (Dolinen 1995; Camacho et al. 2012). Notwithstanding the transformations of many indi- genous knowledge systems in the Philippines, there remain intact traditional forestry practices that help promote sustainable forest management. However, there are limited studies on the relevance of these indigenous knowledge and practices in the sustain- able management of the indigenous forests. This study was therefore conducted in order to identify and describe these indigenous knowledge and prac- tices as in the case of the Ifugao communities. In particular, it described key indigenous practices in Figure 1. Location map of Ifugao Province, Cordillera, woodlot or watersheds or collectively known as Philippines. muyong for the sustainable management of the Ifugao forests. ethnolinguistic groups: Ayangan and Tuwali (DENR 2014). The Ayangans are common in the northeast and southwestern portion of the province while the 2 Methods Tuwalis live at the northwestern part. About 72% of 2.1 Study site the people are mainly engaged in farming for liveli- hood and employment. Ifugao province has 11 Ifugao Province is the home of the Ifugao tribe municipalities. (Figure 1). It is one of the six provinces of The study sites are the municipalities of Kiangan Cordillera Administrative Region, situated in the and Hungduan where the Nagakadan Rice Terrace north central Luzon island with an area of about Cluster and Hapao Rice Terrace Cluster are located, 251,778 ha. It lies around a latitude of 16° 35ʹ north respectively. These two rice terrace clusters are two and a longitude of 120° 50ʹ east. The highest elevation among the World Heritage List of the United Nations is 2,523 metres above sea level (m.a.s.l.) with the rice Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in terraces lying above 500 m.a.s.l. (UNESCO 2008). It is 1995 (UNESCO 2008). However, these terraces were bounded by Magat River at the southeastern side and reclassified to the World Heritage in Danger List in many of the upland areas are abode to gigantic dip- 2001 because of the ‘human induced threats to the terocarp and pine trees. Climate belongs to Type 3 site and the need to concentrate national and inter- (based on the country’s climate type characterized by national energies on short-term and long-term reme- no very pronounced maximum rain period, with a dial and protective actions’ (UNESCO 2008). short dry season lasting only from one to three The municipality of Hungduan has a total land months) with only a short dry season from January area of 22,789 ha with 11,403 ha or 48.48% forest; to April and along wet season from May to agricultural (mostly rice terraces) with an area of December. The average monthly rainfall is between 705 ha or 3.09%, the rest are other uses (e.g. grass- 15 and 18.5 millimetres in areas with high elevation lands (30%), urban (17%), etc.) (CLUP Hungduan, and between 27.43 and 30.18 millimetres in the low- Ifugao 1998−2007). However, the municipality of land (DENR 2014). Kiangan has a total area of 818 ha, with 70 ha devoted The Ifugao province is well-known for its rice to rice farming. Other land uses in the area include terraces that are inscribed in the UNESCO World timber/forest land, grassland, residential, etc. (SEP Heritage Sites. Both the muyongs and rice terraces 2004). are the ancestral domains of the Ifugaos under the By tradition, the land being managed by the provisions of Indigenous Peoples Rights Act Ifugaos do not have titles; hence, the rights to use (Republic Act 8371 1997). There are two INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 7 programmes of the government and non-government the land are community-based and passed on organizations that promote these traditional forest through inheritance. With the implementation of the Community-Based Forest Management Program knowledge systems were also identified and described from the survey. in the country in 1995 (based on the Integrated Social Forestry Program in 1976), Certificates of Ancestral Domain Claim were issued providing security of 3 Results tenure for 50 years, which in effect legitimized the presence of indigenous communities. A number of 3.1 Muyong certificate of ancestral domain claim were awarded to According to Butic and Ngidlo (2003), the Ifugao the Ifugao, thus giving the right for the indigenous mountain ranges called pugu or duntug are predo- communities over their ancestral domain to occupy, minantly covered by privately or clan-owned forests develop and manage the land. that are collectively termed as muyong (Figure 2). In 1997, the Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act was These watersheds provide ample water supply and passed, which provided for an absolute Ancestral nourishment to rice paddies and help minimize soil Domain Title promoting the practice of local peoples’ erosion. customs and traditions in the development