Abstract
This paper aims to clarify the influence of Hannes Meyer's concept of "psychological effects" on socialist cities and architecture in the Soviet Union by analyzing two 1930s projects: Meyer's plan for the development and reconstruction of Greater Moscow, and the Bauhaus Brigade's design proposal for the Palace of the Soviets competition. Meyer's design, especially his idea to place skyscrapers in a widened Red Square, was intended to psychologically enhance the effect of mass demonstrations. Similarly, the Bauhaus Brigade's design employed technologically augmented flexible spaces and wide swaths of greenery to accommodate mass demonstrations. The objective of "psychological effects" was that the Soviet population would be conscious of constructing a new society in the Soviet Union. These concepts were heavily influenced by Meyer's early work in Weimar Germany, when he concluded that "psychological effects" elevated functionalism to a new level. A review of original design plans and unpublished documents yielded direct parallels with socialist realist architecture of the time, such as the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry and the general redesign of Moscow, suggesting the ideas of Meyer and the Bauhaus Brigade strongly influenced the fundamentals of 1930s monumental architecture in the Soviet Union. Keywords: Hannes Meyer; Bauhaus Brigade; Palace of the Soviets; psychological effect; mass demonstration 1. Introduction provide a plethora of architectural opportunities, 1.1 Research Background Meyer, with seven exceptional Bauhaus students, The Soviet Union's Central Committee of the formed the Bauhaus Brigade: René Mensch, Konrad Communist Party settled upon Moscow's city planning Püschel, Tibor Weiner, Antonin Urban, Klaus scheme during the First Five-Year Plan in June 1931. Meumann, Bela Scheffler, and Philip Tolziner. This resolution marked the Soviet Union's first socialist Hannes Meyer was one of seven teams invited to the city development policy (Shimotomai, 1994). Lazar competition for the development and reconstruction Kaganovich's report written at that time attaches of Greater Moscow. Tolziner, Urban and Weiner, with greater importance to reconstructing existing cities than Meyer acting as consultant, participated to the second to building new ones. To reconstruct existing cities, stage of the 1931 Palace of the Soviets competition, Moscow needed new concepts for street networks where their proposal was ultimately rejected in favor and public buildings; plans were created and many of Boris Iofan's design in 1934. Moscow's general competitions were held, including a competition for the reconstruction, meanwhile, was determined in 1935 development and reconstruction of Greater Moscow under the design direction of V. N. Semenov (Tafuri, et from 1931 to 1932, and the competition for the Palace al., 1979). of the Soviets in 1931. In the Soviet Union, Meyer and the Bauhaus Brigade The Soviet government invited international failed to receive the acclaim they deserved. Meyer architects and city planners to supervise reconstruction disbanded the Bauhaus Brigade in 1932. Mensch efforts, including the architect Hannes Meyer (1889- left the Soviet Union in 1934, Meyer in 1936, and 1954). Believing that the Soviet government would Puschel and Weiner in 1937. Urban and Tolziner were arrested in 1938, and Meumann and Scheffler either disappeared or were arrested in the late 1930s. Their *Contact Author: Hideo Tomita, Lecturer, work still fails to receive sufficient recognition. Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, The value of the Bauhaus Brigade's work in the Kyushu Sangyo University, Soviet Union should be reconsidered for three reasons. 2-3-1 Matsukadai Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 813-8503 Japan (1) Meyer's work in Weimar Germany focused on the Tel: +81-92-673-5779 Fax: +81-92-673-5094 power of "psychological effects" to improve upon the E-mail: tktomit0@gmail.com, tomi@ip.kyusan-u.ac.jp principles of functionalism (Tomita, 2008). Meyer ( Received April 15, 2013 ; accepted November 11, 2013 ) Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering/January 2014/56 49 and the Bauhaus Brigade incorporated this concept 2. The Role of "Psychological Effects" in the Plan into their Soviet redesign proposal. (2) Meyer's work for the Development and Reconstruction of Greater in the Soviet Union generalized his Weimar-era Moscow theoretical activity (Meyer, 1933). (3) Meyer's Bauhaus 2.1 Documentation of the Design Process achievements influenced his decision to participate in (1) Adoption of Elastic Schema: December 2, 1931 Soviet reconstruction. To commemorate the Russian Revolution, the The early 1930s were a turning point not only for the city of Moscow used to hold annual competitions Soviet Union