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Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning: forestry and reindeer husbandry in dialogue

Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning: forestry and reindeer husbandry... International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 2 (2006) 326–333 Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning: forestry and reindeer husbandry in dialogue 1 2 3 4 Camilla Sandström , Jon Moen , Camilla Widmark and Öje Danell Department of Political Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden Department of Forest Economics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden Reindeer Husbandry Unit, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden Key words: Forest, collective action, consultations, lichen, reindeer herding SUMMARY With complex common pool resources, it is important to balance the multitude of inter- ests in order to generate a sustainable management regime. This is not the case in the northern parts of Sweden, where forest resources are used for different extractive purposes by forest companies and the reindeer herding industry. In many respects, the present situation represents a classic collective-action problem with a number of reasons why no cooperative behaviour might be expected. This article illuminates the relationship between the two industries in an historical, ecological and institutional perspective in order to explain the limited scope of coordinated action between the two actors. It also, through the use of collaborative learning techniques and scenario methods, explores the possibilities for the two industries to consider each other’s needs and to identify strategies for co-existence and co-management. The testing of a broad range of scenarios among a selected group of stakeholders leads to the identification of possibilities for improving the management of the forest and lichen resource by changing institutional arrangements and improving coordination between the stakeholders. INTRODUCTION The multiple-use situations characterising forest also plays an important role in the Sami culture land in the northern parts of Sweden is a source of (e.g. Lundmark 2002; Bostedt 2005). Much of the conflict in which both economic and cultural values land used for reindeer herding is also productive are at stake. The indigenous people in Sweden, the forest, producing timber and pulpwood, and con- Sami, have the exclusive right to practise reindeer tributing significantly to the Swedish economy. The (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) husbandry on approxi- forest land in northern Sweden is mainly owned by mately 40% of the Swedish land area. The main large forest companies (about 50%; the state owns product is meat, but other goods are also extracted c. 6%, and c. 38% is privately owned; Statistical from the land and waters. Besides being a liveli- Yearbook of Forestry 2005). Forestry and reindeer hood for the families involved, reindeer husbandry husbandry are, to a large extent, using the same Correspondence: C. Sandström, Department of Political Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. Email: camilla.sandstrom@pol.umu.se 326 Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. land, although for different purposes. The circum- identified possibilities to improve the management stances thus fulfil the criteria characterising com- of the forest and lichen resource by changing insti- mon pool resources (CPRs), i.e. the difficulty of tutional arrangements and improving coordina- excluding actors from using the resource, with use tion between the two stakeholders. by one individual or group meaning that less is available for use by others (Ostrom 1990, 2005). THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: The CPR character of this situation has made THE DEVELOPMENT OF A LAND-USE it difficult to find sustainable solutions for co- CONFLICT existence. On the one hand, it has been argued that modern forestry is one of the major threats to the Reindeer husbandry, in its current form, did not future of reindeer herding, and thus to the Sami appear until the 16th and 17th centuries, as a conse- culture, as the cultivation and extraction of timber quence of depleted populations of fur animals and negatively influences the amount and availability of wild reindeer, due to extensive hunting for sub- lichens, a critical winter resource for reindeer sistence of a growing Sami population, as well as (Danell 2005). Forestry proponents, on the other trading and taxation in fur and food items to several hand, contend that the economic implications of states. The Sami then turned to large-scale reindeer adjusting to the reindeer herding industry by, for pastoralism, which gave them better control over example, saving an area suitable for final felling to the resources than was possible in the previous respond to the needs of reindeer husbandry, is not hunting and fishing societies, complemented with economically defendable (Björklund 2000). small tame flocks of reindeer (Lundmark 1982). In many respects, this situation represents a During the same period, early agriculture and classic collective-action problem with a number of forestry began to develop in the region in parallel to reasons why no cooperative behaviour might be each other. Colonisations of northern areas, owned expected (Olson 1965). First, from an historical by the Crown, were encouraged, for instance by perspective, forestry has successfully gained power tax reductions (Stenman 1983; Egerbladh 1987; at the expense of the reindeer herding industry, Stenman 1998). However, agriculture did not and consequently forestry has no or few incentives supply enough to support many settlers, which led to change the situation and promote cooperation. to a focus on hunting, fishing and small-scale Second, forestry and reindeer herding are not forestry. As the importance of forestry increased, dependent on the same resource and, as forestry e.g. for supplying the mining industry, government has no or little incentive to manage the lichen control became tighter as the value of forests grew resource, this reduces the winter grazing areas of (Stenman 1983; Eliasson 1997, 2002). With the first the reindeer herding industry. Finally, the institu- Lapland treaty in 1673, northern Sweden was tional arrangement that was introduced in order to opened to all settlers; this treaty introduced the reduce conflicts between the two industries does idea of parallel land use between farmers/foresters not maximise the incentives to cooperate or mini- and reindeer herders, suggesting that co-existence mise those that lead to non-cooperative behaviour. between the different groups and land uses This paper aims to shed some light on the rela- was possible (Mattsson and Stridsberg 1981; tionship between the two industries from an histori- Korpijaakko-Labba 1994; Eliasson 1997). However, cal perspective, to describe how forestry affects the by the end of the 17th century, the state initiated a availability of lichens in the winter grazing grounds, delimitation