Abstract
JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2171732 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY AND THEORY The regionality of vernacular residences on the TianJing scale in China’s traditional JiangNan region a b Cheng Liu and HuiQiong Tian a b School of Humanities, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai, China ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 17 April 2022 Based on historical documents and field investigations, this article analyzes the origin and Accepted 19 January 2023 development of the concept and form of the Chinese courtyard “TianJing” in vernacular residences to address common misunderstandings in previous studies. Focused on the scale KEYWORDS standard in YingZaoFaYuan traditional building technology in the JiangNan region, TianJing is Vernacular residences; closely related to the main hall in dwellings reflecting the construction customs in different TianJing; scale and ratio; regions. Through the statistical analysis of the measured dimension data, this study shows the regionality; JiangNan region scale characteristics, demonstrating the cultural correlations of vernacular residences in differ - ent regions based on similarities. It explores the causes, rules and effects of and changes in traditional construction wisdom reflected by the historical geographic comparative background. 1. Introduction traditional residence, from the JiangNan region, such Courtyard, as a traditional living space type, is as in SuZhou and HuiZhou, to the Southeast, LingNan, a common traditional residence language all over the Southwest and other southern areas of China (Figure world. It is the main form of traditional residential 1–5), especially south of the Yangtze River (JiangNan buildings in all periods of history, creating a variety of region). living, production and communication space, as well as TianJing is an essential element of traditional resi- the material carrier of different regional cultures. For dence construction as the central space connecting example, Atrium in Greece (Vitruvius 1960), Impluvium the main hall, wing room and gate house. It was con- in Rome (August 2010), Konaks in Turkey (Dönmez sidered a product of the courtyard living mode 2021), Persian residence in Iran (Farzaneh, Mehdi, and brought by the Han people from the Central Plains to Seyed 2016) and Chowku in India (Malcolm and Rajan the South and combined with the local Pile-House 2018) are all typical representatives of courtyard types structure form in the Yangtze River Basin (Zhang in traditional residential buildings around the world. 2002). As a representative residential type in southern Chinese architecture is no exception. Similarly, with China, TianJing is different from courtyards in the north courtyard space as the main body, various palaces, and is influenced by geographical conditions, climatic halls and pavilions are organized to form the tradi- conditions and construction customs. There are tional architectural space with Chinese cultural conno- obvious geographical boundaries between the distri- tation. As a unique type of Chinese courtyard, TianJing bution range of TianJing and the other types of resi- exists extensively in residential buildings and is dences. However, what is the difference between a typical type of traditional residential culture. TianJing and the these other types? Is it only the The Chinese character of “TianJing”, composed of scale? Is it an outdoor space or an internal part? What the two words, “Tian” (sky) and “Jing” (well), refers to is the standard size of TianJing and its relationship to a type of courtyard in traditional architecture. When other styles? Are they all the same in the JiangNan mentioned in literary works, TianJing is often referred region? These questions have not been answered to as HuiZhou Vernacular Architecture, which is related clearly in the current literature and are, only seen as to many fantastical artistic conceptions loaded with concerning issues of space, form, function and cultural high walls, triple doors, narrow windows and small significance, such as wealth and prosperity. Although yards in the traditional environment. However, this TianJing has a similar combination mode in vast South has led to the misunderstanding of TianJing as an China, there are also explicit and invisible regional architectural element. The TianJing-form is widely dis- differences and geographical boundaries, which are tributed in most of South China as the main type of worth studying from an architectural perspective. CONTACT HuiQiong Tian 1810136@tongji.edu.cn College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group on behalf of the Architectural Institute of Japan, Architectural Institute of Korea and Architectural Society of China. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 2 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Figure 1. XiJing Bank House in ChangShu Historic District of SuZhou. Figure 2. DongYan Garden House in GuangFu Town of SuZhou. 