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Land use in the Swedish mountain region: trends and conflicting goals

Land use in the Swedish mountain region: trends and conflicting goals International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 2 (2006) 305–314 Land use in the Swedish mountain region: trends and conflicting goals Jon Moen Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden Key words: Reindeer husbandry, forestry, land management, legal rights, conflicts SUMMARY This paper describes historical and current trends in the use of natural resources in the Swedish mountain region, with the aim of providing a background for understanding the complexity of managing natural resources in the area. The mountain region is a sparsely populated area with low productivity and large conservation values. Traditionally, hunt- ing, fishing and reindeer husbandry were important and still are important. Mining, hydroelectric energy production and forestry have also employed many people, although less in recent times. Tourism is sometimes seen as a potential saviour in terms of employ- ment, but has not yet reached high enough levels to compensate for other losses. The intensity and types of land use have thus varied over time, with some rapid changes. The contribution of different forms of land use to the well-being of local societies has also varied. This highly dynamic pattern is likely to continue in the future, and the question is how to meet these changes in order to achieve a sustainable use of natural resources. The current management of different natural resources is a complex issue, not least because of conflicting goals and many hierarchical levels in the decision processes. Underlying many of these conflicts are also unclear legal rights which will have to be clarified. INTRODUCTION The Swedish mountain region covers about 40% municipalities are the single most important (c. 165,000 km ) of the total area of Sweden, as employer, either directly in administration or defined by the administrative borders of the 15 indirectly through the public sector. This transition municipalities that include alpine areas. Most of is creating shifts in cultural outlooks, adjustments this area is covered by boreal coniferous forests, in economic activities and reconfigurations in while about 25% is alpine (i.e. above the treeline; social networks and political alliances. Figure 1). The region is characterised by vast, The harvesting of wildlife was once the most sparsely populated areas; it contains large wilder- important land use in the mountain region but, ness areas and has high conservation values. Its from the 16th century, reindeer husbandry became population is declining. Forestry used to be the more important. The mining industry was also a major source of employment, but today less than relatively early form of land use that was locally 10% are employed in this sector. Tourism is important for some of the area’s inhabitants from believed to have great potential benefits, but is not the 17th century. While forestry and hydroelectric highly developed in most of the region. The local development were especially important in the latter Correspondence: Dr. J. Moen, Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. Email: jon.moen@emg.umu.se 305 Trends in land use Moen Despite the fact that few of the inhabitants in the mountain region own much land, they still have strong ties to it. The principle of common access to the land, and the possibilities of using resources – such as berries, wood fuel, fish and wildlife – for free or for modest fees are strong. Natural resources thus play an important role in the formation of the social system. The indigenous people of the Swedish mountain region, the Sami, have especially strong links to the land due to their culture and a long tradition in the area. Land use for reindeer husbandry is an exclusive right of the Sami, and reindeer herders are dependent on the possibility of herding rein- deer over large areas, from the high mountains in the west during summer to lichen-rich old conifer forests in the east during winter. Like most local Figure 1 Map of the study area showing the four residents, they also depend on subsistence fishing northern counties. Alpine areas are marked in black and hunting. Only c. 2000 Sami, of an estimated total Swedish population of 20,000, are occupied part- or full-time in reindeer husbandry. However, part of the 20th century, the importance of forestry many Sami live outside the mountain region, which and dam construction has declined over the past 20 increases the importance of reindeer husbandry years. Most of the development has been based for the Sami living in the region. The reindeer has a on low-density natural resources over vast areas central place in the Sami culture, and the continua- where production and resilience are also low. The tion of reindeer husbandry is thus of paramount pressure on these resources is increasing, together importance for the Sami as a group. with an awareness of the necessity of conserving The intensity and types of land use in the moun- biodiversity, leading to increased competition and tain region have thus varied over time. Different conflicts over these resources. High levels of un- forms of land use have gone through powerful and employment, a declining population, and an rapid changes, and their contributions to the well- increase in the needs of modern man may lead to being of local societies have varied accordingly in additional stress, desperation and conflicts. importance. This highly dynamic pattern is likely to A distinguishing feature of this region is that continue in the future, and the question is how to both past and present land-use patterns have been meet these changes in order to decrease environ- very dynamic. Another characteristic is that groups mental risks and achieve sustainability. The aim of outside of the region often have strong opinions the paper is to give an overview of land-use trends about the management of its resources, which is in the Swedish mountain region, and an under- unusual when compared to other regions. ‘Out- standing of the complexity of managing natural siders’ can either be visitors, or even the govern- resources in this area. Several of the issues are dealt ment, which owns large areas in the region. The with in more detail in other papers in this special values of the general society may thus override the issue. opinions and values of local people, creating a sense of powerlessness in the local communities. THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING People not living in the region tend to focus on conservation, whereas local people tend to focus The Scandes mountain chain is a glacially modi- on the use of natural resources. This creates a fied, undulating to highly precipitous, highland tension underlying many conflicts. region located on the border between Sweden Most of the coniferous land is owned by large and Norway (Corner 2005; Figure 1). The moun- forestry companies, and almost all of the land above tain chain contains summits reaching over 2000 m the treeline is owned and managed by the state. a.s.l., and alpine (treeless) areas are found above 306 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Trends in land use Moen 7–800 m a.s.l. The areas with the steepest topo- are located here, and more than twice this area has graphy are found in the southern (Norwegian) some form of nature conservation protection. The mountains and in the northern parts; the central region also hosts virtually all the remaining large part is lower. Most of the bedrock is composed carnivores (bears, lynx, wolverines, wolves) in of heavily weathered acid rocks, creating low- Sweden. productive soils with a species-poor flora, but more Due to global climate change, the climate in the base-rich rocks also exist, creating more species- mountains will undergo large changes in the com- rich vegetation (Carlsson et al. 1999). ing decades. This will include warmer temperatures Due to the northern location of the region, the and more precipitation, especially in winter, result- vegetation period is short (from about 150 days to ing in shorter winters and longer vegetation non-existent on the highest summits) and produc- periods (Räisänen et al. 2004). This will naturally tivity is low. The climate is, in general, maritime have a significant impact on many aspects of the because of the prevailing westerly winds that have ecosystems (Moen, submitted for publication). For accumulated moisture over the Atlantic (SNA 1995). instance, a warmer climate may lead to an increased This moisture is released as the air is forced up over forestation of currently treeless alpine heaths the mountains, which makes some areas the most (Moen et al. 2003). precipitation-rich in Sweden, with over 2000 mm annually. However, these orographic precipitation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING patterns also cause large spatial variations, both at different altitudes and due to a strong east–west gra- The Swedish mountain region is characterised by a dient, with more eastern locations in a rainshadow. sparse population, with less than 2% of the Swedish About two-thirds of the precipitation falls as snow. population. The population is declining (Figure 2) The boreal forest is a very heterogeneous vegeta- due to low birth rates, while migration to the larger tion zone, with variable bedrock and soils, and a cities in the south of Sweden is not as pronounced steep east–west topographic gradient (Esseen et al. as earlier. The region is also undergoing an internal 1997; Kullman 2005). Forests east of the ‘border of urbanisation process, as people move into urban hazardous regeneration’ (skogsodlingsgränsen) have centres from more peripheral villages (Lundmark been strongly affected by large-scale forestry during 2005). the