and man- Muyongs were generally described by the key agement of their land. Hence, the Ifugaos have the informants as a traditional land-use zoning system rightful ownership of their muyongs. that is usually placed along mountain peaks down to mid-slopes. These woodlots are also sources of their fuel wood, wood for house construction and 2.2 Data collection various edible fruits such as the areca nut (Areca Focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant catechu). The Bagong Pagasa Foundation Inc. (as interviews were conducted among 50 local famers in cited by Serrano & Cadaweng 2005) noted the sizes Kiangan and Hungduan municipalities of Ifugao of muyongs often range from half to three hectares Province (see the appendix). The respondents were and have emerged as a land-use system because of the distributed across the sites. The respondents were following possible reasons: chosen using purposive sampling. Respondents of FGDs include farmers and village leaders in the (1) Ifugaos are aware of the relationship between area. Key informants include selected repondents forest and water table and hence retaining from the Save the Ifugao Terraces Movement verdant cover at the hilltop will create a stable (NGO), and Municipal Environment and Natural water source. Resources Office (local government agency), govern- (2) Muyongs are deemed major source of fuel ment officials from the Department of Environment wood for the local people. and Natural Resources and Department of Agrarian (3) Size of woodlots indicates economic status; Reform, tribal farmer leaders and officials from the hence the larger the muyongs, the greater the local government units in the areas. respect and recognition a clan or family will Common indigenous forestry practices that are get from others. being practiced in the two sites were identified from the survey. The farmers own and manage a woodlot Muyong was also described by the key informants as a known as muyong and rice paddies called payoh that buffer that delineates boundaries. Other land uses form part of the Ifugao Rice Terraces. Extension that are linked with muyongs are settlement or Figure 2. A typical view of Ifugao Rice Terraces showing muyong (woodlot) and payoh (rice terraces). 8 L. D. CAMACHO ET AL. 3.2.2 Customary forest laws numboblayan/boble, natural forest or bilid, grasslands Customary laws are reflections of rich traditions and called buludna, swidden farms or uma and, most importantly, rice terraces or payoh. Peripheral vege- beliefs that guide forest conservation. Key informants tation cover of muyongs is often cleared to indicate have identified some of these laws that are relevant to boundary delineations among farm owners. This promoting the sustainable management of muyongs. helps avoid land property disputes. In some cases, These include the following: uma and abandoned swiddens have converted to muyongs to enhance forest protection and production Ficus trees are not being harvested for timber benefits. and fuel wood since they help maintain suffi- cient groundwater supply for muyongs and payoh. Local people refrain from cutting century-old 3.2 Sustainable forestry practices endemic trees such as dipterocarps because they believe that these trees harbour the spirits 3.2.1 Acquisition and transfer of land rights within of their ancestors; the tribe Before cutting old trees, they conduct rituals to The traditional land ownership systems of Ifugao can seek the permission of their ancestors. A sha- be best viewed according to important customary man locally known as mumbaki directs the policies and practices they observed. The respondents rituals. enumerated some of their traditional modes of In the olden times, selection cutting was being acquiring land: practiced since there is a specific tree species that can be used for crafting rice god and con- a. Boltan (Inheritance). The early Ifugaos (or first structing native houses, namely narra Ifuago people with old Ifugao traditions before (Pterocarpus indicus). Western influence) give their children whatever When a child is baptized, the parents plant four they own such as muyong, land, livestock and seedlings in their muyong, which indicates the houses, following primogeniture of ‘rule of the giving of their blessings to their child. first born’. The first born gets the biggest share, Maid biyang umedi, which means no trespassing while the following children get less and less. in muyong areas, is being observed to avert The primogeniture rule also involves great illegal hunting of wild animals. responsibility for the eldest who receives the biggest portion of the inheritance. Such respon- In the work of Serrano and Cadaweng (2005), sibility can be seen in the biggest contribution remarkable customary laws are also identified. to expenses when the parents are sick or have These are: died. b. Gatang or hubli (Purchase). This