Abstract
AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2023, VOL. 75, NO. 1, 2182140 https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530.2023.2182140 Science of mind and behaviour or allied health profession? Changes in the organisational location of psychology in Australian universities Nick Haslam and Naomi Baes School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 19 December 2022 Objective: The study aimed to characterise the past and current organisational location of Accepted 12 February 2023 psychology in Australian universities. Method: Contemporary and archived websites of 38 universities were examined to determine KEYWORDS whether, in 2005 and 2022, psychology was located within a health-focused organisational Psychology; organisations; structure and functioned as a stand-alone administrative entity. health; universities; inter- Results: Most psychology units are currently stand-alone and located within a health-focused disciplinarity; Australia structure. Since 2005 they have gravitated into health-focused structures (36.8% to 68.4%) and become less autonomous (84.2% to 63.2%). These trends diverge from the typical arrangement in top North American and UK psychology units. Conclusions: Australian psychology academics increasingly work in health-focused structures where their discipline is not administratively autonomous. This trend brings opportunities and risks. KEY POINTS What is already known about this topic: (1) Australian academic psychology units sit in varied organisational structures. (2) Most early units were located in Arts or Science rather than health faculties. (3) The clinical and health-related domains of psychology have expanded rapidly. What this topic adds: (1) Most psychology units now sit in health-focused organisational structures. (2) Units have become more health-focused and less autonomous since 2005. (3) These trends are contrary to the norm in leading UK and North American universities. Introduction (Flis & van Eck, 2018), although psychology research has increasingly gravitated towards natural science Research in meta-science has identified psychology as and away from the humanities (Haslam et al., 2022; one of seven “hub sciences”, alongside mathematics, Wieczorek et al., 2021). physics, chemistry, earth sciences, medicine, and the Where psychology sits in Australian universities is social sciences (Boyack et al., 2005; Cacioppo, 2007). equally complex. The first Australian psychology Based on co-citation patterns, it sits between social departments split off from philosophy within Arts science and neuroscience, with weaker connections faculties (Buchanan, 2012), and the field was histori- to humanities, health sciences, and medical specialities cally grouped among the social sciences as a “poor (Klavans & Boyack, 2009). This location reflects psychol- relation” to the natural sciences (Macintyre, 2010). ogy’s internal complexity, which encompasses the Psychology is now variously located in faculties dedi- basic science of cognition and the brain, the social cated to natural science, social science, health and science of groups and culture, and the clinical science medical science, or arts and humanities, and taught of health and illness. as an accredited sequence in Arts, Science, Business, Cronbach (1957) recognised psychology’s hetero- and Health and Exercise degrees, among others (Bond, geneity, describing experimental and correlational 2016). Its location in specific universities may reflect psychology as separate disciplines, the former lean- ing towards natural science, the latter towards the confluence of many historical, institutional, and social and clinical science. This division persists financial factors. CONTACT Nick Haslam nhaslam@unimelb.edu.au © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 2 N. HASLAM AND N. BAES It remains unclear how differing organisational a Department/School within a health-focused School/ arrangements affect psychology research and educa- Faculty). A unit was coded as “health-focused” if its tion at the local level, and how changes in these name explicitly referenced health or medicine or if arrangements influence them nationally. most of its constituent units were health-related dis- Organisational structures may tend to favour subdisci- ciplines. Second, we coded whether the psychology plines that align with them. In psychology depart- unit was administratively stand-alone, rather than ments sitting within natural science faculties, for merged with other disciplines. It was coded as stand- example, experimental psychology and cognitive neu- alone if it was a psychology-only Department/School, roscience might be expected to prosper relative to less and not if it was a part of merged Department/School well-aligned subdisciplines. Similarly, nationwide (e.g., a “discipline” within a combined school of trends towards particular organisational arrangements “Psychology and X”). All coding was conducted, might selectively advantage some subdisciplines. checked and agreed by both authors. This possibility is raised by recent restructures in which psychology units have relocated or merged Results into health-focused faculties (i.e., those focused on understanding and treating physical or mental health Table 1 summarises the coded data, and Figure 1 pre- conditions, encompassing biomedical science, clinical sents the frequency of each code for 2005 and 2022. It medicine, public health, and allied health professions). shows that psychology units in 14 universities (36.8%) These changes parallel a growing emphasis on psy- were located in health-focused organisational struc- chology education as a pathway into the mental health tures in 2005 and 26 (68.4%) in 2022. Supporting our workforce. Although clinical psychology and other hypothesis, McNemar’s test indicates that this increase health-related specialities represent just one compo- is significant, χ = 10.29, p = .001. Figure 1 also shows (1) nent of the discipline, this agenda gives them special that 32 units (84.2%) were stand-alone in 2005 and 24 importance. Relocation of psychology into health- (63.2%) in 2022, a significant reduction, McNemar’s