process which aimed to separate and and to discuss the shortcomings of the present insti- clarify land ownership between private owners and tutional arrangements in order to explain the the Crown. The process, which was finalised in the limited scope of coordinated action between the 19th century, can be considered the starting point two actors. However, we also, through the use of of the industrial use of forests in northern Sweden collaborative learning techniques and scenario and thus also a starting point of the conflict methods, explore possibilities for each of the between forestry and reindeer herding industry two industries to consider each other’s needs and (Eliasson 1997). to identify strategies for co-existence and co- Toward the end of the 19th century, the need for management. By testing a broad range of scenarios new land grew as the population increased but, at among a selected group of stakeholders, we have the same time, forest products became valuable – International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 327 Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. and this restricted the colonisation of land in gained power at the expense of the reindeer herd- northern Sweden. Farming was still important, but ing industry, and consequently has had no or little the exploitation of forests, mining and the use of incentives to change the situation and promote rivers for hydro-electric power grew stronger and cooperation. became an important part of the Swedish welfare Many government attempts have been made system in the 20th century (Arell 1979; Stenman to protect the Sami and reindeer herding, but 1983; Egerbladh 1987). changing attitudes with respect to land use in In the early 20th century, reindeer husbandry northern Sweden have affected the economic rele- went through major changes; from mainly using an vance of both reindeer herding industry and intensive method, characterised by close contact forestry, leaving the former in a legally and eco- with the herd, herders turned to a more extensive nomically disadvantageous position. However, the method. Herds were distributed over larger areas question of rights to use land is mainly a dispute and animals were only handled at strategic times, between private forest owners and reindeer herd- such as slaughtering or calf markings. Today, this ing industry, while the conflict in areas owned by more extensive form of reindeer husbandry is the large-scale forestry mainly concerns consideration only form practised in Sweden (Lantto 2000). The and influence over the forest resource. number of reindeer has fluctuated around 225,000 over the past century and is currently about 260,000 THE RESOURCE: EFFECTS OF (SCB 1999; Moen and Danell 2003). FORESTRY ON WINTER GRAZING Forestry has also gone through major changes. In the 1830s and 1840s, sawmills started to buy Reindeer husbandry in Sweden is generally limited felling rights from the local farmers to secure the by winter resources, except in the southernmost supply of timber. This was forbidden in 1906, which part of the husbandry area where summer pastures led to the foundation of large-scale forest compa- tend to be more limiting. Lichens on the winter nies (Stenman 1983; Eliasson and Hamilton 1999; grazing grounds are thus a key resource to manage Enander 2001). As large-scale forestry developed in in this system. Lichens may constitute 35–80% of the middle of the 20th century, forest companies the diet during winter for reindeer (Gaare and expanded their ownership of forest land. To begin Danell 1999; Heggberget et al. 2002); the most with, the industry was labour-dependent but, in the important species include Cladonia arbuscula, 1950s, mechanisation modernised the industry and C. rangiferina, C. stellaris and Cetraria islandica. today forestry is totally dependent on machines As reindeer will dig through the snow to reach the (Enander 2001; Lundmark 2006). lichens, snow characteristics are very important To conclude this brief historical overview, the in determining accessibility of ground lichens governmental attitudes toward the reindeer herd- (Skogland 1978; Helle 1984). This snow cratering ing industry and land use in northern Sweden have on a yearly basis creates a mosaic of grazed and shifted back and forth several times over the centu- non-grazed lichen patches where lichens are access- ries (see also Moen in this issue). This means that ible, and largely untouched lichen patches, where the land-use rights, as well as the economic import- accessibility is limited, perhaps due to adverse snow ance of both forestry and reindeer husbandry, have conditions. Cratering also causes fragmentation of also shifted. The result is that rights and rules regu- lichen thalli, as some fragments are always left in the lating the relationship between forestry and the snow. A typical winter grazing site will thus consist reindeer herding industry are diffuse, and the ques- of a mix of thicker lichen patches and disturbed tion of who has the right to use land is still in dis- patches with lichen fragments of various sizes. pute. Conflicts have escalated over the past century, Arboreal lichens are also very important, especially especially as forestry transformed from a small-scale in late winter when snow conditions may prevent to a large-scale industry. As forests transformed, the the reindeer from reaching the ground lichens. reindeer herding industry found itself more and Lichens are perennial organisms with a low more affected. Larger areas were felled and grazing growth rate. They are easily outcompeted by mosses areas were destroyed (mainly because of soil scari- and vascular plants, and are thus usually found on fication) and fragmented. Thus, from an historical dry grounds with low productivity. As lichens are perspective, the forestry industry has successfully poikilohydric, growth is strongly determined by the 328 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. amount of time that the lichens are wet, and thus by precipitation patterns. A second important factor is the amount of light received while being wet Norrbotten (Gaio-Oliveira et al. 2006). Forestry may strongly Västerbotten 15 Jämtland influence the light regime for the lichens through different forestry measures. For instance, forests today are much denser and have a higher growth rate than earlier (Axelsson and Östlund 2001). Young stands, in particular, are very dense. This creates a more closed canopy, so that less light 1953-57 1995-99 reaches the ground, which reduces lichen growth rates and increases the competitive ability of Figure 1 Percentage of sampling plots in the Swedish mosses. Locally, forest fertilisation has also resulted National Forest Inventory classified as lichen-rich in loss of lichens, through tree canopy closure, (> 25% cover of lichens; SOU 2001:101) increased competition from field layer plants, and the direct negative effects of fertiliser on the lichens. the lichen-rich winter grazing grounds may have Forestry also affects the amount and availability been lost due to clear-cutting since the 1950s (SOU of