pertains to One may gather dead branches as fuel wood transfer of ownership in exchange of money from other muyongs even without permission from the seller to the buyer. Buyers are prefer- from the owner. Such privilege is reciprocated ably neighbours or relatives who are native in by cleaning and tending the muyong as a form of the area. payment for the fuel wood collected. c. Pallog (Trading). Trading muyong with non- If a tree is harvested, the person who gathered money commodities such as buffalo or a set of should replace it with two seedlings. The owner musical instrument (e.g. gongs). determines what tree he wants to give. d. Hakmo/Pidon/balal/hapoa (mortgage). Mortg- If a person is caught stealing from muyong,he aging is done when a person receives money or she is brought to the tribal elders and will be in exchange of a piece of land that he owns for severely reprimanded. a certain period of time. To settle boundary conflicts, an ordeal called had- e. Pun-anupan (Hunting ground). In the old days, daccan – involving the two conflicting parties – is a powerful and feared individual or clan may performed. Such an ordeal can be carried out claim exclusive rights over the hunting through butlong or a wrestling match between grounds. the representatives of each party. It can also be f. Odonmi (verbalized expression land owner- resolved through uggub or long-throwing of reeds. ship). One informs or reminds his/her relatives and neighbours of their ownership of the land by clarifying with them its boundaries. This is 3.2.3 Stand management very important since cadastral maps are usually The Ifugaos observe traditional stand management absent. practices that help sustain healthy forest cover in INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 9 muyong areas. These practices were described as vital in ensuring healthy forest stands: Apuyan (Burning). This practice is carried out in the late afternoon to avoid unwanted burning Hikwatan (Cleaning). An owner makes a habit damages to adjacent areas since relative humid- to do some weeding to be able to help naturally ity is high and winds are usually slight. Burning regenerating trees to grow. may start from the side or from the top to the Tanoman (Planting). Hardwood species are pre- bottom of kaingin so that the fire movement will ferred by the owners since a big part of the be slow. Ifugao cultural identity is wood carving and Lotang (Fencing). Fences are established along house construction. Two of the most common the peripheries of swidden farms. Materials can reforestation species being planted nowadays are be branches obtained from vegetation clearing fast-growing species such as Swietenia macro- activities to avoid further cutting of trees. phylla and Gmelina arborea. The local commu- ● Mungabut (Weeding). Removal of unwanted nity also preferred planting local species such as grasses and shrubs is usually performed by narra (Pterocarpus indicus) and rain tree women. During weeding, seedlings of indigen- (Samanea saman), which are perhaps the most ous trees such as udyo (Pterocarpus indicus), popular traditional construction and wood car- amug-awon (Vitex parviflora) and dipterocarps ving species. However, planting materials (e.g. are retained. Samanea saman, Pterocparpus indicus, Lithocarpus spp. and dipterocarps) are difficult 3.2.5 Biodiversity and ecosystem services to find; hence, there is a proliferation of exotic Camacho et al. (2012) noted that muyongs are store- and fast-growing species (Swietenia macrophylla houses of biodiversity. There are about 264 species, and Gmelina arborea) considering their short mainly indigenous, belonging to 71 plant families that rotation period and widespread availability. No thrive in these conserved zones (Ngidlo 1998;Rondolo negative ecological impacts have been identified 2001). Among these, the family of Euphorbiaceae is the thus far regarding the use of exotic species. most abundant, followed by Moraceae, Meliaceae, Selective cutting. Only the mature trees are cut Leguminosae, Poaceae, Anacardiaceae and Rubiaceae. for lumber and firewood based only on the need The key informants regarded the muyong system as a of the farmer. Crooked and diseased trees are vital tradition that sustains healthy biodiversity. The preferred for fuel wood use while straight-bole is informants practice an assisted natural regeneration used for posts and wood carving. Tree species (ANR) approach that enhances the growth of timber- such as alimit and tuwol (both Ficus spp.) are oriented indigenous species such as dipterocarps, spared since they were described as important Lithocarpus spp. and pine tree (Benguet pine). Some water-conservers of muyong. Likewise, balete ANR strategies adopted in the muyong include agrofor- trees (Ficus elastica and Ficus subcordata) are estry, multiple cropping, enrichment planting and pro- also