under Stalinism, but also for modernist for festal urban space, especially mass ceremonies architecture. Though most modernist architects and demonstrations, of which the 1931 Palace of the yielded to or recanted under totalitarianism in general, Soviets competition is a well-known example. These the relationship between both elements deserves competitions required the redesign of architecture, attention in light of the viewpoint that socialist realism space, and routes to accommodate attendance. developed from the avant-garde movement (Groys, The competition for the development and 2000). reconstruction of Greater Moscow in which Meyer 1.2 Aims, Method, and Previous Research participated may not have required demonstration This paper aims to clarify the influence of Hannes spaces; rather, Meyer's plan may have been more Meyer's concept of "psychological effects" on socialist influenced by the political climate at the time. His cities and architecture in the Soviet Union, a concept team examined five city planning schemas at the rarely analyzed in prior research. first recorded discussion on December 2, 1931. A Parts 2 and 3 of this paper analyze, compare, and concentric schema and a parallel schema, both of contrast the features of two projects: Meyer's proposal which focused the Kremlin at the center of the national for the development and reconstruction of Greater structure, were initially rejected. (This rejection of a Moscow, and the Bauhaus Brigade's entry into the concentric structure echoed the work of Arturo Soria competition project for the Palace of the Soviets. Part y Mata, who pioneered the linear city theory in 1882.) 4 evaluates the results of parts 2 and 3 in the following Meyer rejected the concentric schema on economic contexts: (1) Meyer's concept of "psychological grounds, but affirmed it would be politically effective, effects" in architecture, and (2) Moscow city planning as it would put the Kremlin at the center of the city. in 1934-35. Three schemas were ultimately adopted, including K.C. Jung (1989) pointed out that Meyer invented the Elastic Schema, which corresponded to the the "Elastic Schema" concept, which he then adapted extension and reduction of the city and arranged to his city plans for the Soviet Union, including the satellite cities diagonally, as shown in Fig.1. This reconstruction of Moscow. According to K.J. Winkler schema is a key feature of Meyer's project. (1989), this project was an architectural translation of The main roads extend in four directions from the Meyer's manuscript, Theses About Marxist Architecture Kremlin (represented by the central triangle) to the (undated). Similar to our paper, W. Richardson's satellite cities (represented by small circles). Meyer analysis (1991) focused on Meyer's influence on the includes a note next to the schema advising that mass "Stalin" plan of 1935, but was limited to discussion of demonstrations should be considered: a particular ring road, as the paper used only published reference materials. Regarding the Palace of the Soviets competition, Yatsuka (1993) presented a comprehensive discussion, from outline to principal proposals. However, despite the inclusion of the Bauhaus Brigade's drawings in Hannes Meyer's monographs (Kleinerüschkamp, 1989), their work has never been analyzed. The materials consulted for this paper include Meyer's unpublished manuscripts in Frankfurt's German Architecture Museum, competition drawings Fig.1. Hannes Meyer, Elastic Schema, December 2, 1931 in Moscow's Schusev State Museum of Architecture, and Philip Tolziner's materials held by the Bauhaus "T he four di a gonal t runk roa ds a re not onl y Archive in Berlin. Excepting those of Tolziner, all of developed as experimental arteries, but also these materials have been analyzed in past studies, ideologically regarded as organic limbs of the some of which included accompanying drawings. city center. As the main entrance roads to a mass However, we focused our analysis on original and demonstration, they become more important as they unpublished materials in order to investigate the approach the city center" (All quotations in this section underlying concepts in detail. are attributed to Meyer, 1931-1932). 