lichens in other ways. If forest stands are 2001:101; Figure 1). clear-cut, any remaining lichens become difficult While the reindeer herding industry is thus to graze, because snow becomes more densely dependent on the availability of lichens in order to packed and this, together with logging residues, survive, lichens are of little or no value to forest makes the snow difficult to dig through. If the companies, so they have no incentives to preserve ground is scarified to increase tree sapling survival, lichens. The two actors are thus using the same the lichen mats are partly destroyed. Regeneration land, but not the same resources. This, in addition of the lichen resource then requires recolonisation, to the historical and judicial reasons described in which may take many years depending on the dis- the previous section, does not encourage collective tance to source populations. These effects may action. essentially remove lands from grazing for several decades. THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK: Forestry has had especially great effects on the UNEVEN POWER DISTRIBUTION availability of arboreal lichens. These are most HAMPERS CONFLICT RESOLUTION common in old-growth, spruce-dominated forests, which were among the first forest types to be tar- In complex common pool resource situations like geted for large-scale forestry. Today, only small this, where resources are used for different types patches in the boreal forest are older than 100 years of extractive purposes by different stakeholders (Axelsson and Östlund 2001). Arboreal lichens are and managed under a mixture of property rights strongly dependent on high forest age and long regimes, the important resource management issue continuity in canopy cover: conditions which are is to balance multiple interests (Edwards and Stein only found in small, isolated stands in the boreal 1999). In order to balance the interests and reduce forest in Sweden today (Esseen et al. 1997, Dettki the conflicts described above, the Swedish parlia- and Esseen 1998). For instance, the lichen biomass ment introduced consultation procedures in in natural forests may be at least double that in 1979. About a decade later these were voluntarily managed forests (Dettki and Esseen 1998). extended to a larger geographical area through the On a landscape scale, forestry, together with Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification sys- other forms of land use such as the development tem (Forestry Act 1979:429; Reindeer Husbandry of infrastructure, mines and hydro-electric power, Act 1971:437). The purpose of the consultation fragments grazing grounds and thus makes them procedures is to create possibilities for collective more difficult to use. This further exacerbates the action and thus for the two industries to co-exist. loss of grazing grounds. Data from the Swedish However, the consultation procedures do not seem Forest inventory indicate that as much as 50% of to fulfil their purpose, given that conflicts between International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 329 Per cent of sampling plots Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. the two actors still occur, and that evaluations of Although many of those that participated in the the procedures show that the two industries have study believe that there are possibilities to improve rather different views of the consultations and their the present management system through, for significance for each industry (National Board of example, involving the RHCs earlier in the forest Forestry 1987, 1992, 2001). planning process, there seem to be no incentives to A majority of the 51 reindeer herding communi- undertake such changes at the moment. It there- ties (RHCs), in which the reindeer herders are fore seems rather difficult for the involved actors to organised, claimed that the consultations have little change the procedures by themselves. A combina- or no significance as they only are a forum for infor- tion of deliberate actions within the consultation mation, with reindeer herders having very few procedures and enabling legislation, including opportunities to influence forestry and forest clarified Sami land-use rights, is probably needed actions (Sandström and Widmark 2006, submitted in order to create collective action and a robust for publication). On the other hand, the attitudes management system of forest resources in the of forestry representatives towards consultation north of Sweden. While the legal framework is the procedures are almost the opposite of the RHCs. subject of an ongoing political process, the possibil- The evaluations showed that almost every forest ities to improve the consultation procedures via company claims that consultations have a ‘rather deliberate action have also been studied. The large’ or ‘large’ impact on the planning of forest following section presents results from this study. actions. Although many representatives of the RHCs are still rather pessimistic toward consulta- IMPROVING THE SITUATION: tions, a majority (56%) state that their importance SCENARIOS AND STAKEHOLDER has increased over time. There are, according to PARTICIPATION the respondents, several reasons behind this change. Increased knowledge about reindeer herd- As described above, a number of barriers to ing, changes in environmental policies, and also collective action exist between the forestry and the changes in attitudes towards the reindeer herding reindeer herding industries. Although both stake- industry among forest companies are most com- holders have the right to use the same land, forestry monly mentioned. However, one-third (34%) of is the stronger actor in both legal and economic the RHCs state that the significance of consulta- terms. In addition, the consultation procedures tions has not changed over time, and 6% state that do not make up for this uneven power distribution the situation has even become worse (Sandström and are thus not in their present form considered and Widmark 2006, submitted for publication). an adequate tool to solve the land-use conflict One reason for this lack of influence is that the between the two. However, research has shown that RHCs become involved rather late in the planning there are ways in which groups might avoid this process of the forest companies. Many of the inter- collective action dilemma and cooperate volun- viewed reindeer herders would have liked to be tarily in order to capture joint benefits (Weber included in an earlier stage of the process, in order 2003; Lubell 2004). With this in mind, a research to be able to influence the outcome of the process. project in three steps was initiated in close collabo- Another reason for this lack of influence is that the ration with a group of stakeholders. Its purpose was present legal acts regulating the relationships to identify possibilities to improve the present situa- between the two industries do not give sufficient tion. The interdisciplinary research team included protection to the natural grazing areas needed for one ecologist, one economist, one professor in reindeer