last 100–150 years. The forest is relatively homo- The socio-demographic changes lead to a loss of geneous, with a low diversity of tree species. Two young people and a relative increase of the elderly. conifers, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway This has large consequences for the social services spruce (Picea abies) dominate, with varying amounts and the local labour market in the municipalities. of deciduous species (e.g. Betula pendula, B. This trend will, for instance, result in a declining pubescens, Populus tremula, Sorbus aucuparia). Pine is quality of service infrastructure and provision, more common on drier soils, in areas with a more continental climate, while spruce prefers mesic soils, and a more oceanic climate (Esseen et al. 1997; Engelmark and Hytteborn 1999). More than 20,000 lakes and thousands of kilo- metres of streams of different size and character are found in the mountain region. The lakes range from high alpine lakes that are only ice-free for a few weeks to lakes in the boreal forest. Many of the lakes and streams hold populations of Arctic char, trout or salmon, and are important for fishing for 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 domestic consumption. A common denominator Ye a r for these aquatic ecosystems is that they have low Figure 2 Changes in the human population size in the productivity and are nutrient-poor; exceptions can Swedish mountain region. The numbers refers to the be found in calcium-rich areas (Hammar 1989). total population in the 15 municipalities that include The region has high conservation values. Most alpine areas. The total population in Sweden is about 9 of the national park areas of Sweden (c. 6500 km ) million International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 307 Population size Trends in land use Moen diminishing accessibility to services, high cost option, and the colonisers also became dependent and price levels, weak economic performance, and on hunting and fishing to complement their mea- lagging investments in infrastructure for transport gre livestock farming. and communication (Lundmark 2005) – and may A nomadic form of reindeer husbandry began to be eventually end up in a negative spiral where the low developed all over northern Scandinavia in the level of services discourages people further from 16th century (Lundmark 1998; Danell 2005). This living in the region. was partly a response to an increased population The single most important employer in the which had hunted the herds of wild reindeer close region is the municipalities themselves, including to extinction for subsistence, as well as to trade and health care, schools and administration. Previously, pay taxes to the state. This new form of reindeer forestry was an important sector, but employment husbandry was labour-intensive. However, at the has decreased by about 50% since 1985, due in part end of the 18th century, the conditions changed to rationalisations and technical developments again. Due to periods of severe weather, high pre- (Lundgren T 2005). Today, the forestry and tour- dation and disease outbreaks, the number of ism sectors each employ some 5–10% of the popula- reindeer dropped. During the next century, the tion. The growth of the local economy has followed reindeer husbandry system waxed and waned as that of the rest of the country, but jobs in the private resource conflicts with other land users varied. This sector have largely been replaced by jobs in the led to the first reindeer husbandry law in Sweden in public sector (Lundgren T 2005). 1886. During the 20th century, the system changed again (Danell 2005). A stepwise closure of the borders between Sweden, Finland (i.e. Russia) and LAND USE – A SHORT HISTORICAL Norway for reindeer herding in the latter part of OVERVIEW the 19th century and early 20th century led to People have been living in the northern part of crowding and forced relocations of Sami and their Sweden since the ice started to retreat some 9000 reindeer from these northern parts. These Sami years ago (Baudou 1992). For the first 7–8000 years, had practised a form of extensive reindeer hus- the human population consisted of hunters and bandry which is focused on meat production. This gatherers; agriculture and livestock farming started form allows large herds to roam freely during to appear in some places between AD 1 and 1050. summer, and is less labour-intensive and gives a From about the 3rd to the 14th century, the old higher meat production. To the south, the Sami hunting culture started to change as the reindeer were still practising a more intensive form of rein- became more and more important as a domesti- deer husbandry, partly focused on milk production cated animal. It was first used for transport, while for making cheese. In this form, the reindeer were later more focus was placed on meat production as closely watched all summer, and every family the reindeer husbandry system was developed from moved with a small herd that was milked every day. about the 16th century. However, hunting and fish- These two forms were incompatible on the same ing have continued to be an important use of land, and eventually the extensive form of reindeer natural resources in the region for both Sami and husbandry completely outcompeted the intensive others well into present times. form (Danell 2005). Agricultural colonisations of the inner parts of the The boreal forest (eastofthe borderofhazardous mountain region began in the 18th century regeneration) has been strongly restructured (Stenman 1983). Before that, only the Baltic coast through commercial logging over the past 150 years and some parts of the river valleys were colonised. (Axelsson and Östlund 2001). This process started in The Swedish Crown wanted to increase tax incomes the 19th century when a ‘timber frontier’ advanced from settlements and encouraged colonisation through the area consisting of selective logging of through various subsidies and reductions in taxes. large trees. In the beginning of the 20th century, The initial colonisation rates were low, but people pulp industries developed, and smaller trees were started slowly to open new settlements. Initially, it also logged. This facilitated the introduction of was thought that the agricultural population would more intensive forestry and clear-cutting practices. not compete with the Sami for resources, but it In 1950, selective logging was forbidden on state soon became clear that agriculture was not a viable forests and clear-cutting started on a large scale. 308 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Trends in land use Moen Mining has long been an important industry in protected areas in the mountain region: 191 nature northern Sweden. The first iron ore and silver reserves and 10 national parks. Of these, 161 were mines were opened already in the 17th century, but established after 1972. In addition, many Nature large-scale development of the mining industry did 2000 sites have been established in recent years. not begin until after World War I (Norrländsk Modern tourism first appeared in the Swedish Uppslagbok 1993). Especially important are the mountain region in the latter part of the 19th cen- Skellefte field in Västerbotten which contains tury when British sporting gentlemen extended copper, lead, silver and gold, and the Kiruna- their fishing and hunting expeditions from Norway Malmberget iron ore field in Norrbotten. Today, into the central parts of the Scandes mountain these fields contain two of the largest iron ore and range (Sillanpää 1999). Several large hunting copper mines in the world. cabins were built, and local communities started to The development of hydroelectric power began at offer guiding services. the turn of the 20th century, even though power During this period, the infrastructure of roads from running water had long been used for flour and railroads was developed. Railroad construction mills and sawmills. The first power plants were built began in 1877, and by 1902 even the north of to support local communities and industries but, Sweden was accessible by train. This led to an after the 1930s, techniques were developed to dis- increase in visitors, and by early 1900 most major tribute electricity over longer distances to the mountain peaks had been climbed. The early tour- populated centres in southern Sweden. This ism was characterised by an intellectual middle prompted a second wave of developments. Today, class who travelled for health reasons, and at this all of the main rivers in northern Sweden are com- time the Swedish mountains were exclusively a pletely developed, except for the Torne, Kalix, Pite summer destination. The break-up of the Swedish– and Vindel Rivers which were legally protected Norwegian Union in 1905 helped create an after a heated debate in the 1980s. increased interest in Swedish nature for patriotic The first nine national parks in Sweden, five of reasons, and this led to a great increase in visitors: which were in the mountain region, were estab- from about 4000 registered visitors to the moun- lished in 1909. The goal was to ‘preserve for the tains in 1910 to 35,000 in 1933 (statistics from the future some examples of virgin nature, at least as Swedish Touring association). After World War II, long as this was possible in view of development’ increases in paid vacation time, together with a [my translation] (Lundgren LJ 2005). These booming economy and increased accessibility, led national parks should also function as scientific to a continued increase in hiking and skiing study systems and ‘patriotic exhibitions’. The estab- activities (Nilsson 1999). Since 1970, downhill ski- lishment of these parks was possible because the ing and snowmobiling have become major tourism conservationists used four criteria for the parks: activities, and the mountains are now predomi- they