2. Origin and definition states: the billows shine on TianJing indefinitely, and the reflection swings and grows clear and emerald (No. 575. The Chinese word “TianJing” first originated from Sun Peng 1960). In this period, TianJing, meaning court- Tzu’s Art of War in the Spring and Autumn Period (Sun 1 yard, referred to the word “YueJing”, such as Li 2001), as an ancient proper noun in geography indi- ShangYin’s poem Incense Song: the YueJing in the cating a place that is steep on all sides with a stream in court is red, with a light shirt, which is gentleman’s the middle. This definition endured until the Tang intention (No. 541. Peng 1960). The meaning of Dynasty (Huang 1999) when it began to be used as TianJing primarily referring to military terrain still an architectural element, initially describing a caisson existed and indicated the decoration of the caisson ceiling at the top of buildings. The poem Chang’an ceiling, which is the same as “てんじょう ” in Japanese. Temple by Wen TingYun of the Tang Dynasty states: There is no indication of when the meaning of treasure oblique jade, TianJing inverted hibiscus TianJing changed from caisson to yard, but it (No. 577. Peng 1960). Another poem, TaiYe Pool Song, This means dangerous terrain in war, such as streams, wells, sinks or gaps in the ground. Sun Tzu’s art of war: marching. “Yue” means moon. JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 3 Figure 3. Zhang’s Residence in XinChang Town of ShangHai. Figure 4. ShangDe House south of JiShan Mountain in ShaoXing. occurred no later than the Song Dynasty. The Qing Dynasties utill now and has been clearly used poem CeFan by Yany ZeMin of the Song Dynasty in this way in many traditional books, such as Key 3 4 states: In the orchid room, people return at late Points of Residence, Eight Bright Mirrors of Houses, night. Moonlight outside the window shining on and ClassicMeasures for Residence. the square TianJing (Tang 1965). This was probably In previous studies, TianJing was defined as an open an earlier record of TianJing referring to courtyards space surrounded by three or four sides, and its scale in the same way as today. At that time, few people was determined by the size of eaves, or it was simply still used the term specifically to describe the mili- defined as a narrow courtyard (Cihai Editorial tary terrain. TianJing has been widely used as Committee 1999). As a Chinese architectural entity, describing a type of courtyard from the Ming and “Jing” (well) with the word “Tian” (sky) has become A FengShui book by Wu Ding in the Qing Dynasty states: TianJing in the house represents wealth and prosperity. The front of the house symbolizes the mountain. TianJing in a moderate size can gather wealth. The front room should not be high or low, and commensurately the guest and host can then get lucky. A FengShui book from the Tang Dynasty and published in the Qing Dynasty states: TianJing is an important part of a residence related to wealth and prosperity, which must be flat and square, and not too wet or dirty. There are usually two closed passages on both sides of the hall, which can nourish the home. The scale of it is naturally symmetrical and square, which can be comfortable for the family. The position of the gate represents the Vital Qi, meanwhile the TianJing represents the Flourishing Qi. Qi, both Yin and Yang, is compact naturally, and not allowed space directly through. There are lyrics in the folk: the TianJing should be neither high nor deep, neither long nor partial, and then the family can accumulate money and wealth . . . Another FengShui book by Gao JianNan in the Qing Dynasty states: All imperial houses have inner and outer halls, and TianJing is the ceremonial one in the palace with the wealth and fame. 4 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Figure 5. Three Wells House in XiangShan Road Historic District of NanChang. a space of “no use”. This space was always the core structure was called the “Peristyle” and the yard the part of ancient houses, and a similar type in the West “Atrium”. The Peristyle residence gradually matured may offer reference value to compare the relevant and stabilized in the ancient Roman period. In the definitions. typical ancient Roman house (Figure 6), there was In ancient Greece in the 5th to 6th centuries BC, a hollow square well in the centre of the roof and there were courtyard-style residences with pillars sur- a square reservoir to receive rainwater at the corre- rounding a yard enclosed by bedrooms, kitchen, mas- sponding position on the ground (Figure 7), which was ter and rooms for the master and servants. The called the “Impluvium” (Figure 8). According to an Figure 6. Restoration of a Typical Ancient Roman House in Pompeii. A classic, the Scripture of Ethics,states: Mix clay utensils, because the middle is empty, so we implement effect. Carved doors and windows covering a house, because the middle is empty, have the function of the house. The impluvium is the sunken part of the atrium in a Greek or Roman house (domus). Designed to carry away the rainwater coming through the compluvium of the roof, it is usually made of marble and placed approximately 30 cm below the floor of the atrium. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Impluvium JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 5 Figure 7. Impluvium in an Ancient Roman Residence. Figure 8. Impluvium in the Ruins of Pompeii. etymological analysis, “im-” means introverted and Similarly, in ancient Egypt, “Megaron” was the main internal, and “-pluvium” refers to an object impacted hall surrounded by groups of rooms, and in the Islamic by water. Therefore, Impluvium refers to the pool of world, residences centered on the Iwan Hall, with the water on the ground. However, Vitruvius summarized functions of bringing daylight into the home and pro- five types of eaves: Tuscanisch, Viersaulige, viding a space for rest and convenience (Leonardo Korinthische, Displuriatum and Testudinatum. He also 1990) (Figure 9). This is similar to the Japanese term, stipulated the design rules of the Impluvium scale; for which means the caisson and the highest place inside example, the aspect ratio was generally 5:3 or 3:2, the structure. Thus, compared to the courtyard while the length to height ratio was approximately enclosed by rooms, TianJing may be interpreted as 4:3. (Vitruvius 1960). a “hollowed out” part of a building. 