Abstract
JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2165404 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY AND THEORY The historical research of Chinese architecture and gardens under the transformations of historiography in the twentieth century Yan Liu School of Architecture, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 26 October 2022 The subject of specialized history is a concept introduced from the West to China. During the Accepted 3 January 2023 first half of the twentieth century, Chinese historians consciously attempted a paradigm shift in historiography. The emergence of specialized histories means that the writing of histories is no KEYWORDS longer decided by traditional historians but planned by scholars in their fields. In this context, Chinese architecture; the history of architecture quickly arose, as well as the history of gardens. This article focuses on Chinese gardens; the development of Chinese garden history in the past century. Reviewing the establishment, historiography; paradigm advancement, and increasingly interdisciplinary and intercultural direction of Chinese garden shift; twentieth century history, this paper attempts to explore the future of the discipline and its more diverse possibilities. 1. Introduction traditional Chinese historiography. As a result, in the When the study of Chinese gardens became an inde- 1930s, emerging scholars emerged at Peking pendent subject, there would inevitably be conflicts University who explicitly supported following between tradition and modernity. The method of Western Sinology, like what Paul Pellio and Bernhard emphasizing site surveys and mapping has provided Karlgre did (Zhou and Chen 2012). significant help in recording the classical gardens in Then, these paradigm shifts also contributed to China. However, many scholars have also noticed the establishing specialized history. Specialized history incompleteness of Westernization in the research of should be the responsibility of professional scholars Chinese gardens. At the end of the twentieth century, in the corresponding discipline instead of general his- some of them discussed the contradiction between torians (Liang 2013). It directly led to the participation tradition and Westernization in Chinese gardens. For of architects and landscape architects in the writing of instance, Stanislaus Fung offered a simple sketch of garden history, which profoundly impacted the estab- three waves of scholarship, which can be considered lishment of this discipline. Lai Delin (赖德霖 ) commen- “bursts of scholarly activity from the 1930s to the end ted that many disciplinary histories, such as the history of the 20th century” in “Longing and Belonging in of literature, the history of philosophy, and the history Chinese Garden History”. It explained how Western of architecture that emerged in China since the begin- techniques such as orthogonal drawing, spatial analy- ning of the twentieth century, were all products of the sis and photography affected the modern understand- specialized history (Lai 2014). ing of Chinese gardens. (Fung 1999) Looking back at Finally, a specialized history had a substantial devel- the development of Chinese garden history in the past opment in the history of Chinese architecture due to century, the paradigm shift from traditional historio- the establishment of the Chinese Architectural Society graphy to “New Historiography” that began in the (Zhongguo yingzao xueshe 中國營造學社 ). They early twentieth century was the key to creating noticed the History of Chinese gardens and finally a modern “Chinese garden history”. formed the modern historiography of Chinese gar- Firstly, influenced by the idea of nationalism, dens. Since then, the study of Chinese gardens has Chinese reformers realized that Confucianism was not developed in two directions: site surveys and linear “absolute” any longer, changed dynastic history into chronicles, and gradually approached the cross- national history, and transformed historical writing cultural and interdisciplinary field. both in idea and form. (Wang 2001) This trend has This paper attempts to review the process of histor- also prompted Chinese scholars to