husbandry (Hahn 2000; Widmark 2006). reindeer herding, one political scientist and one The shortcomings of the institutional framework research communicator (facilitator), thus covering are shown in the uneven power distribution, in a wide spectrum of scientific knowledge. Forestry which the ability of the RHCs to influence the out- and reindeer herding were each represented by five come of the negotiations is very limited. There are persons. With the focus on collaborative learning, thus clear reasons to claim that the forestry industry the project addressed three questions: What is the enjoys the majority of the benefits from the system, situation today? Where do we want to be? How do while the reindeer herders suffer, in terms of we get there? (i.e. What measures are both desir- losing reindeer grazing land. able and feasible?) The collaborative learning 330 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. approach was put into operation through a sce- improve the present situation. The six needs or pro- nario technique, with the focus on exchange and posals were discussed and validated during the dialogue and focus group interviews (see Esselin third workshop and are briefly discussed below. and Ljung in this issue for more details about the First, the lack of a single definition of what a con- methods used). sultation procedure is or should be is a constant Figure 2 illustrates the most important variables source of uncertainty and mistrust between the two – time, space, what kind of silviculture and degree industries. The workshop therefore agreed upon of legal control – which needed to be considered the need to define the concept and its content. during the consultations. These variables were Second, both industries recognised the need to identified by the participants during the first work- change the time and scale perspective of the consul- shop. From these variables, seven scenarios describ- tations in order to better synchronise the long-term ing alternative future relationships between the two planning of the two. Third, instead of focusing on stakeholders were extracted. the single theme of proposed harvesting, a land- The array of scenarios represents alternative scape perspective would make it easier to consider multiple-use situations. All the scenarios, except the needs of both industries. The reindeer herding scenario 5 and 6, are based on the present legisla- industry would thus be included in an earlier stage tion, which means that it is forestry that initiates of the forest planning process and would conse- cooperation when planning for different manage- quently be able to influence its outcome. Fourth, to ment options. Scenario 6 is based on the idea that be able to improve the consultation procedures, the reindeer husbandry industry initiates coopera- both actors also agreed on the need to develop the tion and proposes silvicultural measures that data used (mainly maps) and to extend the knowl- should be taken in order to secure multiple use edge base (both data and research) for consulta- of the forest resource. The scenarios, which were tions. Fifth, the workshop identified the need to be discussed during the second workshop, helped the able to value different activities in economic terms stakeholders to reveal implications of different in order reach cost-efficient solutions acceptable to choices and to identify problems with, and pros- both actors. Sixth, the workshop identified the pects for, each scenario. Based on the discussion, need to construct a conflict resolution strategy to be it was possible to identify six overarching needs used when the partners fail to reach collective that must be addressed in order to avoid the collec- action. For each need, the actors responsible for tive-action dilemma that characterises the relation- the implementation were also identified. ship between the two stakeholders and thus to LESSONS LEARNED AND FUTURE PROSPECTS This project shows that collaborative learning and scenario techniques may be useful tools to identify how collective action dilemmas may be avoided. The collaborative learning approach brought awareness of the needs of both actors into the pro- cess. The scenario method facilitated a discussion between the stakeholders that resulted in general agreements about measures to be taken in order to improve the coordination between them. The methods also encouraged dialogue, suggesting potential for future voluntary cooperation between Figure 2 Scenarios 1–5 included four variables: a tem- the stakeholders in order to capture joint benefits. poral scale considering the timeframe of the consulta- Finally, it assisted in exploring options for better tions; a spatial scale considering the area under management or even co-management of the com- consultations; a variable considering what kind of silvi- mon pool resource, the forests of northern Sweden. culture should be included in the consultations; and a Although voluntary collective action might variable considering the degree of legal control of the consultation procedures improve the situation between these two particular International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 331 Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. stakeholders, they are only two of many actors with a (PEFC) to which most of these owners are affiliated, stake in the forest resource in the northern parts of has recently adopted a policy which aims to balance Sweden. More than one-third of this forest resource interests between its members and the reindeer is, for example, owned by private non-industrial herding industry (http://www.pefc.org/internet/ owners. At the moment, there is no dialogue html/). It is rather unclear how the policy will between these owners and the reindeer herding actually be implemented. However, the lessons industry, although the same collective-action learned from the collaborative learning approach dilemma as described above characterises their used in this project could to some extent be applied relationship. However, the Programme for the also in this situation, promoting dialogue and co- Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes ordinated action. REFERENCES Arell N. Kolonisationen i lappmarken. Lund: Esselte Messages. Stockholm: Royal Swedish Academy of Studium; 1979 Agriculture and Forestry; 1999:22 Axelsson A-L and Östlund L. Retrospective gap Enander K-G. Skogsbrukssätt och skogspolitik 1900–1950. analysis in a Swedish boreal forest landscape using Report. Umeå: Swedish University of Agricultural historical data. Forest Ecology and Management 2001; Sciences, Department of Silviculture; 2001:48 147:109–22 Esseen P-A, Ehnström B, Ericson L and Sjöberg K. Björklund J. Hänsyn till renskötsel vid långsiktig planering Boreal forests. Ecological Bulletins 1997;46:16–47 av virkesproduktion, Uthålligt skogsbruk byggt på Forestry Act. Sweden; 1979:429 landskapsanalys i lokal samverkan. Delprojekt Forest Stewardship Council. www.fsc.org/en Vindeln. Umeå: SLU and Skogsvårdsstyrelsen; 2000 Gaare E and Danell Ö. Bruk av beiter og områder. In Bostedt G. Pastoralist economic behaviour: empirical Reindrift i Nordvest-Europa i 1998 – biologiske muligheter results from reindeer herders in Northern og begrensninger. Copenhagen: TemaNord 1999; Sweden. 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New York: Cambridge University Press; 1990 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 333 http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png International Journal of Biodiversity Science & Management Taylor & Francis

Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning: forestry and reindeer husbandry in dialogue

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International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 2 (2006) 326–333 Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning: forestry and reindeer husbandry in dialogue 1 2 3 4 Camilla Sandström , Jon Moen , Camilla Widmark and Öje Danell Department of Political Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden Department of Forest Economics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden Reindeer Husbandry Unit, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden Key words: Forest, collective action, consultations, lichen, reindeer herding SUMMARY With complex common pool resources, it is important to balance the multitude of inter- ests in order to generate a sustainable management regime. This is not the case in the northern parts of Sweden, where forest resources are used for different extractive purposes by forest companies and the reindeer herding industry. In many respects, the present situation represents a classic collective-action problem with a number of reasons why no cooperative behaviour might be expected. This article illuminates the relationship between the two industries in an historical, ecological and institutional perspective in order to explain the limited scope of coordinated action between the two actors. It also, through the use of collaborative learning techniques and scenario methods, explores the possibilities for the two industries to consider each other’s needs and to identify strategies for co-existence and co-management. The testing of a broad range of scenarios among a selected group of stakeholders leads to the identification of possibilities for improving the management of the forest and lichen resource by changing institutional arrangements and improving coordination between the stakeholders. INTRODUCTION The multiple-use situations characterising forest also plays an important role in the Sami culture land in the northern parts of Sweden is a source of (e.g. Lundmark 2002; Bostedt 2005). Much of the conflict in which both economic and cultural values land used for reindeer herding is also productive are at stake. The indigenous people in Sweden, the forest, producing timber and pulpwood, and con- Sami, have the exclusive right to practise reindeer tributing significantly to the Swedish economy. The (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) husbandry on approxi- forest land in northern Sweden is mainly owned by mately 40% of the Swedish land area. The main large forest companies (about 50%; the state owns product is meat, but other goods are also extracted c. 6%, and c. 38% is privately owned; Statistical from the land and waters. Besides being a liveli- Yearbook of Forestry 2005). Forestry and reindeer hood for the families involved, reindeer husbandry husbandry are, to a large extent, using the same Correspondence: C. Sandström, Department of Political Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. Email: camilla.sandstrom@pol.umu.se 326 Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. land, although for different purposes. The circum- identified possibilities to improve the management stances thus fulfil the criteria characterising com- of the forest and lichen resource by changing insti- mon pool resources (CPRs), i.e. the difficulty of tutional arrangements and improving coordina- excluding actors from using the resource, with use tion between the two stakeholders. by one individual or group meaning that less is available for use by others (Ostrom 1990, 2005). THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: The CPR character of this situation has made THE DEVELOPMENT OF A LAND-USE it difficult to find sustainable solutions for co- CONFLICT existence. On the one hand, it has been argued that modern forestry is one of the major threats to the Reindeer husbandry, in its current form, did not future of reindeer herding, and thus to the Sami appear until the 16th and 17th centuries, as a conse- culture, as the cultivation and extraction of timber quence of depleted populations of fur animals and negatively influences the amount and availability of wild reindeer, due to extensive hunting for sub- lichens, a critical winter resource for reindeer sistence of a growing Sami population, as well as (Danell 2005). Forestry proponents, on the other trading and taxation in fur and food items to several hand, contend that the economic implications of states. The Sami then turned to large-scale reindeer adjusting to the reindeer herding industry by, for pastoralism, which gave them better control over example, saving an area suitable for final felling to the resources than was possible in the previous respond to the needs of reindeer husbandry, is not hunting and fishing societies, complemented with economically defendable (Björklund 2000). small tame flocks of reindeer (Lundmark 1982). In many respects, this situation represents a During the same period, early agriculture and classic collective-action problem with a number of forestry began to develop in the region in parallel to reasons why no cooperative behaviour might be each other. Colonisations of northern areas, owned expected (Olson 1965). First, from an historical by the Crown, were encouraged, for instance by perspective, forestry has successfully gained power tax reductions (Stenman 1983; Egerbladh 1987; at the expense of the reindeer herding industry, Stenman 1998). However, agriculture did not and consequently forestry has no or few incentives supply enough to support many settlers, which led to change the situation and promote cooperation. to a focus on hunting, fishing and small-scale Second, forestry and reindeer herding are not forestry. As the importance of forestry increased, dependent on the same resource and, as forestry e.g. for supplying the mining industry, government has no or little incentive to manage the lichen control became tighter as the value of forests grew resource, this reduces the winter grazing areas of (Stenman 1983; Eliasson 1997, 2002). With the first the reindeer herding industry. Finally, the institu- Lapland treaty in 1673, northern Sweden was tional arrangement that was introduced in order to opened to all settlers; this treaty introduced the reduce conflicts between the two industries does idea of parallel land use between farmers/foresters not maximise the incentives to cooperate or mini- and reindeer herders, suggesting that co-existence mise those that lead to non-cooperative behaviour. between the different groups and land