50 JAABE vol.13 no.1 January 2014 Hideo Tomita (2) Mass Demonstration: December 8, 1931 discussed the applicability of the transportation system Mass demonstrations had been the topic of ongoing to mass demonstrations. He ultimately designed a discussions since December 2, 1931, particularly the city system that connected satellite cities, which were question as to how the satellite cities' transfer system composed of linear cities, with the public transportation should relate to mass demonstrations. Meyer's design system. incorporated this discussion in the form of a unified Discussion of plans for the city center continued. area or rayon representing the unity of all Moscow Meyer's final proposal explains the center of Moscow in a national festival. His project notes provide some focusing around the Kremlin: insight into these considerations: "A c a r e f u l l y d e v i se d t r a ff i c p l a n f o r t h e m a ss st th "The loosening of the city outskirts automatically demonstrations of May 1 and November 7 was raises the question of whether the mass demonstration intended to facilitate the passage of 1.5 million from the new city outskirts can reach the center by demonstrators through the center of Moscow and Red public transportation. At the same time, a primary Square" (Meyer, 1938). question is raised: Meyer planned a symbolic urban space for the a. Should all newly organized districts also climax of a mass demonstration (Fig.2.) as follows: st carry out their own demonstrations on May 1 and " The Red Square remains as a 'demonstration th November 7 ? And, at the same time, should the mass gateway,' being absolutely inviolable near the Kremlin demonstration in Red Square be shaped more as a Wall and Lenin Mausoleum. The square extended regional cerebration with appropriate delegations? up to 130 meters will contribute to faster passage of Or: demonstrations […] The square is crowned by the b. Must transportation be offered for all spectators 30-story skyscraper of the Party Central Committee to so that all 400 million participants can take part in the north, and by the identical Communist International the event, and so these districts can make a living building to the south." (Meyer, 1932) connection with the capital city?" A meeting hall was planned with a suspension (3) Elastic Schema: December 25, 26, and 28, 1931 structure between the two skyscrapers to "provide a The Elastic Schema emerged as a core theme during view overlooking the new demonstration area." Meyer these discussions in 1931. The theme originated with wanted people to see the skyscrapers flanking the Meyer's rejection of concentric forms as inherently Kremlin as a symbol of all Moscow, a plan intended to capitalistic and unviable. He also rejected the simple exert a "psychological effect" on viewers. grid system used by German architect Ernst May to Additionally, the south skyscraper was connected to design the new city of Magnitogorsk. Meyer then a staggered arrangement of buildings. The suspension proposed the Elastic Schema. structure, staggered formation, and psychological The Elastic Schema uses the schema of a linear city intent were all recognizable elements of Meyer's work to create satellite cities. The satellite cities, comprising in Germany, and could be regarded as an architectural 200,000 people, were composed of plural linear cities. continuity from the German to the Soviet era. For Each satellite city was connected to the city center by a these reasons, Meyer is considered to have developed public transportation system. the architectural methodology of the German era and used it to design an important urban space in the Soviet Union. 2.3 Originality of Meyer's Proposal Jung (1989), who compared Meyer's proposal to those of the other six teams, claimed Meyer's proposal for the reconstruction of the center of Moscow was completely unique. However, recent research (Flierl, 2011) has shown similarities with Ernst May's proposal. Based on the literature we have reviewed, we will outline the similarities and differences between May's and Meyer's proposals for the reconstruction of Moscow. The proposals shared three similarities: (1) the Kremlin was preserved and its circumference was developed with various features, such as high-rise Fig.2. Hannes Meyer, Competition Project for the Development buildings. (2) Ring road A was widened to incorporate and Reconstruction of Greater Moscow, 1932 a green zone. (3) Significant architecture was placed (Annotations by the Authors) in the heart of Moscow to accommodate mass 2.2 Final Plan: the Symbolism of the Socialist City demonstrations. During the creation of the final plan, Meyer initially However, the proposals differed in two important set the fundamental schema of the city, and then respects: (1) Meyer's plans involved widening and JAABE vol.13 no.1 January 2014 Hideo Tomita 51 building skyscrapers in Red Square, while there is consequently become connected with the Park of no indication that May's plans involved any concrete Culture and Recreation." (All quotations in this section description of development plans for the center of are attributed to the Bauhaus Brigade, 1931) Moscow. (2) To accommodate mass demonstrations The Bauhaus Brigade accordingly planned a in the heart of Moscow, Meyer placed skyscrapers citywide demonstration route that connected the Palace beside Red Square, while May envisioned a massive of the