6 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Figure 9. Section View of the Iwan Hall in an Islamic Residence. Figure 10. Frame Form of Courtyard and TianJing. From a plane layout, there may be no obvious a home’s walls and that dripping from the eaves must difference between TianJing and courtyard; both are fall in that home’s own TianJing (Yao 1986). “Jing”, a well, came to mean a yard with the image of water at the open spaces surrounded by houses on three or four bottom. Similar to a well in the ground, TianJing con- sides. However, the essential difference between them nected the sky and collected the water from the eaves can be revealed by the roof above (Figure 10). In the with an edge contact closure at the top. Compared with TianJing style, the “purlin lap purlin” frame method is an indoor floor, the bottom of TianJing is often a sinking connected between the main and wing houses, which square pool or ring groove, with size, depth, shape, use common columns to support their purlins. Because material and carving varying by region. These features of the integrity of the frame, the roof is connected, and distinguish them, whether connected to the upper cor- the cornice is closed. Although the cornice is staggered nice or the lower foundation (Chen 1999). Therefore, the up and down, it is still connected to the cornice in the dimensions of TianJingshould be defined as the size of plane sense, forming a “wellhead”. the ground pool or the roof cornice enclosed. TianJing is defined as an open space between two buildings directly related to roof drainage in Chinese architectural documents YingZaoFaYuan, which summar- 3. Typology of TianJing ize the rules of traditional building technology in the 3.1. Type elements JiangNan region. In the book, “Jian” means the boundary from the eaves between two houses. It is TianJing is connected to the main hall, wing rooms and stipulated that the eaves should not extend beyond entrance or enclosure, which are combined as a basic YingZaoFaYuan states: Jian (boundary) sounds the same as Zhan (occupation) in the Wu dialect. This means that land or houses invade those of other people. (Yao 1986) JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 7 unit. As the central space of the plane unit, TianJing the traditional living concept of symmetrical balance, has not only the function of improving the internal internal and external differences and orderly levels. environment of the house but also the spiritual signifi - There are three types of halls: open, semi-open and cance of Chinese traditional humanism. closed. The open type includes a single- or double- sided open hall and veranda hall, and the semi-open hall often appears in TianJing-style dwellings with the 3.1.1. Hall and rooms front open and the rear closed. If there is a back hall The main hall is usually an open or semi-open space behind the main hall, it is usually closed as a living with an odd number of bays located on the central axis space. The open hall is generally located between the as the significant part of dwellings (Figure 11). To high- entrance and main hall, such as the Pass Hall in light its status, a lobby or entrance in the front to SiChuan and the Sedan Chair Hall in SuZhou. In addi- increase the spatial level, and the back hall is set tion, there are auxiliary rooms such as kitchens, fire - behind to increase functions. These are called “three wood rooms, livestock pens and toilets, which are halls”: the front, main and back halls. In some large often arranged in the leftover area around the main families, there are enclosed rooms with delicate building through the ingenuity of artisans, using idle porches or gardens behind the main hall. This not space or according to the base conditions. This flexible only shows the distinction of the host but also reflects design has no fixed form and adapts measures to local Figure 11. Three Halls in a TianJing Architecture Prototype. 8 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Figure 12. Ring Groove: Earth-Shaped TianJing. conditions, thus diversifying vernacular dwellings. The In the ring groove form, there is a port in the center space of the settlement is also uneven, which gives of the well and a slightly deeper drainage ditch around traditional buildings rhythmic, orderly and vividly col- it, called “earth-shaped TianJing” (Figure 12). If there is orful characteristics. only a square pool, no exposed drainage ditch, and the The wing rooms are arranged around the main hall, bottom is flat, the type is called “water-shaped and the relationship among them is in accordance with TianJing” (Figure 13). Houses in the Ming Dynasty the strict hierarchy and distribution of family genera- mostly used the water-shaped TianJing without tions and seniority They are generally ordered from a port, and the TianJing was relatively deep. east to west and from north to south in the JiangNan However, in the Qing Dynasty, there were many ports region. in TianJing, which attached great importance to finishes and pavement. Most were paved with slab- stone, while others were