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Study on land use characteristics of rail transit TOD sites in new towns—taking Singapore as an example Study on land use characteristics of rail transit TOD sites in new towns—taking Singapore as an...
Niu, Shaofei; Hu, Ang; Shen, Zhongwei; Lau, Stephen Siu Yu; Gan, Xiaoyu
2019-01-02 00:00:00
JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 2019, VOL. 18, NO. 1, 16–27 https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2019.1586712 ARCHITECTURAL PLANNING AND DESIGN Study on land use characteristics of rail transit TOD sites in new towns— taking Singapore as an example a a b c a Shaofei Niu , Ang Hu , Zhongwei Shen , Stephen Siu Yu Lau and Xiaoyu Gan a b College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China; School of Architecture and Design, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China; School of Design & Environment (SDE), National University of Singapore, Singapore ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 22 November 2018 In order to understand the land use characteristics of the rail transit station sites in new towns Accepted 17 February 2019 of high-density Asian city, this study selected six rail transit stations in Singapore as the research objects. Through the GIS spatial analysis, the study analyzes the rail transit sites in KEYWORDS the new town centers and private residential areas, as well as the similarities and differences Transit-Oriented between Urban TODs and Neighborhood TODs, with consideration to two spatial structure Development（TOD）; rail forms of Singapore’s new towns. The study finds out that the rail transit station sites in transit station; new town; Singapore’s new town centers have gradually formed a specific TOD land use model for Asian transit village; empirical research; land use transit village. The urban center hierarchy and the new town development concept have led characteristics to the difference in land use characteristics of the TOD stations. It is suggested that the mixed-use development of the TOD station area should be tailored to local conditions and a certain proportion of public service facilities, parks and open spaces should be guaranteed, to achieve sustainable development of land economy, environment and society. 1. Introduction Administration defines TOD as the design principle of denser neighborhood that includes a mix of residence, 1.1 Literature review employment, commercial, and public services, with In 1990s, the automobile-oriented urban develop- a large bus or rail transit station within a walkable ment resulted in urban sprawl, traffic congestion, range. Walking and biking are preferred and the neigh- decline of inner city, and other urban problems in borhood is accessible by automobiles (Maryland the US New Urbanism, which advocates compact, Department of Transportation 2000;Ma 2003). Though diversified, and mixed-use development of land, the said definitions diverse in perspectives, they all stress arose. Peter Calthorpe, a representative New on mixed-use land development, proximity of transit Urbanist, proposed transit-oriented development as services, and favor of transit development (Cervero, early as 1993, a planning concept entirely different Ferrell, and Murphy 2002). from the conventional sprawl development. In The Studies on TOD theory are concentrated on the fol- Next American Metropolis: Ecology, community, and lowing aspects. At the macro level, some scholars view the American dream, he laid down detailed and spe- TOD as a concept of urban development and structure cific planning criteria for TOD and divided TOD into layout around the transport corridor. They advocate neighborhood TOD and urban TOD (Calthorpe 1993). healthy and sustainable development of urban spatial TOD concept has been widely promoted and prac- structure through synergy of transport planning and ticed from 1990s. Its definitions vary, however, as urban land use. Renne (2009) analyzed the region-scale TOD planners and transportation planners have different planning in Perth, Australia. This “Network City” regional understanding of TOD. Bernick and Cervero (1997)define planning integrates three spatial elements, transport cor- TOD as a compact and mixed-use neighborhood ridor, activity corridor, and activity center. Researchers arranged around a transit station site, which, together analyzed the experience in synergy of public transit and with the surrounding public space, is the center of the land development and how to reshape urban landscape neighborhood. The transit station site serves as through transit development, including possible chal- a transportation hub connecting the neighborhood lenges in thecourseandcountermeasures(Suzuki, with other areas, while the public space is an important Cervero, and Iuchi 2013). At the meso level, TOD specifi- activity and meeting place of the area. Still (2002) believes cally refers to the development oriented to public transit that TOD represents a mixed-purpose neighborhood services. It is a general description of a pattern of land which encourages people to live near transit services to development and construction around a transit station cut automobile dependence. Maryland Transit site as well as the form of neighborhood developed CONTACT Ang Hu shao.fei7@163.com College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Wuhou district, Chengdu 610065, China © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group on behalf of the Architectural Institute of Japan, Architectural Institute of Korea and Architectural Society of China. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 17 Figure 1. Recommendations for land use proportion of urban and neighborhood TOD sites by Calthorpe (source: Calthorpe 1990 “Transit oriented development design guidelines.” Calthorpe association). under this pattern. Calthorpe has given recommenda- studies on built environment over the decade, using tions for land use proportion of Urban and meta-analysis to summarize empirical results on asso- Neighborhood TOD sites (Figure 1). Although both ciations between the built environment and travel. types of TODs recommend the development of mixed In short, the majority of the literature on TOD studies land use, they have different use emphases. Urban TODs has focused on transport planning, geological economy, are encouraged for development of larger commercial and macro policies. Most of these empirical studies are core areas and office space, while Neighborhood TODs conducted in the developed world and particularly the emphasize a higher proportion of residential develop- United States. Empirical research on TOD in Asian cities ment based on the necessary commercial core areas is scarce. In recent years, several studies begin to focus (Calthorpe and Associates 1990). on TOD in combination with urban design approach but On this basis, different regions have carried out loca- not adequate. There is relatively insufficient research on lized transit-oriented development strategy based on the comparison of sites with different TOD types from their own development characteristics, including the pro- the aspect of land use. For these reasons, with rail transit posed classification of TODs, the definition of different station sites in Singapore’s new towns as the study types of TOD, and the recommendations for develop- object, this paper empirically analyzes the land use ment density. Most of these studies are conducted in characteristics of different station areas, in an attempt cities in the United States according to the development to fill a gap in the study on TOD in Asian cities. situation and social background of each city (Community Design + Architecture 2001）.Take Florida, US for exam- 1.2 History of integrated land use and transport ple. Its TOD station sites are divided into three levels. Each in Singapore has its own planning and design guide (Florida Department of Transportation 2012). Jacobson and Singapore stands out in sustainable transport planning Forsyth (2008) analyzed seven TOD projects in the and ecological city construction among Asian cities. US from the angle of urban design. They proposed 12 Cervero (1998) listed Singapore one of the representative principles for a successful TOD design from the perspec- Asian transit metropolises and referred to it as tives of development process, location, and facilities. a “Sustainable Transit Metropolis” in The Transit However, related research on high-density cities in Asia Metropolis: A global inquiry. In addition, the sustainable is still relatively lacking. Due to the difference between transport policy and planning concept of Singapore are urban development background and urban density with recognized by Newman and Kenworthy (1999), Schwaab the cities in United States, the research on TOD in Asian and Thielmann (2002), and many other scholars. cities, especially those related to land use characteristics, The compact and ecological urban environment of demand more empirical studies to enrichment. Singapore nowadays is inseparable from its integrated Studies on the built environment of TOD are land use and transport planning. In a review of urban research hotspot in recent years, focusing on the construction of Singapore, with its economic boom in relationship between the characteristics of built envir- 1960s and 1970s, vehicle population doubled. In early onment and public transit travel and non-motorized 1970s, a half of Singapore population travelled by car, travel behaviors of the residents. A number of studies seriously congesting the traffic. The living environ- have proved that the built environment have influ- ment was less favorable as large parking space pro- ence on the residents’ travel choice (Kockelman 1997; vided for one-third of public housing developments Zhang 2004). A case study of Vancouver showed that occupied a large area of public space (Yang and Lew residents living in the top 25% most walkable neigh- 2009). In 1971, Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) borhoods walk or take public transit two to three proposed the first Concept Plan, laying foundation for times more than those living in the least walkable the entire spatial structure of the city today (Figure 2). neighborhoods, cutting the use of private automo- According to the Plan, a belt-shaped urban morphol- biles by 58% (Frank 2010). Ewing and Cervero (2010) ogy with the downtown and natural reserves in the updated earlier researches, they analyzed over 200 center is formed, defining a pattern of connecting 18 S. NIU ET AL. Figure 2. Concept plan of Singapore 1971 (Source: URA. 1971. Singapore 1971 concept plan). new towns with Mass Rapid Transit (MRT). In the development (Barter and Dotson 2013). In 1991, the meantime, Housing