protected, as the local people believe that tection, efficient sivicultural systems, whole-tree these trees shelter the spirits of the forest. harvesting, and good wood-utilization practice (Butic & Hapi (Felling direction). The woodfeller Ngidlo 2003). observes a felling direction or hapi to avoid Furthermore, wood carving, primarily the crafting damage to residual trees and nearby farms. of religious relics such as bulul (rice god), was identi- Bibiyo (Warning signal). When cutting a tree, fied as one of the primary benefits of practicing one shouts out the name of the tree so that the muyong. Ifugaos prefer Samanea saman for wood- bad spirits leave and the people will not get hurt. crafts because it is fast growing, durable and has good resistance to fungus and termites. 3.2.4 Upland cultivation In order to regulate timber harvesting, a muyong Swidden farming was described as the oldest form of resources permit is also being required by the gov- agroforestry practice in Ifugao. Key informants ernment (through the Department of Environment described that swidden farms or uma are confined and Natural Resources or DENR) before a farmer to areas that are not being used for muyong and rice can cut and transport timber and timber products terraces. Swidden farming practice involves clearing a such as handicrafts. The guidelines governing the patch of sloping grasslands and secondary forests. issuance of the muyong resources permit in the They plant sweet potato or corn for about two to Province of Ifugao are contained under the DENR five years, followed by a fallow period (tahgwunon) Memorandum Circular No. 96–02 issued in 1996, for another five years. The fallow system contributes which include submission of the requirements (i.e. to forest cover. Several indigenous swidden farming location and size of the muyong and the number of practices that help promote land stability and pro- tree species planted, certificate of residency in the ductivity were described: area and raw material requirement). There is also 10 L. D. CAMACHO ET AL. Table 1. Perceived changes in land uses in relation to 3.2.6 Forest extension programmes muyong system. The inscription of Ifugao Rice Terraces in the Land use Perceived changes Role of muyong system UNESCO World Heritage List proved beneficial in Natural Natural forest cover has Biodiversity has increased attracting more agriculture and forestry programmes forest increased since the early due to natural (bilid) 1990s. This can be because regeneration process. in Ifugao. One of these is the FAO’s Globally of the abandonment of Muyong helps in Important Agricultural Heritage Sites (GIAHS nd) many swidden farms from providing seeds and project, which aims to conserve the agricultural heri- their supposedly fallow regenerants for the stage. nearby bilid. tage systems and their significant biodiversity, asso- Agroforestry Erosion-prone swidden Lessened soil erosion in ciated landscapes, multiple goods and other (uma) farms have decreased and sloping swidden farms become part of the natural since diversified planting ecosystem services. Key informants believe that the forests because of their was adopted. Alnus spp, GIAHS project is valuable in protecting their long fallow period and Calamus spp. were (20 years) introduced in muyong muyongs and payoh. Specifically, they believe that and uma. this project can help in the following ways: Tree Land cover increased by as Tree plantations were plantation much as 10% since 1990 established in degraded/ due to reforestation and open muyongs. Multi- Promote land and water conservation, rehabili- introduction of coffee storey agroforestry tation and protection of the natural landscapes. orchard. technique was adopted to help create income from Resolve ownership and policy issues impinging timber as well as non- rice terraces and other GIAHS landscapes’ con- timber resources such as fruits, vines, honey, coffee servation and management. and others. Develop institutional support mechanisms for Natural Only occurs in small None. Planting crops or grassland patches; did not change timber is nearly short-term and long-term sustainability and the (buludna) considerably since impossible in these areas. adaptive management of GIAHS. grasslands are mostly common along deep Create awareness and recognition of customary ravines and hilly institutions and forms of social organization that mountainside. underpin the traditional agricultural systems Settlement With as much 1.7% annual Despite the increasing population growth rate, demand for settlement through simultaneous educational, environmental, settlement area has space, many muyongs agricultural and rebuilding values programmes. increased by about 30% have remained intact since the 1990s. since they are Develop a niche for eco-agro-tourism industry. communally owned. Develop a niche for marketing farm