paved with local materials 3.1.2. TianJing (Huang 2008). The pit pool form had the function of TianJing, connecting the hall and rooms, forms water storage, with breast boards set at the edge a complete living space. It can be a place for daily life (Figure 14). Because of its ornamental nature, it was and work or for visitors and friends as a saloon, which is usually used in places of leisure, such as study and a space full of vitality with cultural and practical value. flower halls, to increase aesthetic interest. The wellhead of TianJing is connected with eaves and There are two ways to drain the water from the roof rings. Even if the eaves of a house or room wall fall up into the TianJing pool. One is by an underground ditch and down, it is still a continuous eave in the plane in an organized way. The other is to use blind ditch sense, and the eaves of the front and compartment cover layers of thin bricks with a pebble filter layer or to remain open. The pool at the bottom of the TianJing is use a bluestone slab so that water can directly pene- generally not deep, and the depth, size, material and trate the ground and drain. The roof drainage is mainly carving of the pool vary by region. Its main forms are unorganized, and far-reaching eaves make the ring groove, square pool and pit pool. Figure 13. Square Pool: Water-Shaped TianJing. JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 9 Figure 14. Pit Pool TianJing in ZouJiaXiang, WuYiShan, FuJian. Figure 15. Drainage Structures in Some TianJing. rainwater flow directly into TianJing. There are also TianJing connecting the eaves on the top and the drainage pipes on the cornice for organized drainage foundation on the bottom”. Therefore, the basic unit (Figure 15). mode of TianJing architecture is generally “three in one” enclosed by houses and a wall and “four in one” enclosed all around by houses. The basic units are 3.1.3. Combination mode combined and expanded in both the vertical and hor- On the combination of traditional architectural space, izontal directions. The combination mode is adapted the basic plane unit of TianJing can be divided into to different external environmental conditions, and the three modes: the “four in one”, which is fully sur- architecture community has also created a vernacular rounded by houses; the “three in one”, surrounded style that is harmonious with nature, which reflects the by houses on three sides and a wall in the front; and flexibility and adaptability of Chinese buildings. the “two in one”, surrounded by houses on two side sides face to face and walls on the other sides (Figure 16). Various organizational models have two 3.2. Physical characteristics essential elements, house and walls, to create flexible courtyard space. Traditional buildings are often enclosed by walls to The main and front halls of the “two in one” are prevent theft with few windows. The airflow in airtight independent buildings that cannot form a whole, rooms is not smooth, and natural wind dramatically which is inconsistent with the characteristics of attenuates after entering rooms, so it is difficult to 10 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Figure 16. Basic combination modes of traditional architecture. achieve effective ventilation. Therefore, the ventilation that in the shade (Yuno 1975). Due to the large height of the whole house greatly benefits from the use of width ratio of TianJing, the lower part is weakly TianJing space, which is also effective for heat protec- exposed to the sun, while the upper part is strongly tion and dehumidification, adapted to the climate of exposed. There is a vertical temperature difference South China. The halls in the south are generally open between the upper and lower parts of the air, thus and connected with TianJing to form an air flow path. realizing thermal pressure ventilation. The greater the The building is ventilated by introducing the external aspect ratio is, the better the effect is of hot pressure natural wind to generate pressure throughout the ventilation, which is commonly called “pulling wind” in TianJing. Even if there is no wind outside, the vertical folk terminology. In southern Fujian and Taiwan, this thermal pressure difference formed can also produce TianJing pattern is often referred to as the “deep well”. a ventilation effect for sun shading and thermal buffer - The wind-pulling function and the interception of ing (Figure 17). Research shows that the temperature the gable can also prevent flames from spreading to in places with direct sunlight can be 15°C higher than surrounding areas through the air traction when Figure 17. Physical analysis of a TianJing residence (ChongShun Hall, GaoAn, JiangXi). JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 11 Figure 18. Over-white method of architecture construction in GuangDong (Lu 2003). a building is on fire. A house is separated into corre- ShaanXi Province (Figure 19. Fu 1998). The foundations sponding fire compartments by several TianJing. When of the houses at this site are higher than the ground, a fire occurs, it can be controlled in one TianJing yard and all are connected except for the passageway at the to prevent it from spreading to the entire house. doorway. The doors, halls and rooms have their own TianJing also plays a role in regulating indoor lightt- walls, making them independent buildings. Although ing. For example, the construction of dwellings in the plane type of the site is connected with the plat- FuJian and GuangDong