uses This paper aims to shed some light on the rela- was possible (Mattsson and Stridsberg 1981; tionship between the two industries from an histori- Korpijaakko-Labba 1994; Eliasson 1997). However, cal perspective, to describe how forestry affects the by the end of the 17th century, the state initiated a availability of lichens in the winter grazing grounds, delimitation process which aimed to separate and and to discuss the shortcomings of the present insti- clarify land ownership between private owners and tutional arrangements in order to explain the the Crown. The process, which was finalised in the limited scope of coordinated action between the 19th century, can be considered the starting point two actors. However, we also, through the use of of the industrial use of forests in northern Sweden collaborative learning techniques and scenario and thus also a starting point of the conflict methods, explore possibilities for each of the between forestry and reindeer herding industry two industries to consider each other’s needs and (Eliasson 1997). to identify strategies for co-existence and co- Toward the end of the 19th century, the need for management. By testing a broad range of scenarios new land grew as the population increased but, at among a selected group of stakeholders, we have the same time, forest products became valuable – International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 327 Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. and this restricted the colonisation of land in gained power at the expense of the reindeer herd- northern Sweden. Farming was still important, but ing industry, and consequently has had no or little the exploitation of forests, mining and the use of incentives to change the situation and promote rivers for hydro-electric power grew stronger and cooperation. became an important part of the Swedish welfare Many government attempts have been made system in the 20th century (Arell 1979; Stenman to protect the Sami and reindeer herding, but 1983; Egerbladh 1987). changing attitudes with respect to land use in In the early 20th century, reindeer husbandry northern Sweden have affected the economic rele- went through major changes; from mainly using an vance of both reindeer herding industry and intensive method, characterised by close contact forestry, leaving the former in a legally and eco- with the herd, herders turned to a more extensive nomically disadvantageous position. However, the method. Herds were distributed over larger areas question of rights to use land is mainly a dispute and animals were only handled at strategic times, between private forest owners and reindeer herd- such as slaughtering or calf markings. Today, this ing industry, while the conflict in areas owned by more extensive form of reindeer husbandry is the large-scale forestry mainly concerns consideration only form practised in Sweden (Lantto 2000). The and influence over the forest resource. number of reindeer has fluctuated around 225,000 over the past century and is currently about 260,000 THE RESOURCE: EFFECTS OF (SCB 1999; Moen and Danell 2003). FORESTRY ON WINTER GRAZING Forestry has also gone through major changes. In the 1830s and 1840s, sawmills started to buy Reindeer husbandry in Sweden is generally limited felling rights from the local farmers to secure the by winter resources, except in the southernmost supply of timber. This was forbidden in 1906, which part of the husbandry area where summer pastures led to the foundation of large-scale forest compa- tend to be more limiting. Lichens on the winter nies (Stenman 1983; Eliasson and Hamilton 1999; grazing grounds are thus a key resource to manage Enander 2001). As large-scale forestry developed in in this system. Lichens may constitute 35–80% of the middle of the 20th century, forest companies the diet during winter for reindeer (Gaare and expanded their ownership of forest land. To begin Danell 1999; Heggberget et al. 2002); the most with, the industry was labour-dependent but, in the important species include Cladonia arbuscula, 1950s, mechanisation modernised the industry and C. rangiferina, C. stellaris and Cetraria islandica. today forestry is totally dependent on machines As reindeer will dig through the snow to reach the (Enander 2001; Lundmark 2006). lichens, snow characteristics are very important To conclude this brief historical overview, the in determining accessibility of ground lichens governmental attitudes toward the reindeer herd- (Skogland 1978; Helle 1984). This snow cratering ing industry and land use in northern Sweden have on a yearly basis creates a mosaic of grazed and shifted back and forth several times over the centu- non-grazed lichen patches where lichens are access- ries (see also Moen in this issue). This means that ible, and largely untouched lichen patches, where the land-use rights, as well as the economic import- accessibility is limited, perhaps due to adverse snow ance of both forestry and reindeer husbandry, have conditions. Cratering also causes fragmentation of also shifted. The result is that rights and rules regu- lichen thalli, as some fragments are always left in the lating the relationship between forestry and the snow. A typical winter grazing site will thus consist reindeer herding industry are diffuse, and the ques- of a mix of thicker lichen patches and disturbed tion of who has the right to use land is still in dis- patches with lichen fragments of various sizes. pute. Conflicts have escalated over the past century, Arboreal lichens are also very important, especially especially as forestry transformed from a small-scale in late winter when snow conditions may prevent to a large-scale industry. As forests transformed, the the reindeer from reaching the ground lichens. reindeer herding industry found itself more and Lichens are perennial organisms with a low more affected. Larger areas were felled and grazing growth rate. They are easily outcompeted by mosses areas were destroyed (mainly because of soil scari- and vascular plants, and are thus usually found on fication) and fragmented. Thus, from an historical dry grounds with low productivity. As lichens are perspective, the forestry industry has successfully poikilohydric, growth is strongly determined by the 328 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. amount of time that the lichens are wet, and thus by precipitation patterns. A second important factor is the amount of light received while being wet Norrbotten (Gaio-Oliveira et al. 2006). Forestry may strongly Västerbotten 15 Jämtland influence the light regime for the lichens through different forestry measures. For instance, forests today are much denser and have a higher growth rate than earlier (Axelsson and Östlund 2001). Young stands, in particular, are very dense. This creates a more closed canopy, so that less light 1953-57 1995-99 reaches the ground, which reduces lichen growth rates and increases the competitive ability of Figure 1 Percentage of sampling plots in the Swedish mosses. Locally, forest fertilisation has also resulted National Forest Inventory