products. Settlement development was more common in ● Develop alternative livelihood/ economic activ- areas along or nearby ities that are based on and compatible with the roads and town centre. bio-physical, socio-economic and cultural Rice fields Not much change in cover Muyongs are kept to (payoh) since irrigation water provide water for the characteristics. supply is scarce, farmer payoh especially during numbers are decreasing, the dry months. farmers have aged and In terms of indigenous knowledge promotion, the capital requirement for respondents lauded the beneficial outcomes of the gov- planting has increased. ernment’s School of Living Traditions (SLT) programme. This is an educational programme that aims at raising the awareness and appreciation of youths about their restriction on the allowable volume/number of spe- own traditional agriculture, music, dances, rituals, wood- cies to be harvested as raw materials for livelihood carving and other arts. Learning modules were devel- projects. Likewise, maintenance of muyong is oped to better impart indigenous knowledge systems required according to the accepted practices and and practices in the formal schools, particularly primary rules of the DENR. Moreover, clear cutting of tree and secondary education. The programme was made species within the area is prohibited. This permit possible through the collaboration of National serves as a policy instrument to regulate timber Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCAA), extraction in muyong and bilid. National Commission for Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), Table 1 further shows the focus group’s perception Department of Education (DepEd) and Save the Ifugao of the importance of muyong vis-à-vis the perceived Terraces Movement (an NGO). changes in land-use changes. The muyong system was perceived as vital in sustaining other land uses such as natural forest, agroforestry farms, tree plantations, 3.2.7 Perceived problems in the Ifugao forests grasslands and rice fields. Despite the demands for Two major threats to the integrity of muyongs and settlement and agricultural spaces to support a grow- payoh were identified by the FGD participants. One is ing population, the perceived critical roles of muyong the transition from the traditional organic to inor- in soil and water conservation, regeneration, orchard ganic farming methods, which has generated negative and agroforestry livelihood source have helped the impacts on soil and water. The use of synthetic ferti- local community firmly keep their muyongs healthy. lizers was perceived to have degraded soil drainage INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 11 and fertility. Furthermore, the use of inorganic tech- Funding nology was believed to have incited infestation of This work was supported by ‘On-the-Job Research earthworms and snails in payoh. Second, the aban- Capacity Building for Sustainable Agriculture in donment of muyongs and terraces was underscored as Developing Countries’ funded by the Ministry of a pressing concern. Participants have attributed this Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan and coordi- nated by the United Nations University Institute for to declining interest in farming, as many prefer Sustainability and Peace. exploring other livelihood opportunities elsewhere for better income. Furthermore, children were also perceived to have a low interest in continuing their References farming traditions as they desire to pursue other jobs after completing their studies. Amend T, Brown J, Kothari A, Phillips A, Stolton S, editor. 2008. Protected landscapes and agrobiodiversity values. Protected landscapes and seascapes. Vol. 1. 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Bangkok: RAP Publication; p. 53. soil and water conservation; 3) stand management for Camacho L, Combalicer M, Youn Y, Combalicer E, sufficient wood and fuel wood supply; and 4) biodiversity Carandang A, Camacho S, De Luna C, Rebugio L. protection. Local participants also perceived the merits of 2012. Traditional forest conservation knowledge/tech- nologies in the Cordillera, Northern Philippines. For increasing forest cover and protecting Pterocarpus indi- Policy Econ. 22:3–8. cus. However, a number of issues that threaten the DENR (Department of Environment and Natural muyong system were identified. These include the prolif- Resources). 1996. DENR Memorandum Circular No. eration of inorganic farming technologies replacing the 96-02. Interim Guidelines Governing the Issuance of traditional ones, and the abandonment of rice fields and ‘Muyong Resources Permit’ in the Province of Ifugao. muyongs as farmers go elsewhere seeking other employ- Quezon City: DENR. DENR (Department of Environment and Natural ment opportunities. A number of extension programmes Resources). 