reflect on the lan- ical discourse’s formation in the Chinese garden, in guage, methods, thinking and historical materials of addition to rethinking the possibilities of this CONTACT Yan LIU, yanliu180@link.cuhk.edu.hk Lee Shau Kee Architecture Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong Pei Yu 于沛 , “Biandong zhong de xifang shixue” (变动中的西方史学 ). Dangdai Zhongguoshi Yanjiu 06 (2003), 62. According to Yu, In the development of Western historiography, the 19th century is called the “century of history”. In the 20th century, Western historiography gained new achievements under the banner of “New historiography”. © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group on behalf of the Architectural Institute of Japan, Architectural Institute of Korea and Architectural Society of China. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 2 Y. LIU discipline. In this paper, the research method is mainly extended the scope of historical evidence, not just a literature review, especially the historiography global texts. In addition, the “double evidence method” (二 comparative study and Chinese gardens. On the one 重证据法 ) proposed by Wang Guowei (王国维 1877- hand, this paper compares the different historio- 1927) also emphasizes combining the evidence on graphic attitudes of China and the West since the paper and evidence in the site, which provided a new 1900s; the literature in this section focuses on the research idea for research methodology in the history work of cross-cultural historians such as Edward of architecture and garden. Wang. On the other hand, it focuses on the establish- Moreover, the paradigm shift in Chinese historio- ment and development of specialized historiography graphy changed traditional historical writing to new in the field of Chinese architecture and gardens since history, bringing historians’ perspectives to various the 1930s, such as Tong Jun’s (童寯 1900-1983) human activities. Liang Qichao’s (梁启超 1873-1929) Jiangnan yuanlin Zhi (江南园林志 ), Liu Dunzhen’s (刘 viewpoint of “specialized history” was the early ideol- 敦桢 1897–1968) Suzhou gudian yuanlin (苏州古典园 ogy that guided the development of disciplinary his- 林 ) and Chen Congzhou’s (陈从周 1918-2000) Suzhou tory, making the specific disciplines could be in charge yuanlin (苏州园林 ). of the relevant scholars instead of historians. “The history we need today should be divided into specialized and general history. Specialized history is 2. The paradigm shift of historiography in supposed to be the history of law, the history of litera- China ture, the history of philosophy, and the history of art. In contrast, general history is the history of an inclusive Chinese garden history has been a well-established culture. The historians who work on specialized history field of academic study for almost a hundred years. must be able to master the accomplishment of history and the attainment of specific subjects. This kind of Alison Hardie pointed out that the subject of garden history should be regarded as the responsibility of history was a concept introduced from the West to scholars in various disciplines rather than historians.” China when Chinese people started the May Fourth Movement in 1919 Hardie (2003). During the first half (今日所需之史 , 当分为专门史与普通史之两途。专门 of the twentieth century, some significant changes 史如法制史 , 文学史 , 哲学史 , 美术史等等 ; 普遍史即一 般之文化史也。治专门史者 , 不惟须有史学素养。此 occurred at ideological and methodological levels in 种事业 , 与其责望诸史学家 , 毋宁责望诸各该专门学 historiography. The ideological dimension refers to 者。 ) their sensitivity to nationalist concerns, while the methodological one aims to use scientific methods As Liang Qichao said, the history of architecture should for historical research. In the methodological stan- be developed by the architects, not just the historians. dard, Chinese intellectuals started to search for a new A few decades later, Liang Qichao’s Son Liang Sicheng understanding of tradition. They broke away from the (梁思成 1901-1972), a member of the Chinese traditional Chinese historical norms of political or mili- Architectural Society, contributed to the history of tary history, pursuing the writing of scientific history. architecture. From the 1920s to the 1930s, leading