should be scientifically interesting, interesting nantly a winter destination. from a touristic point-of-view (i.e. beautiful), be on state land (i.e. cheap), and essentially useless for LAND USE – CURRENT TRENDS other forms of development. The outcome was that they ended up in the mountains. After the establish- This section describes some current trends in the ment of the parks in 1909, nothing much happened development of various forms of land use in until 1919 when Stora Sjöfallet (the ‘Great water- the mountain region. fall’), a national park in the north of the region, became interesting for the development of hydro- Reindeer husbandry electric power. This caused the government to re- arrange the borders of the national park swiftly Current migratory reindeer husbandry is heavily because the fourth of the criteria above no longer dependent on communications which, to a large applied. After that, establishment of new protected extent, are facilitated by modern communication areas did not really pick up speed until in the 1970s aids. The Swedish mountains form a closed eco- when nature reserves began to be designated system with the boreal forest east of the mountains; (Götmark and Nilsson 1992; Eckerberg and Moen reindeer use the mountains during the summer 2006, in preparation). Today there are 201 and the forest during the winter. While the International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 309 Trends in land use Moen migration patterns from summer grazing in the Taken together, these developments have mountains to winter grazing in the boreal forest still caused a loss of resilience, or adaptive capacity, in exist, infrastructure development has generally led the reindeer husbandry system (Gunderson and to a loss of continuous grazing grounds and Holling 2002; Danell 2005). Buffering capacities increased fragmentation, which indirectly causes for responding to changes, for instance to the loss of migration routes. Other migration increased development or climate changes, are routes no longer exist directly because of infrastruc- being eroded. Thus, the future of the current form ture development. For instance, frozen rivers have of reindeer husbandry is uncertain. been important migration routes in many areas, but hydroelectric power dams have made ice condi- Forestry tions unsafe and have forced the reindeer herding communities to find new routes or to transport More than half of Sweden is covered with forests: their reindeer on trucks. This causes extra costs, the highest proportion in Europe. Forests cover in terms of transport, labour and supplemental about 75% of the area of the mountain region (SYF feeding. These factors, together with the use of 2004). Annual tree growth is c. 100 million m , with snowmobiles during winter and motorcycles and forestry using about 75% of that every year. The helicopters during summer, have increased both total standing volume is thus increasing, but at the herding costs and herding efficiency. Increased same time year-class distributions are changing traffic also leads to increased reindeer mortality: towards younger and smaller trees. This has yearly losses are 1–3% of the total reindeer popula- negative effects on both biodiversity and winter tion (Danell 2005). Predator populations are also grazing resources for reindeer. increasing, which leads to further mortality. The large forest companies take various In general, the possibilities for continued rein- measures to reduce the effects of forestry on deer husbandry are steadily decreasing due to pres- biodiversity, both regulated through legislation sures from other forms of land use (Danell 2005). and through voluntary agreements, such as with the Although this is well known, many of the effects have Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). The latter also not been quantified and are thus hard to calculate or involves consultation on logging plans with those predict. However, some examples can be identified. involved in reindeer husbandry. However, these The intensification of forestry in the 1950s, with consultations are often seen as unsatisfactory by the extensive clear-cutting, soil scarification and plant- reindeer herders (see Sandström et al. in this issue ing of saplings, has removed large parts of the winter for a more detailed analysis). grazing grounds from use, perhaps causing a loss in Today, Swedish forestry policies have two equal the order of 50%. These forestry measures reduce goals: a production goal of efficient use of forests, lichen abundance, establish vulnerable plantations and an environmental goal of preserving bio- of saplings that cannot be grazed without damage to diversity and productivity. This is likely to lead to an the trees, cause difficult snow conditions for digging, increased polarisation in the future, with some and create dense young forests that the reindeer areas used for intensive forestry and other areas avoid. Increased forest fertilisation, currently being protected in some way (Ekelund and Hamilton discussed within the forestry sector, would increase 2001). With intensive forestry, the rotations will be the loss of lichens even further. shorter, and stand age-class distributions will be In some places, the legal grazing rights have been dominated by younger trees. The protected areas, challenged, especially by small forest owners. Rein- on the other hand, will move towards a domination deer grazingrightsinSwedenare basedoncustom- of older trees. Middle-aged forests, which are good ary law (i.e. historical use of the land), and this right reindeer grazing grounds, will continue to decrease. has been questioned by formal landowners in several court cases. In several instances, most notably in Tourism Härjedalen, grazing rights have been ruled against, causing further loss of land. However, in the most The mountain region is an important tourist desti- recent case (in Västerbotten) the court ruled for the nation in Sweden: nearly one in four Swedes makes grazing rights. This decision has been challenged at least one overnight trip to the region each year and is currently pending in a higher court. (Heberlein et al. 2002). However, the visits are not 310 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Trends in land use Moen distributed evenly over the region or over the members of the Sami herding districts and seasons. The southern mountain regions, closer to landowners. According to current legislation, land- the more populated areas in Sweden, are much owners have a right to hunt and fish on their more popular than the northern regions, and most land, and the reindeer herding Sami also have visitors come during the winter for downhill skiing hunting and fishing rights (although with different (Heberlein et al. 2002). In fact, downhill skiing and strengths in different parts of the Swedish reindeer snowmobiling have shown the largest increases herding area; SOU 2005:116). This has led to con- since the 1980s, while more traditional activities, flicts, for instance where Sami and local hunters such as hiking and cross-country skiing, have have had the right to hunt in the same area. How- remained constant or slightly decreased (Fredman ever, current trends seem to be to afford stronger and Heberlein 2003). rights to the Sami, at least in the mountain areas A national survey of the Swedish population where year-round reindeer grazing is allowed. This shows that income and distance act as constraints to can, for instance, be seen in attempts by the local mountain visits, but that place attachment plays a herding districts, rather than the County Adminis- stronger role than constraints (Fredman and tration Board, to administer the annual grouse Heberlein 2005). Participating friends, perceived hunt in a part of Jämtland (Willebrand and Paulrud individual skill and activity commitment are all 2004), and the recent suggestions to establish local important for downhill skiers but are not so impor- co-management groups consisting of both reindeer tant for backpackers, and those who are most active herding district members and landowners (SOU in visiting other places and participating in other 2005:116). leisure activities are most likely to visit the moun- tains. Energy production and mining The strong emphasis on winter tourism in the mountain region may be problematic in the future. While the era of large-scale developments of hydro- Regional climate change scenarios predict warmer electric power is probably over, other parts of the and wetter winters that will result in shorter winters energy sector may be developed: wood pellet pro- (Räisänen et al. 2004). This will lead to a reduced duction for heating, and ethanol production for probability of snow, shorter skiing seasons and fuel. Both of these sectors would rely on timber resi- reduced profits for skiing operators (Moen and dues from forestry. Some pellet factories have been Fredman 2006). established, but ethanol production is still in the Employment rates in the mountain region have development stage. So far, neither sector has prob- been steadily dropping as the labour market has ably had much impact on local economy. Some shifted from primary production, such as forestry concerns also exist regarding the effect on forest and mining, to other sources, and because there soils of removing tree residues (Rosenberg and has more recently been a large reduction in the Jacobsson 2004). public sector (Lundmark 2005). The tourism The mining industry is currently experiencing sector is seen as a potential saviour in this aspect. a boom, especially in Västerbotten. A change in While there has been an increase in tourism-related the Mineral Act in 1993 made it easier for foreign job opportunities in the past 15 years, the develop- companies to prospect for minerals, and after ment has been very uneven within the region and several new finds – mainly of copper, zinc, gold