focused organisational structures may boost health- χ = 4.00, p = .045. (1) focused subdisciplines at the expense of others. For comparison, we coded the 2022 organisational We hypothesised that the proportion of psychology location of psychology in the top 10 units in North units (e.g., departments or schools) located in health- America and in the United Kingdom, according to the focused organisational structures would rise from 2005 2023 Times Higher Education psychology subject rank- (the midpoint of the first decade in which historical ings. Of the 20 universities, 95% had stand-alone psy- data would be readily accessible) to 2022. As chology units (including one English university with a secondary question, we explored whether psychol- two separate psychology departments) and 15% were ogy became less likely to represent a stand-alone located in health-focused structures (0% in North administrative unit over this period. America). By implication, Australian psychology units are less likely to be autonomous and more likely to be aligned with health than world-leading Anglosphere Method units. The age and prestige of the latter may insulate Our sample comprised the 38 universities offering them against organisational restructures, but as exam- APAC-accredited psychology programs in 2022. The ples of international academic excellence they offer an organisational location of psychology within each uni- instructive contrast to contemporary Australian versity was coded from its website during arrangements and trends. November 2022 for two timepoints: the present and 2005. Records from 2005 were accessed using the Discussion “wayback machine” (https://web.archive.org/), an internet archive that employs web crawler bots to Australian universities’ psychology units have become catalogue old websites. For one university (University less administratively autonomous and more likely to sit of the Sunshine Coast) no identifiable psychology- in a health-focused organisational structure. In 2005, related unit could be found until 2008, so data from the standard pattern among leading North American that year were used. and UK universities – a stand-alone psychology unit in For each university and timepoint, we coded two a non-health-focused structure – held for most (20; aspects of organisational location. First, we coded 52.6%) Australian universities. Now it describes just whether the psychology unit was located within eight (21.1%). The 26 units that sit in health-focused a health-focused super-ordinate unit (e.g., structures vastly outnumber the alternatives: four in AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 3 Table 1. Organisational location of psychology units in Australian universities. Stand- Health- Organisational Location Alone Focused University 2005 2022 2005 2022 2005 2022 Australian School of Psychology in Faculty of Arts and Sciences Component of School of Behavioural and Health 1 0 0 1 Catholic Sciences in Faculty of Health Sciences University Australian School of Psychology in Faculty of Science Component of School of Medicine and Psychology 1 0 0 1 National in College of Health and Medicine University Bond University Department of Psychology in Faculty of Humanities Component of School of Social Sciences in Faculty 1 0 0 0 and Social Sciences of Society & Design Central School of Psychology & Sociology in Faculty of Arts, Component of School of Health, Medical and 0 0 0 1 Queensland Health & Sciences Applied Sciences University Charles Darwin Discipline of Psychology in School of Health Sciences Discipline of Psychology in College of Health & 0 1 1 1 University Human Sciences Charles Sturt Discipline of Psychology in (1) School of Social School of Psychology in Faculty of Business, Justice 0 1 0 0 University Sciences & Liberal Studies and (2) School of and Behavioural Sciences Humanities and Social Sciences Curtin School of Psychology in Division of Health Sciences Field of Psychology in School of Population Health 1 0 1 1 University Deakin School of Psychology in Faculty of Health and School of Psychology in Faculty of Health 1 1 1 1 University Behavioural Sciences Edith Cowan School of Psychology in Faculty of Community Part of discipline cluster in School of Arts and 1 0 0 0 University Services, Education, & Social Sciences Humanities Federation Discipline of Psychology in School of Behavioural Discipline of Psychology in School of Science, 1 1 0 0 University and Social Sciences and Humanities Psychology and Sport Australia Flinders School of Psychology in Faculty of Social Sciences Field of Psychology in College of Education, 1 0 0 0 University Psychology and Social Work Griffith School of Psychology in Griffith Health group School of Applied Psychology in Griffith Health 1 1 1 1 University group James Cook School of Psychology in Faculty of Arts, Education Field of Psychology in College of Healthcare 1 1 0 1 University and Social Sciences Sciences La Trobe School of Psychological Sciences in Faculty of Department of Psychology, Counselling and 1 0 0 1 University Science, Technology and Engineering Therapy in School of Psychology and Public Health Macquarie Department of Psychology in Division of Linguistics Department of Psychology in Faculty of Medicine, 1 1 0 1 University and Psychology Health and Human Sciences Monash Department of Psychology in School of Psychology, School of Psychological Sciences in Faculty of 0 1 1 1 University Psychiatry and Psychological Medicine Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences Murdoch School of Psychology in Division of Health Sciences Psychology, exercise science, chiropractic, and 1 0 1 1 University counselling discipline in College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education Queensland School of Psychology and Counselling in Faculty of School of Psychology and Counselling in Faculty of 0 0 1 1 University of Health Health Technology RMIT University Division of Psychology in School of Health Sciences Discipline of Psychology in School of Health and 1 0 1 1 Biomedical Sciences Southern Cross School of Psychology in Division of Arts Discipline of Psychology in Faculty of Health 1 1 0 1 University Swinburne