historians in China put forward new reflections on historical evi- dence, including Hu Shi (胡适 1981-1962), Fu Sinian 3. Chinese architectural society and garden (傅斯年 1896-1950), and Gu Jiegang (顾颉刚 1893- history 1980). It’s not difficult to find out that they all signifi - cantly changed epistemology. First, for that genera- In the 1920s, a group of overseas students returned to tion, the authority of the traditional Confucian China, many of whom were engaged in architecture, ideology had collapsed. In their eyes, Confucian clas- including Liang Sicheng, Tong Jun, Liu Dunzhen, and sics are just a kind of historical evidence instead of some other Chinese architects who studied abroad supreme ultimate truth. In addition, on this basis, (Ming and Yang 1998). In 1930, Zhu Qiqian, they are also advocating a view of the development a politician of the new Chinese government, estab- of history; the value of historical evidence in each era lished a non-governmental academic organization should be treated equally (Wang and Wang 2012). This named the Chinese Architectural Society. Many of new value of historical evidence was called by the these young architects became members of the orga- famous Chinese educator Cai Yuanpei (蔡元培 1868- nization (Zhu 1999). 1940) “the equal view”. The role of “the equal view” is Zhu Qiqian (朱启鈐 1871-1964) explained the estab- multifaceted; on the one hand, it changed the leading lishment of the new organization and expressed his position of Confucian classics. On the other hand, it expectation for the future of architecture in the article Wang, Inventing China Through History: The May Fourth Approach to Historiography, 04. Ibid, 42. The texts was translated by myself. See in Liang, Liang Qichao Zhongguo lishi yanjiufa; Liang Qichao Zhongguo, 39-40. JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 3 “Zhongguo yingzao xueshe yuanqi” (The origin of words, and complete the accurate collation of Chinese Architectural Society中国营造学社缘起 ) architectural vocabulary systematically. Third, to update the scope of historical evidence, combining “Li Mingzhong is a magnanimous and elegant man the written records of architecture with the archi- with talent, now taking the position of the Great tecture itself. We should not only do the site sur- Artisan (Jiang Zuo). Then, he worked with the crafts- vey of constructions that appeared in the classics man and studied structures in detail, called paradigm but also collect the architectural documents, such (Fashi). It Changed the situation that principle (Dao) and implement (Qi) were separated, breaking the old as traditional Chinese realistic paintings and other habit value scholar-official and despise of the worker. records. Last, to use new techniques in modern Nowadays, we should thoroughly research how to times, like hand drawings, models, films, and read and use Li’s book. Make sure that people who photographs. study it would achieve mastery through These new ideas were applied to the history of a comprehensive study of the book. Afterwards, we Chinese architecture, whether the challenges to old must collect images and turn them into practical engi- neering books. ideologies or the innovations to historical evidence. The Institute aimed to use scientific methods and sys- The terminology used in architecture, some objects tematic research to establish the field of Chinese archi- have several names at the same time, and some tecture. In their publications, they paid attention to the objects’ names change at any time. Therefore, we physical environment of the buildings. Then was should arrange and compare them and attach pictures usually supported by publishing site survey reports of to explain. Editing them into an architectural lexicon is ancient buildings. not only suitable for guidance and explanation but The works at that time were made by scholars also not contrary to etiquette. The palaces and rooms like Liang Sicheng, under the context that many of the ancients found in traditional Confucian classics Chinese cultural relics were lost, and ancient build- should be taken for evidence. ings were severely damaged. This academic theses Moreover, the objects themselves should be cover site