and has not reached the levels that would compensate silver – new mines are being opened. For instance, for other losses (Lundmark 2005). Furthermore, a calculations for Storuman municipality show a large part (>25%) of the people involved in tourism likely increase in economic growth in the order of are seasonal workers with residences outside of the 1.5% or more and perhaps 1200 new jobs created region (Lundmark 2006, in preparation). (Sörensson 2003). This is in strong contrast with the latest 10-year period for the municipality, with losses in jobs of about 0.5% and in population of Hunting/fishing about 1.5%. The most important hunting and fishing issues However, mining development is not uncontro- in recent years in Sweden have concerned legal versial. For instance, both the Swedish Environ- rights to the resources, especially the rights of the mental Protection Agency (EPA) and the local International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 311 Trends in land use Moen reindeer herding district have challenged the deci- it should be remembered that, while the resistance sion to establish a mine in Svartliden, Västerbotten. from the local residents was strong, reindeer The Swedish EPA is concerned about the leakage of husbandry, the largest land user in mountain areas waste products from the mine, while the herding in Sweden is not present in Fulufjället. Other poten- district is concerned about loss of grazing lands. tial national park areas in Sweden may thus experi- Currently, the matter rests with the courts. ence a higher complexity in managing conflicts between different land-use interests. Protected areas MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES Government policy for nature protection in Sweden IN THE SWEDISH MOUNTAIN has changed over the last century (Eckerberg and REGION Moen 2006, in preparation). While the early estab- lishment of protected areas was driven by a desire to The management of natural resources in the preserve national heritage and ‘pristine’ areas, the Swedish mountain region is difficult and complex, environmental movement in the 1960s resulted in not least because of many, and sometimes conflict- an increased focus on the connection between ing, goals and many hierarchical layers in the deci- nature and society. Further underlined by inter- sion processes. For example, conflicts in the boreal national agreements from the Rio Summit in 1992 forests may arise between goals for forestry (to and onwards, a broader understanding of sustain- maximise timber production), reindeer husbandry ability principles has developed. This has resulted (to maximise lichen production), and conservation in changes in the criteria for establishing protected (to protect biodiversity). Forestry, which is the areas. In recent times, increasing weight has been strongest economic actor, has negative effects on placed on recreational values, in particular. This is the other two goals, and land set aside for conserva- also clearly reflected in the current government’s tion purposes is seldom key habitat for reindeer environmental policies, which emphasise the im- grazing. As all three land-use activities have differ- portance of tourism and recreation (Regeringens ent legal rights and management systems, and are skrivelse 2001/02:173). influenced by different national and international Several attempts to establish new national parks conventions and policies, this is a very complex in the mountain region in recent years have failed system with many hierarchical levels. Other (Sandell 2005; see Zachrisson et al. in this issue for a examples include conflicting goals between tour- detailed analysis). The main reason has been resist- ism and reindeer grazing in the mountains; both ance from local people who were afraid that their tourist activities, such as hiking, and infrastructure use of the areas would be limited due to restrictions development may disturb the reindeer through on fishing, hunting and snowmobiling. However, negative effects on their energy budget (Danell one recent establishment was successful: the et al. 1999; Skarin et al. 2004). Conflicting goals Fulufjället National Park in the southern part of between residents, who want to make a living in the the region (Wallsten 2003, 2005). Although the area, and the general public, who may want to pre- planning process initially met with resistance from serve the area as a ‘wilderness’, pose specific local residents, the Swedish EPA managed to turn problems, especially since most of the land is owned the attitudes around and the park was inaugurated by the government. in 2002. The number of visitors to the area Underlying many of these conflicts are unclear increased by 40% following the establishment of legal rights. One example concerns the rights for the park (Fredman 2006). In general, the develop- reindeer herding, which are based on prescription ment of employment in tourism in and near all from time immemorial. While the rights for the national parks in Sweden has been more positive landowner are based on land rights and ownership, than in the mountain municipalities in general the right to use the land for reindeer grazing is thus (Lundmark et al. 2006, submitted for publication). based on long-term use. However, the law does not The process at Fulufjället was so successful that define what ‘long-term’ means or how long a time the Swedish EPA now considers that the concept must elapse before the right is lost if reindeer can serve as a model for future establishments of husbandry is not exercised in an area (SOU national park in Sweden (Wallsten 2003). However, 2006:14). Further, the grazing rights are stronger 312 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Trends in land use Moen on the ‘all-year’ grounds (the mountains and adja- information on how different types of land use cent boreal forest) than on the winter grazing influence both the dynamics of the extracted grounds (the eastern part of the boreal forest). As resource and the potential for other forms of land the cultural and historical tradition within the Sami use. This includes an understanding of the uncer- community is largely not documented in writing, tainties involved and how they can be addressed and as reindeer husbandry does not leave much (Willebrand 2006, in preparation). From a social in terms of archaeological remains, it has proven science perspective, it is important to study how difficult for the Sami to prove grazing rights in decision processes function at different hierarchi- some areas of the winter grazing grounds when cal levels and how conflict resolutions may be challenged in court. Further, Sweden has not rati- attempted. From an economic perspective, it is fied the ILO Convention No. 169, which deals with important to know the costs and benefits of differ- the rights of indigenous peoples, as it requires rec- ent types of policies aimed at natural and cultural ognition of the rights of ownership and possession resources in the region, and to make increased of the Sami over the lands they traditionally occupy. efforts to try and value these costs and benefits. These unclear rights of the Sami in the region also Above all, it is important that knowledge from both cause problems for the harvest and management the natural and social sciences is integrated in an of fish and wildlife in the region (SOU 2005:116). adaptive process in which new information is So what can be done to enhance a sustainable actively incorporated. We hope that the papers in use of resources in the region? From a natural this special issue take at least a small step towards science perspective, it is important to provide that goal. 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Conservation Oxford University Press; 2005:229–54 Biology 1992;6:220–31 Danell Ö, Holand Ø, Staaland H and Nieminen M. Gunderson LH and Holling CS. Panarchy: Understand- Renens anpassning och näringsbehov. In Reindrift i ing Transformations in Human and Natural Systems. Norvest-Europa i 1998 – biologiske muligheter og Washington: Island Press; 2002 begrensninger. Copenhagen: TemaNord 1999: Hammar J. Freshwater ecosystems of polar regions: 510:31–46 vulnerable resources. Ambio 1989;18:6–22 Danell Ö. The robustness of reindeer husbandry – Heberlein TA, Fredman P and Vuorio T. Current need for a new approach to elucidate opportuni- tourism patterns in the Swedish mountain ties and sustainability of the reindeer industry in region. Mountain Research and Development 2002; its socio-ecological context. Rangifer Report 2005; 22:142–9 10:39–49 Kullman L. Mountain taiga in Sweden. In Seppälä M Ekelund H and Hamilton G. Skogspolitisk historia. (ed). The Physical Geography of Fennoscandia. Swedish Forest Agency, Report no. 8A, SUS; 2001 Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005:297–324 Engelmark O and Hytteborn H. Coniferous forests. Lundgren LJ. Miljöskydd i Sverige 1890–1920. In Acta Phytogeographica Suecica 1999;84:55–74 Lundgren LJ and Edman J (eds). Konflikter, Esseen PA, Ehnström B, Ericson L and Sjöberg K. samarbete, resultat – perspektiv på svensk miljöpolitik. Boreal forests. Ecological Bulletins 1997;46:16–47 Brottby: Kassandra; 2005:44–80 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 313 Trends in land use Moen Lundgren T. The determinants of economic growth in the Sillanpää P. Turning their steps to some fresh and Swedish mountain region – the role of the forest and less-frequented field: Victorian and Edwardian tourism sector, and protected land. Report no. 11. The sporting gentlemen in Mid-Scandinavia. Studies in Mountain Mistra Programme; 2005 Travel Writing 1999;3 Lundmark L. Så länge vi har marker – samerna och staten Skarin A, Danell Ö, Bergström R and Moen J. Insect under sexhundra år. Falun: Rabén Prisma; 1998 avoidance may override human disturbances in Lundmark L. Economic restructuring into