Area in psychology in Faculty of Life & Social Department of Psychological Sciences in School of 1 1 0 1 University of Sciences Health Sciences Technology University of Department of Psychology in Medical School School of Psychology in Faculty of Health and 1 1 1 1 Adelaide Medical Sciences University of Discipline of Applied Psychology in School of Health Discipline of Psychology in School of Health 1 1 1 1 Canberra Sciences Sciences University of School of Behavioural Sciences in Faculty of School of Psychological Sciences in Faculty of 1 1 1 1 Melbourne Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences University of School of Psychology in Faculty of Arts, Humanities School of Psychology in Faculty of Medicine & 1 1 0 1 New England and Social Sciences Health University of School of Psychology in Faculty of Science School of Psychology in Faculty of Science 1 1 0 0 New South Wales University of Discipline of Psychology in School of Behavioural School of Psychological Sciences in College of 1 1 0 0 Newcastle Sciences Engineering, Science and Environment University of School of Psychology in Faculty of Health and School of Psychology in Faculty of Health and 1 1 1 1 Queensland Behavioural Sciences Behavioural Sciences University of School of psychology in Division of Education, Arts Discipline area in Justice & Society academic unit 1 0 0 0 South and Social Sciences Australia (Continued) 4 N. HASLAM AND N. BAES Table 1. (Continued). Stand- Health- Organisational Location Alone Focused University 2005 2022 2005 2022 2005 2022 University of Department of Psychology in Faculty of Sciences Discipline of Psychology in School of Psychology 1 0 0 1 Southern and Wellbeing Queensland University of School of Psychology in Faculty of Science School of Psychology in Faculty of Science 1 1 0 0 Sydney University of School of Psychology in Faculty of Science, School of Psychological Science in College of Health 1 1 0 1 Tasmania Engineering and Technology and Medicine University of Discipline of Clinical Psychology in Graduate School Discipline of Clinical Psychology in Graduate School 1 1 1 1 Technology of Health of Health Disciplines Sydney University of Psychology courses offered in School of Social Discipline in School of Health and Behavioural 0 1 0 1 the Sunshine Sciences Sciences Coast University of School of Psychology in Faculty of Life and Physical School of Psychological Science in the University 1 1 0 0 Western Sciences Australia University of Department of Psychology in Faculty of Health and School of Psychology in Faculty of the Arts, Social 1 1 1 0 Wollongong Behavioural Sciences Sciences and Humanities Victoria School of Psychology in Faculty of Arts Part of Clinical Services program in College of Heath 1 0 0 1 University & Biomedicine Western School of Psychology in College of Arts, Education School of Psychology in the University 1 1 0 0 Sydney and Social Sciences University † ‡ = based on 2008 data. = University of Western Sydney in 2005. 1 = “Yes”. 0 = “No”. Health-focused 2005 Health-focused 2022 Stand-alone 2005 Stand-alone 2022 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Number of Academic Units Figure 1. Number of Australian academic psychology units located in health-focused organisational structures, and with stand- alone status, in 2005 and 2022 (N = 38). science faculties, four in social science, and two in arts There may also be downsides. Publication and citation and humanities. norms in psychology are generally lower than in clinical, Implications of this organisational realignment medical and health sciences (Harzing et al., 2014), as is may be mixed. Health-focused organisational struc- average grant size. Discounting of psychology track tures may foster applied research, promote interdis- records in faculty-level performance evaluations may ciplinary collaborations, and enhance access to result, with implications for recognition, reward, and pro- health-related research funding. They may afford motion. Psychology units’ strategic plans are required to opportunities to teach students in other disciplines, reflect and implement the strategic objectives of their offer synergies for clinical training, and better sup- home faculties, potentially devaluing and discouraging port psychology clinics. activities that do not align well. For example, research AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 5 ORCID investment may be tilted towards clinical and health psychology research at the expense of basic and social Nick Haslam http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1913-2340 science subdisciplines. Undergraduate psychology teach- Naomi Baes http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3873-5021 ing can become an attractive source of cross-subsidy for expensive biomedical research on the “cash cow” model, resulting in disproportionate employment of junior teach- Data availability statement ing-focused staff and shrinking research time. More gen- All data for the study are presented in Table 1 and are also erally, if psychology functions administratively as an allied available on request. health discipline, it may be difficult for it to be a broad, integrative science of mind and behaviour. The jury is out on whether health- or non-health- References focused organisational structures better support aca- Bond, N. (2016). An assessment of the arguments for changing demic psychology. Any organisational arrangement is the funding of undergraduate psychology and the financial bound to have trade-offs given the heterogeneity of the impact. Prepared for the Heads of Department and discipline. However, there are reasons to be vigilant given Schools of Psychology Association (HODSPA). the creeping transformation we have documented. Boyack, K. W., Klavans, R., & Börner, K. (2005). Mapping the The trend away from stand-alone psychology backbone of science. Scientometrics, 64(3), 351–374. units may also have implications. 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Journal
Australian Journal of Psychology
– Taylor & Francis
Published: Dec 31, 2023
Keywords: Psychology; organisations; health; universities; inter-disciplinarity; Australia