classified as lichen-rich in loss of lichens, through tree canopy closure, (> 25% cover of lichens; SOU 2001:101) increased competition from field layer plants, and the direct negative effects of fertiliser on the lichens. the lichen-rich winter grazing grounds may have Forestry also affects the amount and availability been lost due to clear-cutting since the 1950s (SOU of lichens in other ways. If forest stands are 2001:101; Figure 1). clear-cut, any remaining lichens become difficult While the reindeer herding industry is thus to graze, because snow becomes more densely dependent on the availability of lichens in order to packed and this, together with logging residues, survive, lichens are of little or no value to forest makes the snow difficult to dig through. If the companies, so they have no incentives to preserve ground is scarified to increase tree sapling survival, lichens. The two actors are thus using the same the lichen mats are partly destroyed. Regeneration land, but not the same resources. This, in addition of the lichen resource then requires recolonisation, to the historical and judicial reasons described in which may take many years depending on the dis- the previous section, does not encourage collective tance to source populations. These effects may action. essentially remove lands from grazing for several decades. THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK: Forestry has had especially great effects on the UNEVEN POWER DISTRIBUTION availability of arboreal lichens. These are most HAMPERS CONFLICT RESOLUTION common in old-growth, spruce-dominated forests, which were among the first forest types to be tar- In complex common pool resource situations like geted for large-scale forestry. Today, only small this, where resources are used for different types patches in the boreal forest are older than 100 years of extractive purposes by different stakeholders (Axelsson and Östlund 2001). Arboreal lichens are and managed under a mixture of property rights strongly dependent on high forest age and long regimes, the important resource management issue continuity in canopy cover: conditions which are is to balance multiple interests (Edwards and Stein only found in small, isolated stands in the boreal 1999). In order to balance the interests and reduce forest in Sweden today (Esseen et al. 1997, Dettki the conflicts described above, the Swedish parlia- and Esseen 1998). For instance, the lichen biomass ment introduced consultation procedures in in natural forests may be at least double that in 1979. About a decade later these were voluntarily managed forests (Dettki and Esseen 1998). extended to a larger geographical area through the On a landscape scale, forestry, together with Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification sys- other forms of land use such as the development tem (Forestry Act 1979:429; Reindeer Husbandry of infrastructure, mines and hydro-electric power, Act 1971:437). The purpose of the consultation fragments grazing grounds and thus makes them procedures is to create possibilities for collective more difficult to use. This further exacerbates the action and thus for the two industries to co-exist. loss of grazing grounds. Data from the Swedish However, the consultation procedures do not seem Forest inventory indicate that as much as 50% of to fulfil their purpose, given that conflicts between International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 329 Per cent of sampling plots Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. the two actors still occur, and that evaluations of Although many of those that participated in the the procedures show that the two industries have study believe that there are possibilities to improve rather different views of the consultations and their the present management system through, for significance for each industry (National Board of example, involving the RHCs earlier in the forest Forestry 1987, 1992, 2001). planning process, there seem to be no incentives to A majority of the 51 reindeer herding communi- undertake such changes at the moment. It there- ties (RHCs), in which the reindeer herders are fore seems rather difficult for the involved actors to organised, claimed that the consultations have little change the procedures by themselves. A combina- or no significance as they only are a forum for infor- tion of deliberate actions within the consultation mation, with reindeer herders having very few procedures and enabling legislation, including opportunities to influence forestry and forest clarified Sami land-use rights, is probably needed actions (Sandström and Widmark 2006, submitted in order to create collective action and a robust for publication). On the other hand, the attitudes management system of forest resources in the of forestry representatives towards consultation north of Sweden. While the legal framework is the procedures are almost the opposite of the RHCs. subject of an ongoing political process, the possibil- The evaluations showed that almost every forest ities to improve the consultation procedures via company claims that consultations have a ‘rather deliberate action have also been studied. The large’ or ‘large’ impact on the planning of forest following section presents results from this study. actions. Although many representatives of the RHCs are still rather pessimistic toward consulta- IMPROVING THE SITUATION: tions, a majority (56%) state that their importance SCENARIOS AND STAKEHOLDER has increased over time. There are, according to PARTICIPATION the respondents, several reasons behind this change. Increased knowledge about reindeer herd- As described above, a number of barriers to ing, changes in environmental policies, and also collective action exist between the forestry and the changes in attitudes towards the reindeer herding reindeer herding industries. Although both stake- industry among forest companies are most com- holders have the right to use the same land, forestry monly mentioned. However, one-third (34%) of is the stronger actor in both legal and economic the RHCs state that the significance of consulta- terms. In addition, the consultation procedures tions has not changed over time, and 6% state that do not make up for this uneven power distribution the situation has even become worse (Sandström and are thus not in their present form considered and Widmark 2006, submitted for publication). an adequate tool to solve the land-use conflict One reason for this lack of influence is that the between the two. However, research has shown that RHCs become involved rather late in the planning there are ways in which groups might avoid this process of the forest companies. Many of the inter- collective action dilemma and cooperate volun- viewed reindeer herders would have liked to be tarily in order to capture joint benefits (Weber included in an earlier stage of the process, in order 2003; Lubell 2004). With this in mind, a research to be able to influence the outcome of the process. project in three steps was initiated in close collabo- Another reason for this lack of influence is that