2014. Muyung: a sustainable traditional indi- such as the GIAHS and School of Living Traditions were genous forest resource management systems and prac- regarded beneficial to promote muyong practice for the tices of the indigenous peoples of Kiangan, Province of future generations of farmers. Ifugao. A project report. Philippines: DENR. p. 47. Dolinen L. 1995. Enriching upland development through indigenous knowledge systems: the case of Kalahan, Notes Nueva Vizcaya. Paper presented at the Seminar- Workshop, Application of Indigenous Knowledge 1. Ala-a-system is ‘generally located on lands not culti- Systems in Sustainable Development held at the vated as swidden but on lands too far to be covered Institute of Forest Conservation; UPLB College of by private claim or lands identified as hunting Forestry; Los Banos, Laguna. grounds’, and used to gather products for household GIAHS. nd. Ifugao Ride terraces [Internet]. [cited 2014 or farm use (Camacho et al. 2012). Aug 25]. Available from: http://www.fao.org/giahs/ 2. Ancestral domains refer to ‘all areas generally giahs-sites/south-east-asia/ifugao-rice-terraces-philip belonging to the Indigenous Cultural Communities/ pines/detailed-information/en/. Indigenous Peoples (ICCs/IPs) comprising of lands, Lim HF, Liang L, Camacho L, Combalicer E, Singh SKK. inland waters, coastal areas, and natural resources 2012. Southeast Asia. In: Parrotta JA, Trosper RL, edi- therein, held under a claim of ownership, occupied tors. Traditional forest-related knowledge: sustaining or possessed by ICCs/IPs themselves or through their communities, ecosystems and biocultural diveristy. ancestors, communally or individually since time World Forests XII. Dordrecht: Springer. immemorial’ as stipulated in the Republic Act 8371 Molintas J. 2004. The Philippine indigenous peoples’ strug- or Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997. gle for land and life: challenging legal texts. Ariz J Int 3. A muyong cutting permit is issued by the DENR to Comp Law. 21:265–306. Ifugao individuals or families who intend to harvest Ngidlo R. 1998. Conserving biodiversity: the case of the timber from their respective muyong. Ifugao farming system. Los Baños, Philippines: PCARRD. Republic Act No. 8371. 1997. An Act to recognize, protect and promote the rights of indigenous cultural commu- Disclosure statement nities/indigenous people, creating a national commission No potential conflict of interest was reported by the of indigenous people, establishing implementing authors. mechanisms, appropriating funds therefor, and for 12 L. D. CAMACHO ET AL. other purposes. Congress of the Philippines (Tenth 5. Are there formal or non-formal organizations in the com- Congress); 1997 Oct 29; Manila. munity who are in charge of muyong?Ifyes,whatare these Rondolo M. 2001. Fellowship report. Tropical forest update (customary groups or created by NGO or gov’tfor the project) Vol. 11. No. 4. Japan: ITTO. 6. Who (group or individuals) have better access in Rÿser RC. 2011. Indigenous people and traditional knowl- major decision-making and planning activities in muyongs edge [Internet]. Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability. (cutting, boundary delineation)? [cited 2014 Sep 1]. Available from: http://www.academia. How do community ‘members’ participate in decision- edu/841635/Indigenous_and_Traditional_Knowledge making and planning activities on muyong (planning, uti- Serrano RC, Cadaweng EA. 2005. The Ifugao muyong: lization, monitoring and evaluations)? sustaining water, culture and life. In: B. Durst et. al. Do you have muyong plans or documents? editor. In search of excellence: exemplary forest manage- 7. Are there gender roles in muyong system? Please ment in Asia and the Pacific. RAP Publication 2005/02. enumerate and describe? Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the 8. Are there new technologies in muyong (externally United Nations; p. 103112. introduced)? Do these technologies agree or disagree with UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and traditional forestry/agricultural practices? (possible before Cultural Organization). 2008. Impacts: the effects of and after UNESCO inscription comparison) tourism on culture and the environment in Asia and Are there modifications in traditional forest manage- the Pacific: sustainable tourism and the preservation of ment practices to ensure food security and healthy forest the World Heritage sites of Ifugao Rice Terraces, cover? Philippines; Bangkok. II. Forest extent and conditions United Nations Development Programme Philippines. 1. How do you perceive changes in forest cover? 2010. Indigenous peoples in the Philippines. UNDP (increase or decrease, by how much in area or percentage) Philippines [Internet]. [cited 2014 Sep 1]. Available - Area covered by natural forests (pine, rain tree, from: http://www.undp.org/content/philippines/en/ dipterocarp) home/library/democratic_governance/FastFacts-IPs. - Area covered by secondary forest (previously logged html. stands) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). 