and Development Board (HDB), URA released the revised Concept Plan which was the continuation of the Concept Plan 1971. On the basis of dedicated to the goal of “home ownership for every people”, vigorously developed low-price public hous- the “ring” form, five radial “corridors” are added to ing to guide and improve living environment of the strengthen shaping the urban form of constellation (Constellation Plan) (Figure 3). The commercial centers city. HDB planned and built flats in new towns, a derivative of satellite city. They were also furnished are classified into town center, fringe center, sub- with complete living service facilities, including shop- regional center, and regional center (URA 1991). They aredistributed alongrailtransitto achieveabalanceof ping centers, schools, and parks (Barter 2008). The construction (starting in 1983) of the East-West occupation and residence. The aim is to further evacuate and North-South MRT lines after a vigorous debate thepopulationtoreducecongestioninthe city center. Today, the Tampines Regional Centre is a successful among policy-makers on whether it was justified over an upgraded bus system was a significant transport example of the implementation of the 1991 Concept Figure 3. Concept plan of Singapore 1991 (Source: URA. 1991. Singapore 1991 concept plan). JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 19 Plan and has become a central location for shopping and of the latest generation, inherits the idea of green urban- leisure activities in the Eastern region. Afterwards, new ism and is more oriented to sustainability and ecology. towns are developed and constructed in order under the The two-level structure of “Town-Estate” is formed as leadership of government along the MRT corridor, exhi- Mass Rail Transit (MRT) and Light Rail Transit (LRT) sys- biting the typical characteristics of TOD pattern, where tems are combined, realizing a more compact layout. residential buildings adjacent to the town center mainly are HDB flats. In other word, compact transit villages are 2. Purpose and object of study built in new towns, which are interconnected by mass rapid transit. The new town development pattern of The author selects several rail transit station areas in Singapore is quite similar to the transit metropolis Singapore for the empirical study on the land use model proposed by Cervero (1998). Unlike the characteristics and development pattern of TOD sta- U.S. where TOD develops from theory to practice, TOD tion area in new towns of Singapore at the meso level. theory is developed through practice in Singapore. TOD The following two questions are explored for the model is practiced in Singapore earlier than the rise of study: what are the differences between TOD station TODtheoryinthe west.Itis anoptionforhigh-density sites and non-TOD station sites in land use character- Asian cities to tackle urban problems under the condition istics? How to interpret the land use characteristics of of limited land resource in the process of urbanization. the TOD station sites located in different new towns? Queenstown is a first-generation new town built from The scope of research will focus on the MRT stations 1952 to 1968 at the edge of city center. It was built in area within a 500-meter radius from the center, which order to improve living conditions, but was not com- is a suitable distance according to previous researches bined with public transit station. Comfortableness and (Cervero and Murakami 2009; Li, Lin, and Hsieh 2016). walkability of the living environment were not consid- The author selects seven typical station areas from 23 ered in its layout. As a result, its spatial form was similar to HDB towns and three estates in Singapore as the study Le Corbusier’s Marseille apartment, a modernist collective objects. Five of them are seated in the center of towns residence characterized by “living machine”.Thisslab- built in different years (Table 1). They are representative type apartment represents an “automobile priority” plan- TOD station sites; and the rest two, located in Bukit Timah, ning form as most of its public space was used as ground are non-TOD station sites. The five TOD station sites are parking space and it lacked systematic planning of pedes- classified into urban TOD station sites and neighborhood trian environment and landscaping (Figure 4). TOD station sites by the mode proposed by Calthorpe After Queenstown, Singapore intentionally integrated (1990,6–7). Toa Payoh Station and Tampines Station not rail transit development into new town planning and only serve new towns but also as the CBD peripheral design from the beginning. The land use form and trans- centers. As they are high in urban center hierarchy, they port system matched up and supported each other. Their are classified as the urban TOD station sites. Clementi spatial structure evolved with the time. Toa Payoh is the Station, Pasir Ris Station, and Punggol Station are neigh- first new town which intentionally integrates the public borhood TOD station sites serving new towns. With little transit infrastructure with commercial facilities and has government-funded public housing developments in the a hierarchical neighborhood spatial structure. Tampines area, Bukit Timah has one of the highest densities of features a clear three-level structure of “Town- private housing out of any other planning areas in Neighborhood-Precinct”. Laying more emphasis on pub- Singapore. Compared with the other two estates areas, lic space and green open space, it becomes a model for it has a well-developed mass rapid transit system (Marine future new towns development. Punggol, as a new town Parade Estate has not been served by the Mass Rapid Figure 4. Layout and public housing form of queenstown in 1960s (Source: national archives of Singapore). 