surveys, textual criticism, and Western emphasized. Everything in architecture should be col- architectural drawing techniques. It continues to lected as data, such as a brick, a pillar, even a tomb, and affect the discourse on the history of Chinese archi- the writing left behind, the ruins of temples, especially tecture. (Liang) Xia Zhujiu (夏铸九 ) thought Liang’s those preserved and recorded by archaeologists, reports belonged to a typical academic thesis of the artists, and collectors. The best traditional Chinese architecture school, with a similar writing structure. boundary painting (Jiehua) and powder sketch- Xia regarded these papers as “national architectural (Fenben) by the ancients painted the building realisti- discourse”, which has also significantly caused dis- cally. Besides, these buildings’ patterns, models, and putes between tradition and modernity in this field photos are in modern times. We should try to find all (Xia 1995). the above evidence.” This method was also brought into the research on the history of Chinese gardens by Liu Dunzhen and (李明仲以淹雅之材 , 身任将作 , 乃与造作工匠 , 详悉讲 Tong Jun, who were also members of “The Institute for 究 , 勒为法式。一洗道器分涂 , 重士轻工锢习。今宜 Research in Chinese Architecture”. In the first year of 将李书读法用法 , 先事研穷。务使学者 , 融会贯通 , 再 博采图籍 , 编成工科实用之书。 the Chinese Architectural Society, they started researching a significant book about Chinese gardens 营造所用名词术语 , 或一物数名 , 或名随时异。亟应 in the Ming dynasty, Yuan ye (园冶 ). Then, Liu Dunzhen 逐一整比 , 附以图释 , 纂成营造词汇。既宜导源训诂 , and some other members of the Chinese Architectural 又期不悖于礼制。古人宫室制度之见于经史百家者 , 皆宜取证 , 并应注重实物。凡建筑所用 , 一甓一椽 , 乃 Society began to transform their attention from tradi- 至冢墓遗文 , 伽蓝旧迹 , 经考古家 , 美术家 , 收藏家 , 所 tional buildings to classical gardens in China. 保存所记录者 , 尤当征作资料。 希其援助。至古人界 画粉本 ——实写真形 , 近代图样模型影片 , 皆拟设法 访求。 ) (Zhu 1930). 4. The historical research of Chinese gardens From the texts above, we can find out the aim of The key emphasis in the Chinese Architectural disci- establishing the Chinese Architectural Society is to pline was not the traditional Chinese garden. As set up the subject of architecture in China with a result, during wartime in the early twentieth- century, scientific methods and systematic research. There Tong Jun was the first Chinese scholar who did site are several basic methods for the establishment of surveys in Jiangnan gardens. His work Jiangnan yuanlin architecture. First, to change the traditional habit, Zhi (江南园林志 ) was the only specialized work about combine and implement the principles. Following the classical gardens in south China at that time. the conventional theory, but also pay attention to Nowadays, it is generally believed that Tong was the the practical operation of craftsmen. Second, to first scholar who started research on traditional unify professional terms, connect pictures with Chinese gardens in modern times (Lai 2012). 4 Y. LIU Figure 1. The master plan of the garden of the unsuccessful politician in Jiangnan yuanlin zhi. When Tong Jun made his field trip to the Jiangnan The plans I painted were not precisely measured but a rough size. Mainly, the layout of the gardens gardens in the 1930s, he took many photos and did was not rigidly standardized but lively and flexible, some measuring work for these gardens (like Figure 1). which was not necessary to measure with norms However, Tong also noticed the difficulties and limita- criteria.” tions of the methods of drawing plans for the gardens. The indeterminacy of the elements in a garden, includ- (著者旅行所经 , 偶有佳 构 , 辄製图摄影。惟所绘平面 图 , 并 非准确测量 , 不 过约略尺寸。盖园林排挡 , 不 拘 ing the plants, the rockeries, and the paths, is challen- 泥于法式 , 而富有生机与弹性 , 非必衡以绳墨也。 ) ging to paint accurately. The wonders of these gardens (Tong 1963). are hard to describe unless in the gardens themselves. Tong mentioned the progress of field investigation Tong Jun also illustrated his points of view on the and his attitude towards garden research in Jiangnan relationship between texts and images in the his- yuanlin Zhi. tory of the Chinese gardens. He said that most of the researchers in the aspect of Chinese gardens, “The author (I) drew the maps and took photo- graphs of the splendid gardens I travelled through. emphasize the writing record more than the Ibids, 03-04. Ibid. JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 5 images, except for some books such as Zhao den, even a tree or a rock, it was requested to be Zhibi’s (赵之壁 ca. 1771) Pingshan tang tu Zhi (平 accurate about the location and name. Also, for 山堂图志 ) and Li Dou’s (李 斗 ca. 1817) Yangzhou the sections and elevations, everything they drew huafang lu (扬州画舫录 ). Therefore, Tong started must be consistent with reality, including the his site surveys of the classical gardens in the height and crown width of all trees, the general Jiangnan area during wartime. This method domi- pattern of branches and leaves, and the shape and nated the mainstream in Chinese garden research, character of the rocks. Once one mistake appeared, while chronological works appeared until the all of these paintings must be redrawn. (Figures 2 1980s. and 3) In contrast, Chen Congzhou played the role of an architect and a literator. His works were in line with Chinese literature and arts, with his compre- 5. Site survey and analysis hensive achievements in the appreciation of According to the contents of Tong Jun’s Jiangnan poetry, calligraphy, painting, and opera. His garden yuanlin Zhi, we could find out that the new aesthetics thoughts can transcend the professional research methods such as site surveys, mapping barriers of architecture and have more consider- and photographing were the tendency in the sub- able cultural significance, which has been widely ject of Chinese gardens in the twentieth century, valued. For example, although there are some mas- although there were many opposites with the tra- ter plans and detailed constructions of the Garden ditional methods. The choice between conven- of the Unsuccessful Politician (拙政园 ) in Suzhou tional and new research methodology has always yuanlin, the core of this book is its similar mode been controversial among Chinese scholars since of traditional literature (Chen, 1956). The text is the intervention of western ideas. After Tong Jun, a small part of the book, and the significant part the related scholars carried out their works in the is that the photos of gardens juxtapose the Song classical Chinese gardens; two were the represen- verse. The juxtaposition between an image and tative personages in this field. Liu Dunzhen’s text has something in common with the traditional Suzhou gudian yuanlin (苏州古典园林 ) and Chen literati’s album painting and poetry, allowing read- Congzhou’s Suzhou yuanlin (苏州园林 ), respec- ers to have poetic associations. (Figure 4) This way tively, reflect the different emphasis of the two of combining traditional literature with new tech- authors on the methodology of garden research. nologies introduced from the West is something Liu Dunzhen was a professional architect who architects who had studied overseas during the once studied in Japan. He did not limit himself to same period did not notice. the aspect of traditional Chinese architecture but To sum up, the methods of the historical turned his attention to classical Chinese gardens, research of Chinese gardens since the 1930s fol- which were not a concern to many scholars at that lowed the methodological reforms proposed by time. According to the recollections of Liu the Chinese Architectural Society. The scholars in Dunzhen’s son, he began working in private gar- architectural academia created a systemic disci- dens in Suzhou in 1954. First of all, the data on the pline by combining the principle and implementa- natural environment, history, economy, culture, tion, updating the scope of historical evidence like and the current situation of the gardens are col- site surveys and using new techniques in modern lected as extensively and detailedly as possible. times such as photography. These scholars’ empha- Meanwhile, the location, name, size, preservation, sis might differ; for instance, Liu Dunzhen cared and history of all kinds of gardens in Suzhou were a lot about the accurate measurement of the gar- counted comprehensively. Then select the gardens dens; Tong Jun paid more attention to the analysis for other writing records, photography, and map- of texts; and Chen Congzhou focused on tradi- ping (Liu 2008). tional Chinese artistic conception. Liu Dunzhen pursued accuracy in mapping. As long as it was in the garden, no matter the layout, or the buildings, rocks and rockeries, water, plants, 6. Linear chronicles and some other elements in the gardens, Liu and his staff tried their best to be detailed. For exam- According to “Longing and Belonging in Chinese ple, when drawing the master plans of each gar- Garden History” by Stanislaus Fung, there were Ibid., 43. 