often uses the method of form foundation, it still belongs to the courtyard build- “Over-White” to integrate sky light directly into the ing type due to the independence between houses. hall (Figure 18). The main rooms inside have windows The basic feature of the courtyard type is that the main facing the TianJing to meet demand for the indoor houses are separated from each other and arranged light.The bonsai, rockery and flower pool in TianJing independently, connected by corridors. It has the also improve the microclimate inside the building, advantages of sunshine, wind protection and sand, giving the indoor and outdoor spaces dual functions and is suitable for the cold winter climate in northern of use and aesthetics. China. Based on the shape characteristics of the eaves and foundation, we can distinguish the differences 3.3. Type characteristics between TianJing and courtyard, as shown in It is difficult to distinguish the southern TianJing archi- Table 1. The investigation, which cannot replace tecture from the northern courtyard style in terms of case studies, does not indicate that all the cases shape. However, these two words are confused in belong to the same mode. There is also some many fields. For example, craftsmen in SiChuan believe form of intermediary between different modes, that the two concepts are the same, while in HuNan, which is of great significance for studying regional they call the yard inside the house TianJing and the architectural types. dam outside the gate a courtyard. Previous studies Due to population migration and cultural inte- have noted differences in style between TianJing and gration throughout history, there are numerous courtyards based on contiguous or decentralized lay- types of residential architecture in China. Through out relationships between buildings (Liu 1990). The these differences, we can see that courtyard build- two styles are distinguished by national and climatic ings are roughly distributed in northern China, characteristics from the TianJing style in the south and including Northeast China, North China, ShanXi, the courtyard in the north (Lu, 1995). The climate in the ShaanXi, NingXia and other vast areas in the upper north is wet and dry, and courtyard houses are favored reaches of the Yellow River. The TianJing type by the Han, Man and Hui people. In the south, it is wet, mainly covers the middle and lower reaches of the rainy and muggy. Many nationalities, such as the Han, Yangtze River, including the southwest and south- Bai, and NaXi, use the TianJing style. east regions (Yu 2001). The traditional courtyard architecture can be traced The two types are distributed in a north–south pat- back to the early Zhou Dynasty through the excavation tern, corresponding to the courtyard in the north, of the Fengchu, which can be seen in the first complete which is sufficient to show the status and influence of layout of courtyard architecture in QiShan County, TianJing as one of the two types of traditional A method to deal with the spacing of ancient buildings. It is required to control the distance between the back hall and the front building. So that people sitting in the hall can see the ridge of the front roof through the door jambs. That is a white sky light can be seen between the roof ridge and the door jamb in the shadow. Therefore, it is called “Over-White”. 12 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Figure 19. Plan of the FengChu building foundation in the Early Western Zhou dynasty in QiShan, ShaanXi (Fu 1998). Table 1. Comparison of differences between TianJing and courtyard. Comparison Items TianJing Courtyard Spatial Scale Small, Human Scale Large, Outdoor Scale Spatial Property Grey Space between Indoor and Outdoor Clear Outdoor Space Structural Composition Entity Interface Not all the Entity Interface Function Ventilation, Daylighting, Drainage, etc Outdoor Activities, Space Definition, etc Relationship with Single Building Subordinate to Single Building Not Subordinate to Single Building Relationship with Architectural Groups not Organize Construction Groups Organization Building Group residences. In the large-scale north–south transition 4. Scale of TianJing zone between the Yellow River and the Yangtze 4.1. Spatial rules River, the cultures of the Central Plains and the Southern Civilization collide, which is also reflected in The number and types of TianJing in traditional the blending and mixing of the two classic forms Chinese dwellings are extremely rich. There are as (Figure 20). many as 37 TianJing in one group of JiangNan JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 13 Figure 20. Geographical distribution maps of TianJing and courtyard architecture types. dwellings in the book Yao ChengZu Drawings in ends at the boundary wall, and its depth is half that of YingZaoFaYuan assembled by Chen CongZhou the room. The TianJing of a multistory building is the Chinese traditional garden master (Chen 1979). In same as that of the hall. If the TianJing is between two one picture, in front of the house is a large TianJing halls, the depth is based on the main hall behind. In used as a courtyard outside (Figure 21). In the houses, architecture cases, the TianJing’s depth often slightly half of the TianJing is built on both sides to improve differs from that of the hall due to the land conditions indoor lighting conditions, which is called “tiger eye and use requirements. Generally, the TianJing is smal- TianJing”. There is also a port in the center of the