Soviets to the Kremlin, Red Square, and the park congressional hall, similar to the Palace of the Soviets. to the south. The demonstration routes are described as While Meyer's and May's proposals shared some key follows: similarities, the originality of Meyer's proposal lay in "However, judging from the site location on a factory widening Red Square and incorporating skyscrapers to map, one may consider two main demonstration routes: accommodate mass demonstrations. one from the east (from the city center), and one from In the above discussion, we have shown that Meyer's the west (from the boulevard ring 'A')." plan for the reconstruction of Moscow considered In the perspective drawing, demonstrators walking the "psychological effects" of an urban space. Meyer through the site were engulfed by the proposed proposed this project as a typical demonstration of space (Fig.5.). The line in the site plan indicates proletarian ideology and mass art, designing the urban the demonstration route (Fig.4.). The large hall and space, particularly the skyscrapers in the widened the pilotis of the small hall also show processions Red Square, to exert a "psychological effect" on the of demonstrators. In the Bauhaus Brigade's plan, viewer. Because Meyer's plan was not implemented, its many people would enter the large hall through the concrete design remains unknown. completely opened front gate during the demonstration. Demonstrators would then pass through the large hall 3. "Psychological Effects" of the Project for the to boulevard ring A on the connecting ramps beside the Palace of the Soviets Competition (1931) sculptures. The pilotis on the square side of the small 3.1 Demonstration Route and "Psychological hall open the ground level to demonstrators, while the Effects" north side is a large cantilever. The stage of the small The Bauhaus Brigade's goal for this project was hall and the roof level of the commandant's office are to plan a demonstration route around the palace to used as a podium for the event. The demonstration accommodate all of Moscow (Figs.3. and 4.). The route for the site is described as follows: Brigade described the plan as follows: "The construction also ensures unity in terms of "The party's decision generated the development traffic due to the passageway going through both halls of the master plan for Greater Moscow; the plan has and the public event venue on the ground level." to organically incorporate the Palace of the Soviets The demonstration route was clearly well planned into the new city, which has a population of four inside and around the construction site. The project million […] When marching through this new green concept makes explicit the group's psychological connection zone, demonstrators will pass a number objectives for the demonstration route: of new public buildings. A park will be laid out along "This intentional mass psychological arrangement the Moscow River from boulevard 'A' to the Crimea of the two main demonstration routes will certainly Bridge westward of the Palace of the Soviets, and result in the strong emotional experience of every to Kropotkin Street northward. The green zones participant." Fig.3. Philipp Tolziner, Antonin Urban, Tibor Weiner (Design), Meyer (Consultant), Competition Project for the "Palace of the Soviets", Site Plan, 1931, (Annotations by the Authors) 52 JAABE vol.13 no.1 January 2014 Hideo Tomita Fig.4. Site Plan, 1931, (Annotations by the Authors) the hall's use. The gate on the square could be opened despite its considerable size (30 meters by 80 meters), visually and spatially connecting the space and opening the square to demonstrators. Although a variety of technologies were proposed to achieve this, they would not be externally visible, only the two huge and simple halls. The technologies are not expressed outside of the architecture, which is described as follows: "The Palace of the Soviets is a direct creation of the proletarian class state as long as its functional area layout encourages a proletarian mass. By spatial and technical means, this construction must support mass activities, both political and cultural, as flexibly as Fig.5. Perspective Drawing possible." Thus, the technological and functional spaces The Bauhaus Brigade clearly designed the Palace were intended to support the activities of the general of the Soviets by considering its role in a mass population, and to support the creation of a socialist demonstration route, and intended the architecture of state in three ways: (1) The large hall, small hall, the structure to exert a strong "psychological effect" on and square were designed unitively. (2) Flexible demonstrators. architecture using movable gates was planned to 3.2 Role of Technology in Generating "Psychological enable both halls to face the square between