6 Y. LIU Figure 2. The master plan of the Garden of the Unsuccessful Politician in Suzhou gudian yuanlin (Liu 1979). Figure 3. The elevations of the Garden of the Unsuccessful Politician in Suzhou gudian yuanlin. three academic waves in the history of the Chinese tei’en ron (On the gardens of China) by Oka Oji. It th garden in the 20 century. In the 1930s, the first was not until the 1980s that Chinese scholars’ wave was led by Japanese scholars, such as Shina chronicle of Chinese classical gardens matched Ibid., 314. JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 7 Figure 4. The juxtaposition between photos and Song verse in the Garden of the Unsuccessful Politician in Suzhou Yuanlin. the early Japanese works of the 1930s in scope and materials to support the research of the gardens, 10 12 detail. For instance, Zhang Jiaji’s (张家骥 1932- which have been damaged or disappeared. 2013) History of Chinese gardening (Zhongguo Zhou divided Chinese garden history into four peri- zaoyuan shi 中国造园史 ), Zhou Weiquan’s (周维 权 ods according to the artistry of garden-making; respec- 1927-2007) History of classical Chinese gardens tively the Generating Period from Xian Qin (先 秦 )to Han th (Zhongguo gudian yuanlin shi中国古典园林史 ), (汉 )(B.C 11 century – A.D 220); the Transition Period and Wang Yi’s (王 毅 ) Gardens and Chinese culture from the Wei (魏 )to the North and South Dynasties (南 (Zhongguo yuanlin wenhua中国园林文化 ) were the ) (A.D 220–589); the Thrived Period from the Sui representatives of chronological Chinese garden (隋 ) to the Tang Dynasty ( ) (A.D 589–960); the Pre- history. maturation Period from the Song (宋 ) to the early Qing Compared with the books that I mentioned in the Dynasty ( ) (A.D 960–1736); and the Late-maturation previous section, “site survey and analysis”, Zhou and Period from the mid-Qing to the late-Qing Dynasty (A.D Wang focused more on the origin of gardens and the 1736–1911) (Zhou 1990). rise and fall of gardens over thousands of years. They On the other hand, Wang Yi divided the Chinese chose dynasties as some chapters to divide gardens into gardens into different periods under the standard different periods. In historical evidence, Zhou Weiquan of traditional Chinese ideology. For example, Wang and Wang Yi relied upon the Chinese classics in garden- believed that the gardens from mid-Tang Dynasty ing, literature, arts and many other fields. They found to the Song Dynasty (A.D 960–1279) followed the not only the relevant textual records but also landscape conception of “Heaven and earth in a pot” (壶中天 paintings about the gardens from the historical 地 ) ; then it turned into the concept “Mt. Sumeru Ibid., 38. Fung, “Longing and Belonging in Chinese Garden History”, 205-207. Zhou, Zhongguo Gudian Yuanlinshi, 20. Wang, Yuanlin yu Zhongguo wenhua, 717. “Heaven and earth in a pot” (壶中天地 ) is a Daoist legend in Hou Hanshu (后汉书 ). A famous Daoist in Han Dynasty named Fei Zhangfang (费长房 ) met an old medicine seller. The old man who sold medicine jumped into the pot at the end of the market, Fei Changfang followed it, and obtained the technique of shrinking the ground. The reason why Wang Yi believes that gardens from the late Tang to the Song dynasty followed this rule is because the official-scholars have become obsessed with creating unique interests and techniques in small spaces since the Middle Tang dynasty. Until the end of the Song Dynasty, this custom continued. This changed very quickly with the garden of the large space before the mid-Tang Dynasty. 