pool ler than the hall, and the difference is mainly two, four, in the TianJing, surrounded by drainage ditches, called six, and eight Chi to one Zhang (ten Chi), usually an “earth shaped TianJing”. There are also more slender even number. TianJing whose scales are narrow due to limitations on The width of the TianJing is also restricted by the land use, vividly called “eyebrow TianJing”. size of the hall. YingZaoFaYuan stipulates that the The types of TianJing in other regions are more com- width of the main room in the hall should be double plex. For example, there are “dry TianJing” and “wet the width of the secondary room. If a house has five TianJing” in JiAn, Jiangxi Province, which are divided rooms, the side room can be the same as the secondary according to whether they receive rain directly. Some room (Yao 1986). Through analyzing Yao ChengZu TianJing become a very narrow gap, which is called the Drawings in YingZaoFaYuan (Table 2), we can deter- “Door of Sky” in FuZhou. This narrow TianJing changes to mine that the width of TianJing is generally equal to a skylight in some buildings, whose function of receiving that of the three bays, the main hall minus the depth of rainwater has disappeared so that they retain only the the wing rooms and corridors on both sides, or the function of receiving daylight. In LiChuan, there is also an width plus the width of the left and right rooms based open and closed TianJing with guide logs and movable on the main room. lattice sheds. In the southeast of Hubei Province, there is The shape of the TianJing has the proportions of a Tian Dou type with pyramids on the top of TianJing, a rectangle in terms of its depth-to-width ratio. A folk which is called the “Dou Ting” (Funnel-Shaped Hall) by FengShui book named LiQiTuShuo (Planning Qi local artisans. The following takes TianJing in front of the Diagram Theory) states that the shape of the TianJing main hall as an example to analyze the rules for scale is square, not too long and narrow, like a single oar. The determination and the regional differences in JiangNan width-to-length ratio of the single paddle in folk row- region. ing is approximately 1:5 ~ 1:4. In traditional JiangNan The book YingZaoFaYuan describes the construc- dwellings, there are few such narrow TianJings, except tion methods of SuZhou style dwellings in detail, for the eyebrow TianJing type. Through statistical ana- including a chapter named “Proportion of TianJing”, lysis and conversion of surveying and mapping data, which describes the rules for determining its scale. The the scale of traditional dwellings in different regions size of the TianJing depends on the size of the hall, has been restored. The depth-to-width ratio of the while the width is the same as the bay of the hall or the front TianJing hall in JiangNan region is mostly con- main room minus the depth of the wing rooms. There centrated in the range of 1:3 ~ 1:1. Another FengShui is a formula in YingZaoFaYuan that specifies the book YangZhai JingZhuan (Mansion Classics) states dimensions of TianJing (Yao 1986). that all houses, both inner and outer halls, take The depth of the TianJing in the front of the hall TianJing as the place of fame and wealth. If the width depends on the depth of the room. The back TianJing of TianJing is 1 Zhang, a depth of 7 or 5 Chi is It is like a funnel in the sky. 14 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Figure 21. Plane figure I of Yao ChengZu drawings in YingZaoFaYuan (Chen 1979). appropriate. It is reasonable to be as deep as 6 or 7 Cun TianJing. At present, the JiangNan region is usually to keep it clean. This aspect ratio of 1:2 ~ 2:3 occurs divided into the large JiangNan and small JiangNan. frequently. However, in JiangNan region, the depth-to- In a general sense, large JiangNan includes the areas width ratio of many dwellings exceeds this range. In south central to the middle and lower reaches of the addition, the height from the cornice of TianJing to the Yangtze River, namely, southern JiangSu, ShangHai, ground is greater than the plane scale, forming ZheJiang, southern AnHui and northern JiangXi pro- a vertical bucket shape similar to a well. vinces. In a narrow sense, JiangNan approximately comprises southern JiangSu to northern ZheJiang. The study samples were taken from a relatively 4.2. Scale and ratio large region for analysis. Considering the continua- tion of traditional culture, this research selects typical Although TianJing-style dwellings share the same examples well preserved in JiangNan region and that design principles, they show various architectural can represent the characteristics of the region for the forms. This paper seeks to identify the from from scale analysis. the scale, shape, proportion and “Over White” of JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 15 Table 2. TianJing scale statistics from the drawings in YingZaoFaYuan (Chen 1979). Location of TianJing Depth of Hall Depth of TianJing D-value Remarks Column Plane Figure I TianJing on the Main Axis Sedan Chair Hall(3 Bay Hall) 3 Zhang 2 Zhang 4 Chi 6 Chi TianJing is 3 bays wide. The Main Hall(3 Bay Hall) 4 Zhang 2 Chi 3 Zhang 4 Chi 8 Chi TianJing is 3 bays wide. Multi-Storied Building(7 Bay Hall) 4 Zhang 4 Zhang 0 TianJing is 3 bays wide. Multi-Storied Building(7 Bay Hall) 4 Zhang 4 Zhang 0 TianJing is 3 bays wide. TianJing on the Secondary Axis Guest Room(4 Bay Room) 2 Zhang 2 Chi 1 Zhang 8 Chi 2 Chi TianJing is 4 bays wide. Mandarin Duck Hall(3 Bay Hall) 3 Zhang 4 Chi 2 