20 S. NIU ET AL. Table 1. Basics of seven rail transit stations. Integrated with a bus transfer Number of entries Station Type Form station or not? and exits Location Toa Payoh Station Urban TOD Underground station Yes 4 Toa Payoh Tampines Station Urban TOD Elevated station Yes 3 Tampines Clementi Station Neighborhood TOD Elevated station Yes 4 Clementi Pasir Ris Station Neighborhood TOD Elevated station Yes 2 Pasir Ris Punggol Station Neighborhood TOD Underground and Yes 4 Punggol elevated station Sixth Avenue Station Non-TOD Underground station No 2 Bukit Timah Farrer Road MRT Non-TOD Underground station No 2 Bukit Timah Station Table 2. Basics of new towns where the seven stations locate. Area Development Positioning 2 1 2 Town/Estate (km ) Population Regional Characteristics of the Station Area Toa Payoh 5.56 121,770 Around 5km away from the city downtown and at the peripheral of urban Peripheral center CBD Tampines 12.00 258,310 Around 12km away from the city downtown and at the center of Eastern Regional center Singapore Clementi 4.12 92,580 Around 10km away from city downtown. A well-developed new town. New town center Pasir Ris 6.01 144,960 Around 14km away from city downtown. A new town in Eastern Singapore New town center yet to be developed. Punggol 9.57 146,640 Around 14km away from the city downtown. An ecological new town model New town center st oriented to the 21 century. Bukit Timah 17.53 76,380 Around 8km away from the city downtown. Mainly natural reserves and No specific positioning high-end residential blocks, private houses are built. Transit network) and a representative urban residential proportion of residential land is over 70%. The value environment (Central Area Estate is dominated by com- of Commercial Compactness of every site area shows mercial and business functions). Sixth Avenue Station and evident difference. In general, the Compactness Farrer Road MRT Station, which are located among high- values of non-TOD sites are far less than that of TOD end condominiums and private houses, are chosen as sites. For the Farrer Road MRT station, the value is typical case of Non-TOD station from six MRT stations in only 0.56 which means it has no extra commercial Bukit Timah (Table 2). gravity compared to other spot in this region. In addition, the proportion of park and open space of non-TOD sites is significantly insufficient compared to 3. Comparison and analysis of the station that of TOD sites. These data show that, in the TOD areas based on their land use characteristics station area, a rail transit station is integrated with In this study, GIS approach is applied for spatial sta- commercial and public facilities, becoming a public tistics and analysis of the area within 500 m of the rail activity center of the city. The transport system and transit station sites. The charts below show spatial structure of the city promote each other, exhi- a comparison of the seven rail transit station areas in biting a strong spatial interaction. In the non-TOD terms of land use analysis and aerial view (Table 3, station site in the private estate, however, no notable Table 4 and Figure 5). The following rules and conclu- synergy of commercial and public facilities with trans- sions can be made from the comparison. port facilities is seen. Though the proportion of resi- dential land is high, land use is less mixed. The aerial views (Table 4) further show the spatial difference 3.1 Comparison of TOD station sites and between the two types of station areas. The exits of non-TOD station sites in land use characteristics the Farrer Road MRT station and the Sixth Avenue In comparison to non-TOD station site, a TOD station MRT station are located along the road, which are site has higher entropy index of mixed land use and not integrated with large commercial buildings or value of Commercial Compactness. In the station area public facilities. Their surrounding urban space has of the five TOD stations, the entropy index of land use the characteristics of small scale and self-generation. mix averages at 0.76, and the proportion of residential The station sites do not have a strong central catalyst land 44.27% (Figure5, Table 5). In the rail transit sta- capacity. For the TOD sites, except that Pasir Ris MRT tion area of the private estate, the average entropy Station and Punggol MRT Station hold some reserved index of land use mix is merely 0.36, but the land kept undeveloped. The other three sites Data comes from Department of Statistics (2017), Population Trends 2017, Singapore. The distance to the city downtown shall be the linear distance from the state site under study to Raffles Place Station in the downtown. JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 21 Table 3. Land use analysis of the area within 500m of the seven rail transit station sites. Pasir Ris MRT Station Tampines MRT Station Clementi MRT Station Toa Payoh MRT Station Sixth Avenue MRT Station Farrer Road MRT Station