them. Effects" (3) These functional spaces were intended to support This was a large-scale project that required a variety the activities of the general population and to support of functional solutions and technologies. Although the the birth of a new country. The goal of sensitizing the project was composed of two independent halls, the general population was expressed as follows: whole site was unified: "We must repeatedly make the proletarian masses "The unity of construction must be considered when aware of the features of our age of reconstruction, discussing the project: the large hall and small hall as using all available artistic means." well as the public event venue located between the The objective of "psychological effects" was that the halls make an integrated complex, which provides Soviet population would be conscious of constructing room for public events in various combinations." (All a new society in the Soviet Union. quotations in this section are attributed to the Bauhaus By analyzing the Bauhaus Brigade's plans, it is Brigade, 1931) clear that a variety of technologies were used in this With this in mind, both halls were planned with design not for superficial effect, but rather to exert movable parts for flexibility, and each supported the "psychological effects" on the population. construction of the other. For example, one of the small 3.3 Comparison with Other Proposals hall's outer walls could also serve as a screen for the The demonstration route and use of technology were audience in the large hall. The large hall also had lower features that originated with the Bauhaus Brigade — seating that could move with the audience, allowing they were a requirement of the competition: the seating arrangement to change in accordance with JAABE vol.13 no.1 January 2014 Hideo Tomita 53 "It must be easily accessible for great multitudes of demonstrating laborers and workers. The Palace should be fitted with the best equipment and provide the technical apparatus necessary for revolutionary events including theatrical and musical productions." (The Public Committee for the Promotion of the Construction of the Palace of the Soviets, 1931) Therefore, in order to illustrate the original features of the Bauhaus Brigade's design, we will contrast it Fig.6. Boris Iofan, Competition Project for the "Palace of the with other typical proposals, focusing in particular Soviets", Site Plan, 1931 (Annotations by the Authors) on the street plan outside the property line, from the viewpoint of the demonstration route. 4. Evaluation of Meyer and Moscow Proposed street plans outside the property line can 4.1 Meyer's Concept of "Psychological Effects" be classified into four types (Table 1.). (A) Retain the While Meyer's undated manuscript on Marxist existing streets. (B) Build a wide new street with a architecture incorporates his ideas from the German green zone on its north side (toward the Kremlin). (C) era, it also reflects a new development in Meyer's Build a new street on the west side. (D) Build new architectural theory: the mass psychology of an urban streets on multiple sides. Both the Bauhaus Brigades' space: proposal and the winning proposal by B. Iofan took "So, the psychological organization of cities and the approach described in (D), featuring a gentle north- their buildings must be formed in accord with the south axis. While, unlike the Bauhaus Brigade, Iofan's results of psychological science." (Meyer, undated) preliminary proposal also included a west-east axis In this same text, Meyer expresses his ideas about (Fig.6.), the Bauhaus Brigade proposed a greenbelt and the concept of the demonstration route: a vast park on the south side of the complex, features "The strongest impression in socialist architecture absent from Iofan's design. is the conscious organization of the demonstration th st Thus, despite some similarities to Iofan's proposal, course on November 7 and May 1 in the approach to the Bauhaus Brigade's gentle north-south greenbelt and building a socialist city." (Meyer, undated) large, green park, both of which were incorporated to Meyer applied these "psychological effects" to his accommodate mass demonstrations, distinguish the architectural design in Germany (Tomita, 2008), as proposal as original. evinced by the ADGB Trade Union School, built just The above analysis illustrates that the Bauhaus outside Berlin between 1928 and 1930, particularly Brigade's proposal for the Palace of the Soviets with regard to its three chimneys (Nerdinger, 2004) competition incorporated technology in their and square hall (Sugimoto, 1979). demonstration route design, taking into account the Through the introduction and use of "psychological "psychological effects" of urban space and architecture, e f f e c t s", Me ye r si g ni fi c a nt l y sha p e d m ode rn