tourism in reindeer habitat selection. Rangifer 2004;24:95–113 the Swedish mountain range. Scandinavian Journal SNA (Swedish National Atlas). Climate, Lakes and of Hospitality and Tourism 2005;5:23–45 Rivers. LM Kartor: Kiruna; 1995 Moen J and Fredman P. Effects of climate change on Sörensson R. Effectstudie av gruvetableringar i Lycksele och alpine skiing in Sweden. Journal of Sustainable Storumans arbetsmarknadsregioner. CERUM Report Tourism 2006: in press 11. Umeå: Umeå University; 2003 Moen J, Aune K, Edenius L and Angerbjörn A. Poten- SOU. Jakt och fiske i samverkan. Statens Offentliga tial effects of climate change on treeline position Utredningar. Fritzes: Stockholm; 2005:116 in the Swedish mountains. Ecology and Society SOU. Samernas sedvanemarker. Statens Offentliga 2003;9(1):16 [online at http://www.ecologyand Utredningar. Fritzes: Stockholm; 2006:14 society.org/vol9/iss1/art16] Stenman, L. Avvittringen i Västerbottens läns lappmarker. Nilsson PÅ. Fjällturismens historia. En studie av Research Reports from Department of Social Geography utvecklingen i Åredalen. Mid Sweden University, (Forskningsrapporter från Kulturgeografiska Department of Tourism Studies. Report 1999:1 institutionen). Uppsala: Uppsala University; Norrländsk Uppslagsbok. Höganäs: 1993 1983:83 Räisänen J, Hansson U, Ullerstig A, Döscher R, SYF (Statistical Yearbook of Forestry). Official Statistics of Graham LP, Jones C, Meier HEM, Samuelsson P Sweden. Jönköping: National Board of Forestry; 2004 and Willén U. European climate in the late twenty- Wallsten P. The ‘inside-out’ process. A key approach first century: regional simulations with two driving for establishing Fulufjället National Park in global models and two forcing scenarios. Climate Sweden. 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The 2005 Mountain Mistra Programme; 2004 314 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png International Journal of Biodiversity Science & Management Taylor & Francis

Land use in the Swedish mountain region: trends and conflicting goals

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International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 2 (2006) 305–314 Land use in the Swedish mountain region: trends and conflicting goals Jon Moen Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden Key words: Reindeer husbandry, forestry, land management, legal rights, conflicts SUMMARY This paper describes historical and current trends in the use of natural resources in the Swedish mountain region, with the aim of providing a background for understanding the complexity of managing natural resources in the area. The mountain region is a sparsely populated area with low productivity and large conservation values. Traditionally, hunt- ing, fishing and reindeer husbandry were important and still are important. Mining, hydroelectric energy production and forestry have also employed many people, although less in recent times. Tourism is sometimes seen as a potential saviour in terms of employ- ment, but has not yet reached high enough levels to compensate for other losses. The intensity and types of land use have thus varied over time, with some rapid changes. The contribution of different forms of land use to the well-being of local societies has also varied. This highly dynamic pattern is likely to continue in the future, and the question is how to meet these changes in order to achieve a sustainable use of natural resources. The current management of different natural resources is a complex issue, not least because of conflicting goals and many hierarchical levels in the decision processes. Underlying many of these conflicts are also unclear legal rights which will have to be clarified. INTRODUCTION The Swedish mountain region covers about 40% municipalities are the single most important (c. 165,000 km ) of the total area of Sweden, as employer, either directly in administration or defined by the administrative borders of the 15 indirectly through the public sector. This transition municipalities that include alpine areas. Most of is creating shifts in cultural outlooks, adjustments this area is covered by boreal coniferous forests, in economic activities and reconfigurations in while about 25% is alpine (i.e. above the treeline; social networks and political alliances. Figure 1). The region is characterised by vast, The harvesting of wildlife was once the most sparsely populated areas; it contains large wilder- important land use in the mountain region but, ness areas and has high conservation values. Its from the 16th century, reindeer husbandry became population is declining. Forestry used to be the more important. The mining industry was also a major source of employment, but today less than relatively early form of land use that was locally 10% are employed in this sector. Tourism is important for some of the area’s inhabitants from believed to have great potential benefits, but is not the 17th century. While forestry and hydroelectric highly developed in most of the region. The local development were especially important in the latter Correspondence: Dr. J. Moen, Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. Email: jon.moen@emg.umu.se 305 Trends in land use Moen Despite the fact that few of the inhabitants in the mountain region own much land, they still have strong ties to it. The principle of common access to the land, and the possibilities of using resources – such as berries, wood fuel, fish and wildlife – for free or for modest fees are strong. Natural resources thus play an important role in the formation of the social system. The indigenous people of the Swedish mountain region, the Sami, have especially strong links to the land due to their culture and a long tradition in the area. Land use for reindeer husbandry is an exclusive right of the Sami, and reindeer herders are dependent on the possibility of herding rein- deer over large areas, from the high mountains in the west during summer to lichen-rich old conifer forests in the east during winter. Like most local Figure 1 Map of the study area showing the four residents, they also depend on subsistence fishing northern counties. Alpine areas are marked in black and hunting. Only c. 2000 Sami, of an estimated total Swedish population of 20,000, are occupied part- or full-time in reindeer husbandry. However, part of the 20th century, the importance of forestry many Sami live outside the mountain region, which and dam construction has declined over the past 20 increases the importance of reindeer husbandry years. Most of the development has been based for the Sami living in the region. The reindeer has a on low-density natural resources over vast areas central place in the Sami culture, and the continua- where production and resilience are also low. The tion of reindeer husbandry is thus of paramount pressure on these resources is increasing, together importance for the Sami as a group. with an awareness of the necessity of conserving The intensity and types of land use in the moun- biodiversity, leading to increased competition and tain region have thus varied over time. Different conflicts over these resources. High levels of un- forms of land use have gone through powerful and employment, a declining population, and an rapid changes, and their contributions to the well- increase in the needs of modern man may lead to being of local societies have varied accordingly in additional stress, desperation and conflicts. importance. This highly dynamic pattern is likely to A distinguishing feature of this region is that continue in the future, and the question is how to both past and present land-use patterns have been meet these changes in order to decrease environ- very dynamic. Another characteristic is that groups mental risks and achieve sustainability. The aim of outside of the region often have strong opinions the paper is to give an overview of land-use trends about the management of its resources, which is in the Swedish mountain region, and an under- unusual when compared to other regions. ‘Out- standing of the complexity of managing natural siders’ can either be visitors, or even the govern- resources in this area. Several of the issues are dealt ment, which owns large areas in the region. The with in more detail in other papers in this special values of the general society may thus override the issue. opinions and values of local people, creating a sense of powerlessness in the local communities. THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING People not living in the region tend to focus on conservation, whereas local people tend to focus The Scandes mountain chain is a glacially modi- on the use of natural resources. This creates a fied, undulating to highly precipitous, highland tension underlying many conflicts. region located on the border between Sweden Most of the coniferous land is owned by large and Norway (Corner 2005; Figure 1). The moun- forestry companies, and almost all of the land above tain chain contains summits reaching over 2000 m the treeline is owned and managed by the state. a.s.l., and alpine (treeless) areas are found above 306 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Trends in land use Moen 7–800 m a.s.l. The areas with the steepest topo- are located here, and more than twice this area has graphy are found in the southern (Norwegian) some form of nature conservation protection. The mountains and in the northern parts; the central region also hosts virtually all the remaining large part is lower. Most of the bedrock is composed carnivores (bears, lynx, wolverines, wolves) in of heavily weathered acid rocks, creating low- Sweden. productive soils with a species-poor flora, but more Due to global climate change, the climate in the base-rich rocks also exist, creating more species- mountains will undergo large changes in the com- rich vegetation (Carlsson et al. 1999). ing