Zhang 4 Chi 1 Zhang TianJing is 3 bays wide. Accounting Room(4 Bay Room) 2 Zhang 2 Chi 1 Zhang 8 Chi 4 Chi TianJing is 4 bays wide. Library Building(3 Bay Room) 3 Zhang 2 Zhang 4 Chi 6 Chi TianJing is 3 bays wide. Plane Figure II Bungalow(3 Bay Room) 3 Zhang 6 Chi 2 Zhang 6 Chi 1 Zhang Plane Figure III Multi-Storied Hall 4 Zhang 2 Chi 3 Zhang 4 Chi 8 Chi Multi-Storied Hall for Women 4 Zhang 2 Chi 3 Zhang 8 Chi 4 Chi Kitchen room(3 Bay Room) 2 Zhang 8 Chi 2 Zhang 6 Chi 2 Chi TianJing is 3 bays wide. Notes: 1 Zhang = 10 Chi = 100 Cun = 1000 Fen. 1 Chi is 27.5 cm in local traditional building activities. First, we collect the data of typical TianJing scales in the proportion is close to DongYang. The depth-to- different regions for statistics and restore the TianJing width ratio in JiangXi is concentrated and the narrow- scales according to the local dimension standards used est, with small regional differences. in construction in the regions (Table 3 and Figure 22). In GuangDong and FuJian, the design method of Then, the TianJing scale used for building design at Over-White to control the scale of TianJing is that time, as well as the depth-to-width ratio and a general requirement in residential construction. common size range in various regions, are obtained In the traditional construction of JiangNan region, (Table 4). From this, we can identify obvious differ - the practice of Over-White is rare. However, some ences in the shapes and proportions of TianJing in JiangNan dwellings have unconsciously created the different regions. Through the line-of-sight analysis of effect of Over-White. For example, our analysis the dwelling sections, it is concluded that the Over- reveals a few Over-White phenomena in White of TianJing is related to the change in its scale in DongYang, FuZhou and NanChang. In Ji’An, different regions. The statistical results are shown in JiangXi province, due to the long depth of the Table 5. room, TianJing have gradually evolved into A book of Confucian Classics, LunHeng, it states: the TianMen (Door of Sky) and TianYan (Eye of Sky), area of house is within a square Zhang. This means that with almost no Over-White. In HuiZhou, southern the scale of the TianJing is restricted by the Zhang JiangSu, western ZheJiang and other places, it is House Rule. However, although JiangNan TianJing are common to see multistory buildings surrounded smaller than the courtyards in the north, they are not by high walls. Although the TianJing size is similar, completely limited by the rule, according to the statis- due to the overall increase in the roof height, they tical sources of surveying data. TianJing, in southern cannot achieve Over-White (Figure 24). JiangSu, ShangHai and ZheJiang, is generally large in Conversations with local artisans suggest that scale, while in other regions, they are mostly within an there is no special Over-White practice in the con- area of one Zhang. Through data analysis, the numer- struction of dwellings in JiangNan region. ical characteristic distribution of the depth-to-width The above data reveal the similarities or differences ratio of TianJing in JiangNan region is obtained among various TianJing in different regions of (Figure 23). As shown in the figure, in FuZhou, JiangNan.The scales of TianJing in JiangXi Province HuiZhou and DongYang, the geographically close cen- are relatively consistent. HuiZhou is different from tral areas of the JiangNan region, the ratios are the ChiZhou; both are in AnHui province but are close to smallest, ranging from 1:3 to 2:3, and the shape is DongYang in ZheJiang. Although ChiZhou is located somewhat narrow and long. Meanwhile, the ratio of on the South Bank of the Yangtze River, in the Ming the peripheral areas is large, and the TianJing scale Dynasty, it was subordinate to AnQing Prefecture tends to be square, in which the scale of the NingBo north of the river, which borders HuiZhou. Eastern and ShaoXing area is similar to that of WenZhou and ZheJiang is relatively unified but is clearly different the same as that of HangZhou and SuZhou. The scale from western ZheJiang. It has been divided into East span of TianJing in HangZhou covers the proportion in and West administrative regions since ancient times. the three surrounding regions, and the forms are rela- From SuZhou to HangZhou, TianJing is consistent in tively diverse. In HuiZhou and ChiZhou, AnHui pro- scale, which is the standard range of water towns in vince, the shapes of TianJing significantly differ, and JiangNan. However, HangZhou is relatively unique. 16 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Table 3. List of construction rulers found in the field investigation of JiangNan region (Unit: cm). Location Research Ruler No. Province City Town Village Object Value Data Sources Remarks 1 ShangHai / / / / 28.3 / Cheng (1991) 2 / / / 28.3 / Shanghai Museum 3 QingPu / / 28.2* Interview speculation Investigation 2013.10 4 SongJiang FengJing / 28.2* Interview speculation Investigation 2014.3 5 JinShan ZhangYan Li □□ 28.3 Physical measurement Investigation 2013.5 6 JiangSu SuZhou WuZhong GuangFu / 27.5 Physical measurement Investigation 2014.5 7 WuJiang ZhenZe / 27.5* Interview speculation Investigation 2015.2 8 / / / 27.5 / Cheng (1991) 9 YangZhou JiangDu / Gong 27.5* Interview speculation Investigation 2016.6 DaRong 10 WuXi HuiShan / / 27.5 Physical measurement Investigation 2010.10 NanJing / / / 27.5 / Investigation 2016.7 11 ZheJiang HangZhou / / / 27.8 / Cheng (1991) 12 NingBo YinZhou HanLing □□ 