Punggol MRT Station 22 S. NIU ET AL. Table 4. Aerial view of the areas within 500m of the seven rail transit station sites (Source: google map). Tampines MRT Station Toa Payoh MRT Station Clementi MRT Station Pasir Ris MRT Station Sixth Avenue MRT Station Punggol MRT Station Farrer Road MRT Station JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 23 Figure 5. Histogram of different land uses of the seven rail transit station areas. Table 5. Comparison of seven rail transit station areas in land use characteristics. Urban TOD Station Sites Neighborhood TOD Station Sites Non-TOD Station Site Nature Station Toa Payoh Tampines Clementi Pasir Ris Punggol Sixth Avenue Farrer Road Entropy index of land use mix 0.88 0.91 0.63 0.59 0.81 0.39 0.33 Commercial 4.45 6.9 3.28 2.29 6.26 1.53 0.56 Compactness Proportion of residential land 40.53% 32.93% 56.16% 49.36% 42.39% 70.38% 70.45% Proportion of land for public service facilities 10.63% 11.08% 9.56% 3.11% 8.08% 3.47% 8.2% Proportion of park and open space 7.94% 7.45% 2.13% 3.82% 8.26% 0.57% 0.27% Proportion of white /reserve site 1.44% 1.88% 0 20.84% 8.98% 0.71% 2.06% witnessed a high-intensity development where inte- townscoordinateurban land useandtransportplan- grated building complex and bus interchange are ning in their development. Both node attributes and connected together in station core areas. The spatial place attributes of the transit station area are con- structures are characterized by compactness and cen- sidered and unified. tripetal development. In new towns of Singapore, a land use pattern 3.2 Analysis of the difference in land use of TOD oriented to transit villages is gradually developed in station sites: site hierarchy and development TOD station areas. This pattern realizes a balanced concept land use of residence, retail, catering, public services, and parks and green space to a certain extent. In Five TOD station sites vary in land use, especially for terms of land use composition of the five TOD sta- proportion of white site, land use mix degree, propor- tion areas, residential land occupies the most area, tion of commercial land, and proportion of residential ranging from 30% to 60%. Commercial and mixed- land. The author believes that such difference repre- use land is mainly used for retailing and catering, so sents their difference in hierarchy of the TOD station as to ensure daily living consumption of the resi- site and the development concept of the new town. dents in the town. The proportion of such land Study finds that the stations vary in the proportion of ranges from 7% to 30% according to the different whitesiteandreserveland, whichcan be explainedby locations and positioning of the stations. In addition, thefactthatthedifference in their locations and devel- proportions of the land for public service facilities, opment degrees results in their varied demands for land parks and green space, and roads are roughly the reserve and mixed use development in the future. In the same, ranging from 7% to 11%, 2% to 8%, and 17% region with superior location and huge development to 24%, respectively. These data reveal that, new potential, the flexibility given to the white site allows Entropy index of land use mix is calculated by EI = {-Σk [(pi) (ln pi)]}/(ln k), where 0≤ EI≤1. The bigger and more closer to 1 EI is, land use is more diversified. In the equation, k stands for the number of land use types, pi for the proportion of the area of land use type i in total area, and i for the land use type (residential, commercial, etc.). Calculated by the ratio of the commercial land density in the area within 500m of the station site to the commercial land density in the entire new town area. Public service facilities include libraries, gyms, schools, and neighborhood service facilities. The concept of white site was first introduced in 1995 in the URA land sale program to provide greater flexibility in zoning. 24 S. NIU ET AL. developers to strategize their development activities to Study finds development years and concepts of the the best of their interests in responding to the changing new towns also result in their difference in land use market conditions. Under the URA’s white site guidelines, characteristics of station areas. Both Punggol Station developers arefreetodecideonthe mixofusesand the and Clementi Station are neighborhood TOD station respective quantum of floor space of each use for the site sites, but they differ in land use characteristics. as long as the total permissible gross floor area (GFA) for Punggol Station has higher entropy index of land the whole development is not exceeded (Tien Foo, Shi use mix and more compact commercial facilities Ming, and Seow Eng 2002). Pasir Ris Station, as a terminal than Clementi Station. Though the land for public station of the East-West Line of Singapore, is not fully service facilities is similar in area, the proportion of developed. It has the highest proportion of White site, as park and green space is 8% in Punggol station area high as 20%. The purpose is to make the most valuable but only around 2% in Clementi station area. This land developed in a more flexible way, which helps difference reflects their difference in new town plan- developers to adjust the proportion of land use according ning and development concept as well as the distinct to the market demand. Clementi Station, as a well- land