清朝 唐朝 北朝 8 Y. LIU in a Mustard Seed” (芥子纳须弥 ) from the Ming dynasty. This book’s in-depth study of the social cul- Dynasty (明 朝 ) to the Qing Dynasty (A.D 1368– ture of the tang and song dynasties shows the close 1911) (Wang 1990). connection between the history of Chinese gardens To some extent, such studies on the history of and social science. It is a research that has little to do Chinese classical gardens are closely related to with the architectural perspective. Later, Cao Lindi’s China’s political changes, economic development, (曹林娣 ) Suzhou yuanlin bian’e yinglian jianshang (苏 and philosophical thoughts over thousands of 州园林 匾额楹联鉴赏 ) (Cao 2011). is one of the works years. However, different from any traditional that try to understand Classical Chinese gardens dif- Chinese Chronicles, the main content of these ferently. This book aims to analyze the inscribed books is classical gardens rather than any historical boards and couplets in some classical gardens in figures and events. Garden historians like Zhou Suzhou in the aspect of literature. Boards, couplets, Weiquan and Wang Yi still closely follow traditional and even brick carvings all represent the detailed Chinese culture and history in their compilations. description and wish of the garden by the owner or However, these garden chronicles were influenced the literati who took part in the construction of this by the “New Historiography” paradigm in writing garden. Such an analytical method helps us have mode. They began to focus on general descriptions a better understanding of the artistic conception of rather than the poetic record of gardens in tradi- a garden. tional Chinese literature. 8. Conclusion 7. Interdisciplinary and cross-cultural In sum, from the beginning of the twentieth cen- development of Chinese gardens tury, the research on Chinese gardens has experi- th Since the late 20 century, the study of Chinese gar- enced more affluent development than in the past den history has become more diversified. Since then, several thousand years. Suppose we put the history scholarly communications on Chinese gardens of the discipline of Chinese gardens into the con- between China and the West have become more fre- text of the more macroscopic paradigm shift of quent. The interdisciplinary and cross-cultural research Chinese historiography. In that case, we will find of the Classical Chinese gardens has become an inevi- that China was forced to engage in various table tendency in this field. exchanges with other countries, which brought Some Western scholars tried to explore Chinese earth-shaking changes to its traditional culture in gardens in art, sociology, religion, and economics. the early twentieth century. It has accepted the For instance, Joanna F. Hanlin Smith’s “Gardens in concept of “scientific history” introduced by the Ch’i Piao-chia’s Social World: Wealth and Values in West. As a result, the content of historiography Late-Ming Kiangnan” analyzed the individuality of was related to every aspect of people’s lives, thus the garden’s owner and the sociality of the late forming various independent disciplinary histories. Ming (Handlin Smith 1992). The study of the Ming Also, the historical evidence was broken out from dynasty’s gardens in the late twentieth century has the traditional Confucian classics and then received considerable attention in the West. Craig extended over the scope of texts and images. Clunas published two significant works on Chinese These two results are parts of the reasons that gardens. The first is Superfluous Things: Material directly influence the emergence of Chinese garden Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China history and its research methods. Scholars engaged in (Clunas 1991). Then the other one, named Fruitful garden chronicles not only focused on traditional Sites: Garden Culture in Ming Dynasty China, ana- archaeological ways, collecting various historical lyzed the Chinese gardens from the aspect of eco- records and pictures but also gave special attention nomics (Clunas 1996). to the relationship between the actual objects and the On the other hand, many Chinese scholars have documents. The scholars who worked on the analysis made some breakthroughs in the disciplinary study of of sites paid more attention to the scientific research Chinese gardens to get out of the limitation of archi- methods and brought various modern research meth- tecture. For