2012. - Area covered by plantations (Gmelina, Mahogany World intellectual property rights indicators. Geneva: planted) WIPO; 198pp. - Area covered by grasses (cogon, runo and other shrublands) - Settlement areas Appendix - Area covered by terraces/rice paddies III. Ecosystem health Guide Questions Used for Key Informants Interviews and - Deforestation trend, increasing or decreasing? (before Focus Group Discussions Activities on the Indigenous and after 1995); what traditional knowledge help conserve Knowledge and Practices for the Sustainable Management forests? of Ifugao Forests in Cordillera, Philippines - Trend in areas covered with rice paddies (before and I. Criteria: Enabling condition for SFM after 1995); what traditional knowledge help conserve 1. What are the customary laws, traditions, rituals paddies? related to conservation of muyongs? - Any incidence(s) of landslide, forest fire that can be Wood, water, land, wildlife, mountain attributed to mismanagement of forest? 2. How many households are still practicing traditional - Do you think poor forest management will affect muyong today? (in percentage) (comparing before and after agricultural production and aesthetic value of the terraces? UNESCO inscription in 1995) Please describe? What factors enhance/degrade traditional forest man- IV. Forest production agement? socio-economic, political, cultural? - Perceived changes in timber yield (for wood carving, 3. Are there conflicts between customary and govern- house construction etc.; please specify species) possible ment policies and regulations on muyong management? before and after 1995 comparison - Tenure rights (occupancy) - Perceived changes in non-timber yield (for fuel wood, - Forest utilization rights (e.g. need to secure muyong medicine, etc.) possible before and after 1995 comparison permit) - Perceived changes in farm yield (rice: tinawon and - Others. other traditional varieties; non-traditional varieties) possi- 4. Are there financial support (from UNESCO, gov’t., ble before and after 1995 comparison NGOs) for farmers to conserve muyong sites?projectson - How do traditional knowledge affect the profitability/ watershed protection, sustainable agriculture, reforestation, etc. marketability of forest and non-forest products? Are/were these sustainable? V. Biological diversity Do you consider external (UNESCO, DENR, National - Are there specific muyong practices that aim to pro- Commission for Indigenous Peoples, or NGOs) fundings, mote habitat protection? Please describe projects or programs helpful/harmful to promote/conserve - Are there species (flora and fauna) dwindling in muyong practice/s? Why? number? Policies - Do new and non-traditional technologies (forest and Funds agriculture) affect biodiversity? How? Promotion of tourism - Are there pests and diseases affecting muyong sites? Promotion of forest conservation Possible before and after 1995 comparison INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 13 VI. Soil and water protection - What traditional knowledge help improve soil - Water supply (decrease or increase) stability - What traditional knowledge help sustain water supply VII. Economic, social and cultural aspect - Water quality (improve or degrade) - Existence of mechanisms for equitable sharing of costs - What traditional knowledge help improve water quality and benefits - Soil fertility (improve or degrade) - Existence of conflict resolution mechanisms for resol- - What traditional knowledge help improve soil fertility ving disputes among stakeholders

Journal

International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management – Taylor & Francis

Published: Jan 2, 2016

Keywords: Indigenous knowledge; sustainable forest management; Ifugao forests; muyong

References

  • Traditional forest conservation knowledge/technologies in the Cordillera, Northern Philippines
  • DENR Memorandum Circular No. 96-02
  • Muyung: a sustainable traditional indigenous forest resource management systems and practices of the indigenous peoples of Kiangan, Province of Ifugao
  • Enriching upland development through indigenous knowledge systems: the case of Kalahan, Nueva Vizcaya. Paper presented at the Seminar-Workshop, Application of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Sustainable Development held at the Institute of Forest Conservation; UPLB College of Forestry; Los Banos, Laguna
  • The Philippine indigenous peoples’ struggle for land and life: challenging legal texts
  • An Act to recognize, protect and promote the rights of indigenous cultural communities/indigenous people, creating a national commission of indigenous people, establishing implementing mechanisms, appropriating funds therefor, and for other purposes