decades. This will include warmer temperatures Due to the northern location of the region, the and more precipitation, especially in winter, result- vegetation period is short (from about 150 days to ing in shorter winters and longer vegetation non-existent on the highest summits) and produc- periods (Räisänen et al. 2004). This will naturally tivity is low. The climate is, in general, maritime have a significant impact on many aspects of the because of the prevailing westerly winds that have ecosystems (Moen, submitted for publication). For accumulated moisture over the Atlantic (SNA 1995). instance, a warmer climate may lead to an increased This moisture is released as the air is forced up over forestation of currently treeless alpine heaths the mountains, which makes some areas the most (Moen et al. 2003). precipitation-rich in Sweden, with over 2000 mm annually. However, these orographic precipitation THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING patterns also cause large spatial variations, both at different altitudes and due to a strong east–west gra- The Swedish mountain region is characterised by a dient, with more eastern locations in a rainshadow. sparse population, with less than 2% of the Swedish About two-thirds of the precipitation falls as snow. population. The population is declining (Figure 2) The boreal forest is a very heterogeneous vegeta- due to low birth rates, while migration to the larger tion zone, with variable bedrock and soils, and a cities in the south of Sweden is not as pronounced steep east–west topographic gradient (Esseen et al. as earlier. The region is also undergoing an internal 1997; Kullman 2005). Forests east of the ‘border of urbanisation process, as people move into urban hazardous regeneration’ (skogsodlingsgränsen) have centres from more peripheral villages (Lundmark been strongly affected by large-scale forestry during 2005). the last 100–150 years. The forest is relatively homo- The socio-demographic changes lead to a loss of geneous, with a low diversity of tree species. Two young people and a relative increase of the elderly. conifers, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway This has large consequences for the social services spruce (Picea abies) dominate, with varying amounts and the local labour market in the municipalities. of deciduous species (e.g. Betula pendula, B. This trend will, for instance, result in a declining pubescens, Populus tremula, Sorbus aucuparia). Pine is quality of service infrastructure and provision, more common on drier soils, in areas with a more continental climate, while spruce prefers mesic soils, and a more oceanic climate (Esseen et al. 1997; Engelmark and Hytteborn 1999). More than 20,000 lakes and thousands of kilo- metres of streams of different size and character are found in the mountain region. The lakes range from high alpine lakes that are only ice-free for a few weeks to lakes in the boreal forest. Many of the lakes and streams hold populations of Arctic char, trout or salmon, and are important for fishing for 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 domestic consumption. A common denominator Ye a r for these aquatic ecosystems is that they have low Figure 2 Changes in the human population size in the productivity and are nutrient-poor; exceptions can Swedish mountain region. The numbers refers to the be found in calcium-rich areas (Hammar 1989). total population in the 15 municipalities that include The region has high conservation values. Most alpine areas. The total population in Sweden is about 9 of the national park areas of Sweden (c. 6500 km ) million International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 307 Population size Trends in land use Moen diminishing accessibility to services, high cost option, and the colonisers also became dependent and price levels, weak economic performance, and on hunting and fishing to complement their mea- lagging investments in infrastructure for transport gre livestock farming. and communication (Lundmark 2005) – and may A nomadic form of reindeer husbandry began to be eventually end up in a negative spiral where the low developed all over northern Scandinavia in the level of services discourages people further from 16th century (Lundmark 1998; Danell 2005). This living in the region. was partly a response to an increased population The single most important employer in the which had hunted the herds of wild reindeer close region is the municipalities themselves, including to extinction for subsistence, as well as to trade and health care, schools and administration. Previously, pay taxes to the state. This new form of reindeer forestry was an important sector, but employment husbandry was labour-intensive. However, at the has decreased by about 50% since 1985, due in part end of the 18th century, the conditions changed to rationalisations and technical developments again. Due to periods of severe weather, high pre- (Lundgren T 2005). Today, the forestry and tour- dation and disease outbreaks, the number of ism sectors each employ some 5–10% of the popula- reindeer dropped. During the next century, the tion. The growth of the local economy has followed reindeer husbandry system waxed and waned as that of the rest of the country, but jobs in the private resource conflicts with other land users varied. This sector have largely been replaced by jobs in the led to the first reindeer husbandry law in Sweden in public sector (Lundgren T 2005). 1886. During the 20th century, the system changed again (Danell 2005). A stepwise closure of the borders between Sweden, Finland (i.e. Russia) and LAND USE – A SHORT HISTORICAL Norway for reindeer herding in the latter part of OVERVIEW the 19th century and early 20th century led to People have been living in the northern part of crowding and forced relocations of Sami and their Sweden since the ice started to retreat some 9000 reindeer from these northern parts. These Sami years ago (Baudou 1992). For the first 7–8000 years, had practised a form of extensive reindeer hus- the human population consisted of hunters and bandry which is focused on meat production. This gatherers; agriculture and livestock farming started form allows large herds to roam freely during to appear in some places between AD 1 and 1050. summer, and is less labour-intensive and gives a From about the 3rd to the 14th century, the old higher meat production. To the south, the Sami hunting culture started to change as the reindeer were still practising a more intensive form of rein- became more and more important as a domesti- deer husbandry, partly focused on milk production cated animal. It was first used for transport, while for making cheese. In this form, the reindeer were later more focus was placed on meat production as closely watched all summer, and every family the reindeer husbandry system was developed from moved with a small herd that was milked every day. about the 16th century. However, hunting and fish- These two forms were incompatible on the same ing have continued to be an important use of land, and eventually the extensive form of reindeer natural resources in the region for both Sami and husbandry completely outcompeted the intensive others well into present times. form (Danell 2005). Agricultural colonisations of the inner parts of the The boreal forest (eastofthe borderofhazardous mountain region began in the 18th century regeneration) has been strongly restructured (Stenman 1983). Before that, only the Baltic coast through commercial logging over the past 150 years and some parts of the river valleys were colonised. (Axelsson and Östlund 2001). This process started in The Swedish Crown wanted to increase tax incomes the 19th century when a ‘timber frontier’ advanced from settlements and encouraged colonisation through the area consisting of selective logging of through various subsidies and reductions in taxes. large trees. In the beginning of the 20th century, The initial colonisation rates were low, but people pulp industries developed, and smaller trees were started slowly to open new settlements. Initially, it also logged. This facilitated the introduction of was thought that the agricultural population would more intensive forestry and clear-cutting practices. not compete with the Sami for resources, but it In 1950, selective logging was forbidden on state soon became clear that agriculture was not a viable forests and clear-cutting started on a large scale. 