the ration with a group of stakeholders. Its purpose was present legal acts regulating the relationships to identify possibilities to improve the present situa- between the two industries do not give sufficient tion. The interdisciplinary research team included protection to the natural grazing areas needed for one ecologist, one economist, one professor in reindeer husbandry (Hahn 2000; Widmark 2006). reindeer herding, one political scientist and one The shortcomings of the institutional framework research communicator (facilitator), thus covering are shown in the uneven power distribution, in a wide spectrum of scientific knowledge. Forestry which the ability of the RHCs to influence the out- and reindeer herding were each represented by five come of the negotiations is very limited. There are persons. With the focus on collaborative learning, thus clear reasons to claim that the forestry industry the project addressed three questions: What is the enjoys the majority of the benefits from the system, situation today? Where do we want to be? How do while the reindeer herders suffer, in terms of we get there? (i.e. What measures are both desir- losing reindeer grazing land. able and feasible?) The collaborative learning 330 International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. approach was put into operation through a sce- improve the present situation. The six needs or pro- nario technique, with the focus on exchange and posals were discussed and validated during the dialogue and focus group interviews (see Esselin third workshop and are briefly discussed below. and Ljung in this issue for more details about the First, the lack of a single definition of what a con- methods used). sultation procedure is or should be is a constant Figure 2 illustrates the most important variables source of uncertainty and mistrust between the two – time, space, what kind of silviculture and degree industries. The workshop therefore agreed upon of legal control – which needed to be considered the need to define the concept and its content. during the consultations. These variables were Second, both industries recognised the need to identified by the participants during the first work- change the time and scale perspective of the consul- shop. From these variables, seven scenarios describ- tations in order to better synchronise the long-term ing alternative future relationships between the two planning of the two. Third, instead of focusing on stakeholders were extracted. the single theme of proposed harvesting, a land- The array of scenarios represents alternative scape perspective would make it easier to consider multiple-use situations. All the scenarios, except the needs of both industries. The reindeer herding scenario 5 and 6, are based on the present legisla- industry would thus be included in an earlier stage tion, which means that it is forestry that initiates of the forest planning process and would conse- cooperation when planning for different manage- quently be able to influence its outcome. Fourth, to ment options. Scenario 6 is based on the idea that be able to improve the consultation procedures, the reindeer husbandry industry initiates coopera- both actors also agreed on the need to develop the tion and proposes silvicultural measures that data used (mainly maps) and to extend the knowl- should be taken in order to secure multiple use edge base (both data and research) for consulta- of the forest resource. The scenarios, which were tions. Fifth, the workshop identified the need to be discussed during the second workshop, helped the able to value different activities in economic terms stakeholders to reveal implications of different in order reach cost-efficient solutions acceptable to choices and to identify problems with, and pros- both actors. Sixth, the workshop identified the pects for, each scenario. Based on the discussion, need to construct a conflict resolution strategy to be it was possible to identify six overarching needs used when the partners fail to reach collective that must be addressed in order to avoid the collec- action. For each need, the actors responsible for tive-action dilemma that characterises the relation- the implementation were also identified. ship between the two stakeholders and thus to LESSONS LEARNED AND FUTURE PROSPECTS This project shows that collaborative learning and scenario techniques may be useful tools to identify how collective action dilemmas may be avoided. The collaborative learning approach brought awareness of the needs of both actors into the pro- cess. The scenario method facilitated a discussion between the stakeholders that resulted in general agreements about measures to be taken in order to improve the coordination between them. The methods also encouraged dialogue, suggesting potential for future voluntary cooperation between Figure 2 Scenarios 1–5 included four variables: a tem- the stakeholders in order to capture joint benefits. poral scale considering the timeframe of the consulta- Finally, it assisted in exploring options for better tions; a spatial scale considering the area under management or even co-management of the com- consultations; a variable considering what kind of silvi- mon pool resource, the forests of northern Sweden. culture should be included in the consultations; and a Although voluntary collective action might variable considering the degree of legal control of the consultation procedures improve the situation between these two particular International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management 331 Progressing toward co-management through collaborative learning Sandström et al. stakeholders, they are only two of many actors with a (PEFC) to which most of these owners are affiliated, stake in the forest resource in the northern parts of has recently adopted a policy which aims to balance Sweden. More than one-third of this forest resource interests between its members and the reindeer is, for example, owned by private non-industrial herding industry (http://www.pefc.org/internet/ owners. At the moment, there is no dialogue html/). It is rather unclear how the policy will between these owners and the reindeer herding actually be implemented. However, the lessons industry, although the same collective-action learned from the collaborative learning approach dilemma as described above characterises their used in this project could to some extent be applied relationship. However, the Programme for the also in this situation, promoting dialogue and co- Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes ordinated action. REFERENCES Arell N. Kolonisationen i lappmarken. Lund: Esselte Messages. Stockholm: Royal Swedish Academy of Studium; 1979 Agriculture and Forestry; 1999:22 Axelsson A-L and Östlund L. Retrospective gap Enander K-G. 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Journal

International Journal of Biodiversity Science & Management – Taylor & Francis

Published: Dec 1, 2006

Keywords: FOREST; COLLECTIVE ACTION; CONSULTATIONS; LICHEN; REINDEER HERDING

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