example, Hou Naihui (侯迺慧 ) published ods such as master plans, sections, axonometric draw- a book named Tangsong shiqi de gongyuan wenhua ings, and photographs. At this stage, there has been (唐宋时期的公园文化 ) (Hou 2010). in 1997, which dis- a fundamental innovation in the research of Chinese cussed the publicity of gardens in the Tang and Song classical gardens. “Mt. Sumeru in a Mustard Seed” (芥子纳须弥 ) is a Buddhist tale. Mustard is a vegetable, and the seeds are like millet grains, and the Buddhist metaphor of “mustard seeds” is extremely small. Mount Meru was originally the name of a mountain in Indian mythology, and later used by Buddhism to refer to the residence of Emperor Shaktian and the Four Heavenly Kings, and the Buddhist family uses the metaphor of “Mount Meru” to be extremely large. Wang Yi believes that in the Ming and Qing dynasties, the literati’s pursuit of gardening was not only to carve in a relatively small space, but also to establish a cosmic system of “the unity of heaven and man”, so that the highly developed traditional cultural system could be hidden in it. JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 9 Moreover, more scholars from different disciplines Hardie, A. 2003. “Introduction.” In The Chinese Garden: History, Art and Architecture, edited by M. Keswick, 9. Cambridge: showed their interest in studying Chinese gardens, Harvard University Press. which proved that this subject still has considerable Hou, N. 侯迺慧 . 2010. Songdai yualin jiqi shenghuo wenhua room for development in the cross-cultural and inter- (宋代園林及其生活文化 ). Taipei: Sanmin shuju gufen disciplinary aspects. By looking back on the result of youxian gongsi. the past hundred years, the hidden creativity in Lai, D., 赖德霖 . 2012. “Tongjun Sw Zhiye Renzhi, Ziwo Chinese gardens, through some logical extension of Rentong He Xiandaixing Zhuiqiu (童寯的 职业认知 , 自我 different disciplines or technologies such as media, can 认同和现代性追求 ).” Jianzhushi 155 (1): 34. Lai, D.; 赖德霖 . 2014. “Jingxue, Jingshizhixue, Xinshixue Yu have more possibilities. Yingzaoxue He Jianzhushixue (经学 , 经 世之学 , 新史学 与营造学 和建筑史学 –现代中国建筑史学的形成再思 ).” Jianzhu Xuebao 9: 108–116. Disclosure statement Liang, Q. 2013. 梁启超 . Liang Qichao Zhongguo Lishi Yanjiufa; Liang Qichao Zhongguo Lishiyanjiufa Bubian (梁启超中国 No potential conflict of interest was reported by the 历史研究法 ; 梁启超中国 历史研究法补编 ). 41. author(s). Changchun: Jilin renmin chubanshe. Liu, D.刘敦桢 . 1979. Suzhou ghudian yuanlin (苏州古典园 林 ) 1st. 313. Beijing: Zhongguo jianzhu gongye chubanshe. Notes on contributor Liu, X., 刘 叙杰 . 2008. “Ji Fuqin Liu Dunzhen Dui Zhongguo Yan Liu is a PhD candidate at the School of Architecture, The Chuantong Gudian Yuanlin de Yanjiu He Shijian (纪父亲刘 Chinese University of Hong Kong. Her research focuses on 敦桢 对中国传统古典园林的研究和实践 ).” Zhongguo the history and theory of classical Chinese gardens in in- Yuanlin 24 (8): 42–43. tercultural and interdisciplinary contexts, especially the spa- Ming, L., and Y. Yang杨永生 , . 1998. Jianzhu sijie: Liu Dunzhen, tial experience and cultural memory in relation to phenom- Tong Jun, Liang Sicheng, Yang Tingbao(建筑 四杰 : 刘敦桢 , enology. The critical point of her dissertation is about the 童寯 , 梁思成 , 杨廷宝 ). 7–31. Beijing: Zhongguo jianzhu history and memory of the private gardens in the late Ming gongye chubanshe. Dynasty. Tong, J. 1963. 童 㝦. Jiangnan Yuanlin Zhi (江南园林志 ). 3. Beijing: Zhongguo gongye chubanshe. Wang, Y. 1990. 王 毅 . Yuanlin yu Zhongguo wenhua (园林与中 国文化 ). 2. Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe. ORCID Wang, Q. E. 2001. Inventing China through History: The May Fourth Approach to Historiography, ed. D. L. Hall and Yan Liu http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8569-8468 R. T. Ames., 3–17. Albany: State University of New York Press. Wang, F., and X. Wang王 , . 2012. Fu Sinian: Zhongguo jindai References lishi yu zhengzhi de geti shengming ( : 历史与 ). 331. Beijing: Xinzhi sanlian shudian. Cao, L. . 2011. 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Journal
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering
– Taylor & Francis
Published: Mar 3, 2023
Keywords: Chinese architecture; Chinese gardens; historiography; paradigm shift; twentieth century