308 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Trends in land use Moen Mining has long been an important industry in protected areas in the mountain region: 191 nature northern Sweden. The first iron ore and silver reserves and 10 national parks. Of these, 161 were mines were opened already in the 17th century, but established after 1972. In addition, many Nature large-scale development of the mining industry did 2000 sites have been established in recent years. not begin until after World War I (Norrländsk Modern tourism first appeared in the Swedish Uppslagbok 1993). Especially important are the mountain region in the latter part of the 19th cen- Skellefte field in Västerbotten which contains tury when British sporting gentlemen extended copper, lead, silver and gold, and the Kiruna- their fishing and hunting expeditions from Norway Malmberget iron ore field in Norrbotten. Today, into the central parts of the Scandes mountain these fields contain two of the largest iron ore and range (Sillanpää 1999). Several large hunting copper mines in the world. cabins were built, and local communities started to The development of hydroelectric power began at offer guiding services. the turn of the 20th century, even though power During this period, the infrastructure of roads from running water had long been used for flour and railroads was developed. Railroad construction mills and sawmills. The first power plants were built began in 1877, and by 1902 even the north of to support local communities and industries but, Sweden was accessible by train. This led to an after the 1930s, techniques were developed to dis- increase in visitors, and by early 1900 most major tribute electricity over longer distances to the mountain peaks had been climbed. The early tour- populated centres in southern Sweden. This ism was characterised by an intellectual middle prompted a second wave of developments. Today, class who travelled for health reasons, and at this all of the main rivers in northern Sweden are com- time the Swedish mountains were exclusively a pletely developed, except for the Torne, Kalix, Pite summer destination. The break-up of the Swedish– and Vindel Rivers which were legally protected Norwegian Union in 1905 helped create an after a heated debate in the 1980s. increased interest in Swedish nature for patriotic The first nine national parks in Sweden, five of reasons, and this led to a great increase in visitors: which were in the mountain region, were estab- from about 4000 registered visitors to the moun- lished in 1909. The goal was to ‘preserve for the tains in 1910 to 35,000 in 1933 (statistics from the future some examples of virgin nature, at least as Swedish Touring association). After World War II, long as this was possible in view of development’ increases in paid vacation time, together with a [my translation] (Lundgren LJ 2005). These booming economy and increased accessibility, led national parks should also function as scientific to a continued increase in hiking and skiing study systems and ‘patriotic exhibitions’. The estab- activities (Nilsson 1999). Since 1970, downhill ski- lishment of these parks was possible because the ing and snowmobiling have become major tourism conservationists used four criteria for the parks: activities, and the mountains are now predomi- they should be scientifically interesting, interesting nantly a winter destination. from a touristic point-of-view (i.e. beautiful), be on state land (i.e. cheap), and essentially useless for LAND USE – CURRENT TRENDS other forms of development. The outcome was that they ended up in the mountains. After the establish- This section describes some current trends in the ment of the parks in 1909, nothing much happened development of various forms of land use in until 1919 when Stora Sjöfallet (the ‘Great water- the mountain region. fall’), a national park in the north of the region, became interesting for the development of hydro- Reindeer husbandry electric power. This caused the government to re- arrange the borders of the national park swiftly Current migratory reindeer husbandry is heavily because the fourth of the criteria above no longer dependent on communications which, to a large applied. After that, establishment of new protected extent, are facilitated by modern communication areas did not really pick up speed until in the 1970s aids. The Swedish mountains form a closed eco- when nature reserves began to be designated system with the boreal forest east of the mountains; (Götmark and Nilsson 1992; Eckerberg and Moen reindeer use the mountains during the summer 2006, in preparation). Today there are 201 and the forest during the winter. While the International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 309 Trends in land use Moen migration patterns from summer grazing in the Taken together, these developments have mountains to winter grazing in the boreal forest still caused a loss of resilience, or adaptive capacity, in exist, infrastructure development has generally led the reindeer husbandry system (Gunderson and to a loss of continuous grazing grounds and Holling 2002; Danell 2005). Buffering capacities increased fragmentation, which indirectly causes for responding to changes, for instance to the loss of migration routes. Other migration increased development or climate changes, are routes no longer exist directly because of infrastruc- being eroded. Thus, the future of the current form ture development. For instance, frozen rivers have of reindeer husbandry is uncertain. been important migration routes in many areas, but hydroelectric power dams have made ice condi- Forestry tions unsafe and have forced the reindeer herding communities to find new routes or to transport More than half of Sweden is covered with forests: their reindeer on trucks. This causes extra costs, the highest proportion in Europe. Forests cover in terms of transport, labour and supplemental about 75% of the area of the mountain region (SYF feeding. These factors, together with the use of 2004). Annual tree growth is c. 100 million m , with snowmobiles during winter and motorcycles and forestry using about 75% of that every year. The helicopters during summer, have increased both total standing volume is thus increasing, but at the herding costs and herding efficiency. Increased same time year-class distributions are changing traffic also leads to increased reindeer mortality: towards younger and smaller trees. This has yearly losses are 1–3% of the total reindeer popula- negative effects on both biodiversity and winter tion (Danell 2005). Predator populations are also grazing resources for reindeer. increasing, which leads to further mortality. The large forest companies take various In general, the possibilities for continued rein- measures to reduce the effects of forestry on deer husbandry are steadily decreasing due to pres- biodiversity, both regulated through legislation sures from other forms of land use (Danell 2005). and through voluntary agreements, such as with the Although this is well known, many of the effects have Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). The latter also not been quantified and are thus hard to calculate or involves consultation on logging plans with those predict. However, some examples can be identified. involved in reindeer husbandry. However, these The intensification of forestry in the 1950s, with consultations are often seen as unsatisfactory by the extensive clear-cutting, soil scarification and plant- reindeer herders (see Sandström et al. in this issue ing of saplings, has removed large parts of the winter for a more detailed analysis). grazing grounds from use, perhaps causing a loss in Today, Swedish forestry policies have two equal the order of 50%. These forestry measures reduce goals: a production goal of efficient use of forests, lichen abundance, establish vulnerable plantations and an environmental goal of preserving bio- of saplings that cannot be grazed without damage to diversity and productivity. This is likely to lead to an the trees, cause difficult snow conditions for digging, increased polarisation in the future, with some and create dense young forests that the reindeer areas used for intensive forestry and other areas avoid. Increased forest fertilisation, currently being protected in some way (Ekelund and Hamilton discussed within the forestry sector, would increase 2001). With intensive forestry, the rotations will be the loss of lichens even further. shorter, and stand age-class distributions will be In some places, the legal grazing rights have been dominated by younger trees. The protected areas, challenged, especially by small forest owners. Rein- on the other hand, will move towards a domination deer grazingrightsinSwedenare basedoncustom- of older trees. Middle-aged forests, which are good ary law (i.e. historical use of the land), and this right reindeer grazing grounds, will continue to decrease. has been questioned by formal landowners in several court cases. In several instances, most notably in Tourism Härjedalen, grazing rights have been ruled against, causing further loss of land. However, in the most The mountain region is an important tourist desti- recent case (in Västerbotten) the court ruled for the nation in Sweden: nearly one in four Swedes makes grazing rights. This decision has been challenged at least one overnight trip to the region each year and is currently pending in a higher court. (Heberlein et al. 2002). However, the visits are not 310 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Trends in land use Moen distributed evenly over the region or over the members of the Sami herding districts and seasons. The southern mountain regions, closer to landowners. According to current legislation, land- the more populated areas in Sweden, are much owners have a right to hunt and fish on their more popular than the northern regions, and most land, and the reindeer herding Sami also have visitors come during the winter for downhill skiing hunting and fishing rights (although with different (Heberlein et al. 2002). In fact, downhill skiing and strengths in different parts of the Swedish reindeer snowmobiling have shown the largest increases herding area; SOU 2005:116). This has led to con- since the 1980s, while more traditional activities, flicts, for instance where Sami and local hunters such as hiking and cross-country skiing, have have had the right to hunt in the same area. How- remained constant or slightly decreased (Fredman ever, current trends seem to be to afford stronger and Heberlein 2003). rights to the Sami, at least in the mountain areas A national survey of the Swedish population where year-round reindeer grazing is allowed. This shows that income and distance act as constraints to can, for instance, be seen in attempts by the local mountain visits, but that place attachment plays a herding districts, rather than the County Adminis- stronger role than constraints (Fredman and tration Board, to administer the annual grouse Heberlein 2005). Participating friends, perceived hunt in a part of Jämtland (Willebrand and Paulrud individual skill and activity commitment are all 2004), and the recent suggestions to establish local important for downhill skiers but are not so impor- co-management groups consisting