particularly with regard to the greenbelt and park. The architecture, helping propel it to the next stage. In the intended cumulative effect of these features was to Soviet Union, Meyer applied these concepts to the facilitate the spread of Soviet ideology. socialist urban space to heighten the "psychological effects" of mass demonstrations. Table 1. Proposed Street Plans Outside the Property Line 4.2 Moscow City Planning, 1934-35 Typical Proposals Stage New Street (1) The Competition for the Narkomtiazhprom, 1934 North West South In 1934, a competition was held for the design A Hans Poelzig, Ivan Zholtovsky 2 of The People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry Joseph Urban, Walter Gropius Hector Hamilton 3 (Narkomtiazhprom) at the same site where Meyer had Oskar Stonorov et al. planned to build a skyscraper, immediately adjacent to Anatoli Zhukov et al. B Viktor Olenev 1 ○ Red Square (Fig.7.). Various styles of proposals were Le Corbusier et al. 2 ○ submitted, including constructivist, socialist realist, Auguste Perret et al. and eclectic designs. Berthold Lubetkin, G. Sigalin et al. 3 ○ Vopra Brigade (K.S.Alabian et al.) It is not clear whether the outline for this competition Vopra Brigade (Leningrad section) was inspired by Meyer's ideas for the development and C Iakov Doditsa et al., Naum Gabo 3 ○ reconstruction of Greater Moscow. However, many Leonid Vishinsky D ARU Brigade 1 ○ ○ proposals involved widening Red Square and building The Bauhaus Brigade 2 ○ ○ multiple skyscrapers connected by a bridge, just as Boris Iofan 1 ○ ○ ○ in Meyer's design (I. Leonidov, the Vesnin brothers, 1: preliminary stage, 2: second invitation stage, 3: third open stage I. Formin, M. Ginzburg, A. Mordvinov, Fig.8.). Like Meyer's vision, the intent of these features was to influence mass psychology in Moscow. 54 JAABE vol.13 no.1 January 2014 Hideo Tomita from the center and a concentric arrangement of seven skyscrapers. From the plans published in 1936 (Fig.9.), we can see elements of Iofan's proposal for the Palace of the Soviets competition (1931), particularly the north-south and west-east axes. However, similarities to the Bauhaus Brigade's competition entry are also evident. For example, Semenov's design incorporates two streets with a greenbelt extending southwest from the Palace of the Soviets to the entrance of Red Square, and also features a vast green park on the south side of the palace. It is unclear whether these elements were directly pulled from the work of the Bauhaus Brigade. However, it is important to note that the Kremlin- centered design in the approved 1935 plans first Fig.7. Ivan Leonidov, Proposal for the Narkomtiazhprom appeared in the Bauhaus Brigade's 1931 proposal. Competition, 1934 (Annotations by the Authors) 5. Conclusions The influence of Hannes Meyer's concept " " psychological effects on socialist cities and can be summarized architecture in the Soviet Union as follows. Meyer's plan for the development and reconstruction of Greater Moscow was a typical demonstration of proletarian ideology and mass art, incorporating "psychological effects" into the design of urban space, particularly his original idea to build skyscrapers in the widened Red Square. The Bauhaus Brigade, meanwhile, used technology t o hei ght en t he "psyc hol ogi ca l effec ts" of t heir Fig.8. A. Mordvinov, Proposal for the Narkomti azhprom Competition, 1934 demonstration route design for the Palace of the Soviets competition, as well as vast swaths of green space, such as their gentle north-south greenbelt and large greened park on the southern side of the palace. The objective of "psychological effects" was that the Soviet population would be conscious of constructing a new society in the Soviet Union. We evaluated these concepts in terms of Meyer's pioneering ideas about the "psychological effects" of architecture, beginning with his work in Weimar Germany. Meyer thought that "psychological effects" elevated functionalism to a new level, as reflected in the design of urban spaces and structures to enhance the effect of mass demonstrations. Meyer's influence Fig.9. General Plan for the Reconstruction of the City of is also clearly evident in socialist realist designs of the Moscow, 1935 time, such as the design of the Narkomtiazhprom and (Annotations by the Authors) Moscow's general city plan. Ultimately, the concepts (2) Semenov's General Reconstruction Plan, 1935 pioneered by Meyer and the Bauhaus Brigade played Essentially, Meyer's concept of "psychological a key role in establishing the fundamentals of Soviet effects" in an urban space found its place in the monumental architecture in the 1930s. context of socialist realism. Just as Meyer thought that "psychological effects" propelled functionalism to the Illustration Credits next level at the end of the 