use characteristics of rail transit station areas developed station in the core area of the new town, has under different spatial structures of new towns. no vacant land. It can be learned from this fact that, the Clementi, seated in Southwestern Singapore, is the station area shall not overdraw its future appreciation eighth new town planned and development by and development for immediate interests. Instead, long- Housing & Development Board. Its development com- term and short-term planning shall be coordinated for menced in 1975. Clementi represents a mature three their holistic development. Different land reserve and level structure of “Town-Neighborhood-Precinct”.On development strategies shall be adopted for different the one hand, the center of the town, closely com- types of station areas, to achieve sustainable develop- bined with rail transit station and bus station, is ment of rail transit and urban land use (Ren, Yun, and a typical TOD station area. It serves both as the trans- Quan 2016). port hub and spatial node of commercial and public Study shows that, in comparison to neighborhood service. On the other hand, the public transit system TOD station areas, urban TOD station areas have synergizes with the spatial structure of the new town. higher proportion of commercial land, lower propor- Mass rail transit connects the new town to the down- tion of residential land, and higher land use mix town Singapore; bus system links multiple neighbor- degree. These land use characteristics reflect different hoods with the center of the town; and a perfect positions of the station site in the hierarchy of urban walkway network satisfies people’s need for the daily public centers. Of the two urban TOD station sites, travel in the precincts. Rail transit, bus, and walkway Tampines, as one of the four regional centers in constitute a hierarchical transport system that suits Singapore, has the highest proportion of commercial the spatial form of the town (Figure 6). land and entropy index of land use mix, but the low- Punggol, seated in Northeastern Singapore, is est proportion of residential land. Toa Payoh is the a waterfront new town developed on the basis of nearest station to the downtown. As a CBD peripheral green concept from 1998. In 2010, Housing and center, its proportion of commercial land is second Development Board of Singapore unveiled plans for only to Tampines. Among the neighborhood TOD Punggol to be Singapore’s first Eco-town. A holistic station sites, Clementi station area has the lowest sustainable development framework covering envir- proportion of commercial land but the highest pro- onmental, social and economic dimensions was portion of residential land. This is because Clementi is drawn up to support it (Ministry of the Environment the smallest new town in Singapore in terms of area. and Water Resources, Ministry of National This means a small demand of commercial facilities Development 2014). In comparison with the tradi- for area. In addition, it is only one stop away from tional three-level spatial structure of former new Jurong East, the regional center of Western Singapore. towns, Punggol, with a two-level spatial structure of Pasir Ris is in Eastern Singapore, the remotest from “Town-Estate”, represents the new-generation town downtown. As it is not fully developed, it has the development concept of Singapore. Estate is lowest proportion of commercial land and mixed-use a variant from neighborhood and precinct. Estates land but the highest proportion of white site, which is are mainly connected by light rail transit whose sta- as high as 20%, creating conditions for future devel- tions are densely arranged. Short interval of 300 to opment. It empirically reveals that development and 350m ensures accessibility of the LRT stations within positioning of a TOD station area shall suit local con- a walkable distance (Dai and Yao 2013). Point-type flat ditions and be hierarchical, in order to form a chain tower buildings provide a more open public space. layout along the rail transit corridor. LRT stations are integrated with sheltered walkway, JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 25 Figure 6. Three-level new town structure of “Town-neighborhood-precinct”. Figure 7. Two-level new town structure of “Town-Estate”. jointly shaping the spatial form of the area. From and Sullivan 2010). In themeantime, theurban space within 500m of the station site has more compact com- a three-level structure to a “chessboard” two-level structure, the evolution of spatial form is grounded mercial facilities and higher land use mix degree. It is also on a high-mobility travel pattern and the gradually equipped with more open space, bicycling trail, and walk- way network. Besides town spatial structure, from the networked urban environment. New social organiza- tion forms and new economic behaviors erase the perspective of place making, Punggol MRT Station has lines between different hierarchies. Innovations of closely integrated transportation facilities with shopping centers, waterfront recreation spaces, walking and transport technology, such as LRT, supersede tradi- tional bus and draw the residential units closer to cycling systems to enhance the connectivity of rail transit town center, counteracting the value of former stations (Figure 8). The diverse needs of the residents have been fully considered. This