of both reindeer tant for backpackers, and those who are most active herding district members and landowners (SOU in visiting other places and participating in other 2005:116). leisure activities are most likely to visit the moun- tains. Energy production and mining The strong emphasis on winter tourism in the mountain region may be problematic in the future. While the era of large-scale developments of hydro- Regional climate change scenarios predict warmer electric power is probably over, other parts of the and wetter winters that will result in shorter winters energy sector may be developed: wood pellet pro- (Räisänen et al. 2004). This will lead to a reduced duction for heating, and ethanol production for probability of snow, shorter skiing seasons and fuel. Both of these sectors would rely on timber resi- reduced profits for skiing operators (Moen and dues from forestry. Some pellet factories have been Fredman 2006). established, but ethanol production is still in the Employment rates in the mountain region have development stage. So far, neither sector has prob- been steadily dropping as the labour market has ably had much impact on local economy. Some shifted from primary production, such as forestry concerns also exist regarding the effect on forest and mining, to other sources, and because there soils of removing tree residues (Rosenberg and has more recently been a large reduction in the Jacobsson 2004). public sector (Lundmark 2005). The tourism The mining industry is currently experiencing sector is seen as a potential saviour in this aspect. a boom, especially in Västerbotten. A change in While there has been an increase in tourism-related the Mineral Act in 1993 made it easier for foreign job opportunities in the past 15 years, the develop- companies to prospect for minerals, and after ment has been very uneven within the region and several new finds – mainly of copper, zinc, gold and has not reached the levels that would compensate silver – new mines are being opened. For instance, for other losses (Lundmark 2005). Furthermore, a calculations for Storuman municipality show a large part (>25%) of the people involved in tourism likely increase in economic growth in the order of are seasonal workers with residences outside of the 1.5% or more and perhaps 1200 new jobs created region (Lundmark 2006, in preparation). (Sörensson 2003). This is in strong contrast with the latest 10-year period for the municipality, with losses in jobs of about 0.5% and in population of Hunting/fishing about 1.5%. The most important hunting and fishing issues However, mining development is not uncontro- in recent years in Sweden have concerned legal versial. For instance, both the Swedish Environ- rights to the resources, especially the rights of the mental Protection Agency (EPA) and the local International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 311 Trends in land use Moen reindeer herding district have challenged the deci- it should be remembered that, while the resistance sion to establish a mine in Svartliden, Västerbotten. from the local residents was strong, reindeer The Swedish EPA is concerned about the leakage of husbandry, the largest land user in mountain areas waste products from the mine, while the herding in Sweden is not present in Fulufjället. Other poten- district is concerned about loss of grazing lands. tial national park areas in Sweden may thus experi- Currently, the matter rests with the courts. ence a higher complexity in managing conflicts between different land-use interests. Protected areas MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES Government policy for nature protection in Sweden IN THE SWEDISH MOUNTAIN has changed over the last century (Eckerberg and REGION Moen 2006, in preparation). While the early estab- lishment of protected areas was driven by a desire to The management of natural resources in the preserve national heritage and ‘pristine’ areas, the Swedish mountain region is difficult and complex, environmental movement in the 1960s resulted in not least because of many, and sometimes conflict- an increased focus on the connection between ing, goals and many hierarchical layers in the deci- nature and society. Further underlined by inter- sion processes. For example, conflicts in the boreal national agreements from the Rio Summit in 1992 forests may arise between goals for forestry (to and onwards, a broader understanding of sustain- maximise timber production), reindeer husbandry ability principles has developed. This has resulted (to maximise lichen production), and conservation in changes in the criteria for establishing protected (to protect biodiversity). Forestry, which is the areas. In recent times, increasing weight has been strongest economic actor, has negative effects on placed on recreational values, in particular. This is the other two goals, and land set aside for conserva- also clearly reflected in the current government’s tion purposes is seldom key habitat for reindeer environmental policies, which emphasise the im- grazing. As all three land-use activities have differ- portance of tourism and recreation (Regeringens ent legal rights and management systems, and are skrivelse 2001/02:173). influenced by different national and international Several attempts to establish new national parks conventions and policies, this is a very complex in the mountain region in recent years have failed system with many hierarchical levels. Other (Sandell 2005; see Zachrisson et al. in this issue for a examples include conflicting goals between tour- detailed analysis). The main reason has been resist- ism and reindeer grazing in the mountains; both ance from local people who were afraid that their tourist activities, such as hiking, and infrastructure use of the areas would be limited due to restrictions development may disturb the reindeer through on fishing, hunting and snowmobiling. However, negative effects on their energy budget (Danell one recent establishment was successful: the et al. 1999; Skarin et al. 2004). Conflicting goals Fulufjället National Park in the southern part of between residents, who want to make a living in the the region (Wallsten 2003, 2005). Although the area, and the general public, who may want to pre- planning process initially met with resistance from serve the area as a ‘wilderness’, pose specific local residents, the Swedish EPA managed to turn problems, especially since most of the land is owned the attitudes around and the park was inaugurated by the government. in 2002. The number of visitors to the area Underlying many of these conflicts are unclear increased by 40% following the establishment of legal rights. One example concerns the rights for the park (Fredman 2006). In general, the develop- reindeer herding, which are based on prescription ment of employment in tourism in and near all from time immemorial. While the rights for the national parks in Sweden has been more positive landowner are based on land rights and ownership, than in the mountain municipalities in general the right to use the land for reindeer grazing is thus (Lundmark et al. 2006, submitted for publication). based on long-term use. However, the law does not The process at Fulufjället was so successful that define what ‘long-term’ means or how long a time the Swedish EPA now considers that the concept must elapse before the right is lost if reindeer can serve as a model for future establishments of husbandry is not exercised in an area (SOU national park in Sweden (Wallsten 2003). However, 2006:14). Further, the grazing rights are stronger 312 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Trends in land use Moen on the ‘all-year’ grounds (the mountains and adja- information on how different types of land use cent boreal forest) than on the winter grazing influence both the dynamics of the extracted grounds (the eastern part of the boreal forest). As resource and the potential for other forms of land the cultural and historical tradition within the Sami use. This includes an understanding of the uncer- community is largely not documented in writing, tainties involved and how they can be addressed and as reindeer husbandry does not leave much (Willebrand 2006, in preparation). From a social in terms of archaeological remains, it has proven science perspective, it is important to study how difficult for the Sami to prove grazing rights in decision processes function at different hierarchi- some areas of the winter grazing grounds when cal levels and how conflict resolutions may be challenged in court. Further, Sweden has not rati- attempted. From an economic perspective, it is fied the ILO Convention No. 169, which deals with important to know the costs and benefits of differ- the rights of indigenous peoples, as it requires rec- ent types of policies aimed at natural and cultural ognition of the rights of ownership and possession resources in the region, and to make increased of the Sami over the lands they traditionally occupy. efforts to try and value these costs and benefits. These unclear rights of the Sami in the region also Above all, it is important that knowledge from both cause problems for the harvest and management the natural and social sciences is integrated in an of fish and wildlife in the region (SOU 2005:116). adaptive process in which new information is So what can be done to enhance a sustainable actively incorporated. We hope that the papers in use of resources in the region? From a natural this special issue take at least a small step towards science perspective, it is important to provide that goal. 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Journal

International Journal of Biodiversity Science & Management – Taylor & Francis

Published: Dec 1, 2006

Keywords: REINDEER HUSBANDRY; FORESTRY; LAND MANAGEMENT; LEGAL RIGHTS; CONFLICTS

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