1920s, socialist realism Figs.1., 2.: Deutsches Architekturmuseum. Fig.5.: Bauhaus-Archiv sought to overcome modernism in the 1930s. Berlin. Figs.3., 4.: Shchusev State Museum of Architecture. Fig.6.: Naum Gabo and the Competition for the Palace of The proposals for the Greater Moscow development Soviets, Moscow 1931-33, Berlin: Berlinische Galerie (1993). and reconstruction competition were opened to the Fig.7.: OPPOSITIONS , No. 2, New York: The Institute for public in May and June of 1932, after which the Architecture and Urban Studies, 1974. Figs.8., 9.: General'ny Plan discussion was led by APU and Gosplan. In 1935, Rekonstruktsii Goroda Moskvy, Volume I, Moscow: Moskovsky the general plan of Moscow was designed under the Rabochy, 1936. direction of Semenov, incorporating streets radiating JAABE vol.13 no.1 January 2014 Hideo Tomita 55 19) Nerdinger, W. (2004) "Zwischen Kunst und Klassenkampf Acknowledgment – Positionen des Funktionalismus der zwanziger Jahre", in: This research was supported by KAKENHI, Architektur Macht Erinnerung, München: Prestel Verlag, pp.43-57. 18760486, Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B), 20) Sugimoto, T. (1979) Bauhaus, Tokyo: Kajima Institute Publishing Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and co., ltd., pp.148-161. Technology of Japan. References 1) Shimotomai, N. (1994, English ed. 1991) Moscow under Stalinist rule, 1931-34, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, Publishers, pp.26-60. 2) Tafuri, M. and Dal Co, F. (1979) Modern Architecture, New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, pp.204-220. 3) Tomita, H. (2008) "Hannes Meyer's "Biological" Concept and its Loosening Influence on Form", Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol. 7 No. 2, Tokyo: Architectural Institute of Japan, pp.179-185. 4) Meyer, H. (1933) "Wie ich arbeite", in: Lena Meyer-Bergner(ed.), Hannes Meyer, Bauen und Gesellschaft schriften, Briefe, Projekte, Dresden, VEB Verlag der Kunst (1980), pp.100-103. 5) Groys, B. (2000, German ed. 1988) Gesamtkunstwerk Stalin, Kameyama, I., Koga, Y. (translation), Tokyo: Gendaishichoshinsha. 6) Jung, K. C. (1989), "Planung der sozialistischen Stadt Hannes Meyer in der Sowjetunion 1930-1936", in: Werner Kleinerüschkamp (ed.), hannes meyer 1889-1954. architekt, urbanist, lehrer, Berlin: Ernst & Sohn, pp.264-289. 7) Winkler, K. J. (1989) Der Architekt hannes meyer, Anschauungen und Werk, Berlin: VEB Verlag für Bauwesen, pp.131-180. 8) Meyer, H. (undated) "Thesen über marxistische Architektur", in: Meyer-Bergner (ed.), op. cit., pp.97-99. 9) Richardson, W. (1991) "Hannes Meyer and the general plan for the reconstruction of Moscow, 1931-5", Planning perspectives, 6 (2), London: E. & F. N. Spon, pp.109-124. 10) Yatsuka, H. (1993) Architecture of Russian Avant-Garde, Tokyo: INAX, pp.382-409. 11) Kleinerüschkamp W. (ed.)(1989), op. cit., pp.256-260. 12) Meyer , H. (1931-1932) Protokolle von Sitzung zum Generalplan Groß-Moskau vom 02. 12. 1931 bis 12. 01. 1932. Manuskript, 82|1-469. This manuscript belongs to Deutsches Architekturmuseum. (original text was written in small letter). 13) Meyer, H. (1938) "Entwicklungs- und Rekonstruktionsplan von Groß-Moskau(1931-1932)", in: Meyer-Bergner(ed.), op. cit., pp.104-109. 14) Meyer, H. (1932) Projekt der Brigade unter Leitung von Hannes Meyer. Erläuterung Bericht (1. 6. 1932). Generalplan Groß-Moskau Manuskript, (82|1-2)IV. 6(2) 164-306-004. This manuscript belongs to Deutsches Architekturmuseum. (original text was written in Russian). 15) Flierl, T. (2011) "Possibly the greatest task an architect ever faced", in: Claudia Quiring et al. (ed.) Ernst May 1886-1970, München: Prestel, pp.157-195. 16) Bauhaus Brigade (1931) The concept of the Soviet Palace by the Bauhaus Brigade is contained in the original drawings belonging to the Shchusev State Museum of Architecture in Moscow, PIa- 360, 1770-1778. The photographs of these drawings belong to Bauhaus-Archiv Museum für Gestaltung. Tolziner, Philipp (1906- 1996), II Brigade, II-16, 17, 17-1, 17-2, 17-3, 18, 18-1, 18-2, 18-3- 1, 19-1. 17) Meyer , H. (1931-1932) "Prot okolle von Sitzung zum Generalplan Groß-Moskau vom 02. 12. 1931 bis 12. 01. 1932." Manuskript, 82|1-469. This manuscript belongs to Deutsches Architekturmuseum. 18) The Public Committee for the Promotion of the Construction of the Palace of the Soviets (1931) "Proletarians of the world unite! Palace of the Soviets 1, 1931", in: Naum Gabo and the Competition for the Palace of Soviets, Moscow 1931-33, Berlin: Berlinische Galerie (1993, 1st ed. 1992), pp.202-209. 56 JAABE vol.13 no.1 January 2014 Hideo Tomita
Journal
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering
– Taylor & Francis
Published: Jan 1, 2014
Keywords: Hannes Meyer; Bauhaus Brigade; Palace of the Soviets; psychological effect; mass demonstration