planning and develop- “neighborhood center” (Figure 7). ment pattern provides a useful lesson for the environ- It can be seen from the comparison of Punggol and Clementi that, development of new-generation town is mental-friendly and sustainable development of TOD station area. The TOD concept not only aims to improve more focused on the fusion of residential space with the public transport rate, but also to guide a sustainable commercial facilities and open space, which further pro- mote sustainable development of station areas. This new urban lifestyle. Through the well-connected transporta- tion system, reasonable space layout, place-making stra- land use pattern in TOD neighborhood realizes a higher tegies of the site area, ecology and health concept will be plot ratio. Vertical stacking of commercial facilities and residential space represents the “higher development integrated into the daily life of residents. density” advocated by the green TOD concept (Cervero 26 S. NIU ET AL. Figure 8. The shopping mall and waterfront recreation spaces have a close connection with thpunggol MRT station (Source: by the author). 4. Conclusion Two spatial structures of new towns in Singapore can be deemed as the two spatial organization forms of TOD The concept of transit-oriented development is practiced transit villages in high-density Asian cities. No organiza- in Singapore earlier than the rise of TOD theory in the tion form is definitely better than the other. A suitable west. Singapore, like most Asian cities, gives expression to form will be adopted after comprehensive consideration a choice for high-density cities to cope with urbanization. of the economic and social development of the station Through decentralization and integration of transport location and maturity of its transport system. The two- and land use, the urban spatial structure is optimized. level spatial structure of “Town-Estate” requires higher This study selects the seven rail transit station sites in development intensity and more public space, which Singapore as the study objects for comparison and ana- inevitably rely on a well-developed public transport sys- lysis of their land use characteristics. The study finds that, tem. In comparison to the three-level structure, in a town a TOD land use pattern oriented to transit villages is of two-level structure, the neighborhood center connect- gradually developed in new town’s station areas in ing precincts with towns no longer exist and residential Singapore. This pattern realizes relatively stable propor- units tend to be homogeneous and decentralized. Some tions of residential land, commercial land, land for public place-making and environment design means are service facilities, parks and green space, and roads. In needed to enhance socializing activities and neighbor- terms of land use characteristics, TOD station areas have hood identification of the residents. In short, the planning significantly higher entropy index of land use mix, more and design toward a green TOD model not only need to compact commercial facilities, and higher proportion of have a suitable land structure, mixed and balanced land park and open space than non-TOD station areas. Such use pattern, but also need to integrate the ecology and characteristics further show that, under the concept of health concept to achieve higher efficiency, higher proxi- transport and land use integration, rail transit station area mity, and greater synergy. becomes the transport and commercial center of the new town. The transport system and urban spatial structure promote each other. In the mean time, urban TOD station Acknowledgments sites have higher proportion of commercial land and land The authors would like to acknowledge the China use mix degree in comparison to neighborhood TOD Scholarship Council (CSC) for its support to the research station sites. This means that integration of transport work at the National University of Singapore; and Urban infrastructure with land use shall suit local conditions. Redevelopment Authority (URA), Land Transport Authority (LTA), Housing and Development Board (HDB) for their infor- The position of station sites in the hierarchy of urban mation to support this study. The author also acknowledges public centers shall be considered for coordinated the support by the National Natural Science Foundation of planning. China (Contract No.51778529) and the Basic Research Founds This study further reveals that, in additional to empha- of Central Universities of China (Contract No.skqy201509). sis on commercial development of the core area, suffi- cient public service facilities, a certain proportion of park and open space, and white site shall be ensured for Disclosure statement sustainable TOD development. Small-size life circle within No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. a walkable range and sufficient green open space help create of an environmental-friendly and ecological transit villageand realize overall balanceamong thesustainable Funding development of land economy, economy, and society. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Contract No.51778529]; Basic Research JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 27 Founds of Central Universities of China (skqy201509); China Transportation Research Record 1607: 116–125. 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