27.8* Memory speculation Investigation 2009.4 13 NingHai QianTong □□ 27.8 Physical measurement Ditto 14 Tong 28.0 Memory speculation Ditto YueShan 15 JinHua DongYang LuZhai □□ 28.0 Physical measurement Dongyang Ancient Architecture Company 16 WuYi GuoXia Luo 27.8 1 meter is 3.6 Chi. Investigation 2009.4 LiangHua 17 LanXi ChunAn □□ 27.8 Physical measurement Investigation 2014.8 18 QuZhou ChangShan / / 30.7* Memory speculation Ditto 19 LiShui SongYang ShiCang Que 27.8* Memory speculation Investigation 2015.11 LongXing 20 TaiZhou LinHai TaoZhu Yang □□ 27.8 1 meter is 3.6 Chi. Investigation 2014.3 21 / / / 33.6 / Ditto 22 WenZhou TaiShun CheTou Chen YanLou 27.8 Physical measurement Investigation 2009.11 23 TaDiTou □□ 30.0 Now 8 Fen longer than 1 old Chi. Ditto 24 BaiFuYan Zhou 27.8 / Ditto JianZhong 25 CangNan QiaoDun Ding 27.0* Memory speculation Investigation 2014.3 ZhenXing 26 WanYao Zhu □□ 27.0 Physical measurement Ditto 27 AnHui ChiZhou GuiChi YuanSi □□□ 35.5 Physical measurement Investigation 2010.5 28 ShiTai GuNiuJiang □□□ 35.5 Physical measurement Ditto 29 XuanCheng JingXian ZhaJi Yan KaiLong 34.4 1 old Chi is 3 Fen longer than the Ditto new. 30 AnQing / / 33.9 / / 31 WuHu / / Wu □ Min 34.6* Memory speculation Investigation 2016.10 32 HuangShan QiMen / / 34.6 / / 33 TunXi / / 35.5* Memory speculation Investigation 2010.5 34 JiangXi NanChang AnYi ShiBi Huang 35.3* Old 5 Chi is 5 Chi 3 Cun in new. Investigation 2010.1 JiaHuang 35 Huang □□ 34.0* Old 1 Chi is 2 Fen longer than Ditto a new one 36 JiAn QingYuan MeiBei Liang LiHui 35.0 Physical measurement Investigation 2009.10 37 JiShui YanFang □□ 35.0* Memory speculation Ditto 38 WuGang Huang 34.9 Physical measurement Ditto YongLong 39 JiZhou ShenZhuang Zeng □□ 35.0 Physical measurement Ditto 40 YiChun YuanZhou HuTian Zeng ZhaoXi 35.0 Physical measurement Ditto 41 GaoAn JiaJiaCun Chen ZuHe 34.4 The new ruler 3.1 Chi is the old 3 Ditto Chi. 42 XinJie □□ 34.3 Physical measurement Ditto 43 / □□□ 36.7 / Ditto 44 Dong 36.6 Old ruler 1 Chi is 1 Cun longer Ditto FuZhen than new. (Continued) JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 17 Table 3. (Continued). Location Research Ruler No. Province City Town Village Object Value Data Sources Remarks 45 FuZhou LiChuan HouCun Zheng 35.5 Physical measurement Investigation 2012.12 YongXing 46 ChengGuan □□□ 36.6 Old ruler 1 Chi is 1 Cun longer Investigation 2009.10 than new. 47 ZhangXi Yu 34.0 Physical measurement Investigation 2014.7 NianSheng 48 LongAn Min JianGen 33.3 Consistent with the current ruler Ditto 49 ZhongTian Zuo JiCheng 33.3 Consistent with the current ruler Ditto 50 XunKou Zheng 30.0 1 Chi old ruler is 1 Cun shorter Ditto ChangGon than new. 51 JinXi ShuangTang Wu KangYu 36.6 1 Chi old ruler is 1 Cun longer Ditto than new. 52 YiHuang ShenKou Zhou ShiHui 34.0 The old 5 Chi is new 5 Chi 1 Cun. Investigation 2009.10 53 TangYin □□□ 36.6 1 Chi old ruler is 1 Cun longer Ditto than new. 54 NanCheng LuDong He QingJiang 35.5∼36.2 The old ruler is about 7–9 Fen Ditto longer than the new. 55 GanZhou / / / 33.0 / / 56 RuiJin / / 36.4 / / 57 ShangRao WuYuan WangKou Yu PanXing 35.0 Physical measurement Investigation 2009.10 58 XiangZhen 34.5 Physical measurement Ditto Home Notes: Those marked with * are calculated according to the literature or oral data. The rest are derived from physical measurement, data conversion or citation. This lists only the currently credible information, with all other information temporarily excluded. The modern city ruler unit Chi is 33.3 cm/Chi. Due to its proximity to NingBo and ShaoXing, its sufficient sunshine. In the south, the height angle is TianJing scale is also similar to the characteristics of too large in summer, so sunshade is needed. To pre- those in NingShao. vent too much sunlight, the space between houses must be reduced. From east to west, the terrain changes from low to high, and the courtyard space 4.3. Shape and adaptability in traditional dwellings also changes from square to rectangular. The distribution of various types of dwellings has The depth-to-width ratio of the courtyard in JiLin is obvious regional characteristics and is affected by geo- approximately 2:1, that in Beijing is approximately 1:1, graphical conditions and the social environment. The that in Shanxi is 2:1, and that in Shaanxi exceeds 3:1 local architectural forms far from the core area show (Figure 25). A previous study speculated that the main more significant formal changes. Many regions also reason for this change is the northwest wind, which is have characteristics of two or more types, becoming the dominant wind direction in northern China. multitype interactive influence zones. This phenom- Generally, there are strong winds and sandstorms in enon is influenced by population migration and cul- the western region with a higher altitude, and the tural exchange. The convenience of transportation and dwellings are narrow and long from north to south, the condition of the environment also determine the which is conducive to diversion of wind and sand. degree of interaction of different types. According to the survey of TianJing dwellings in the Previous research on northern courtyards found south, the scale ratio of TianJing also varies by region. that the size of the yards gradually decreases with Taking the changes of the TianJing scale in JiangNan as climate change from north to south and from cold an example, the scale in southern JiangSu, ShangHai to hot. For example, the average ratios of yard width and ZheJiang is generally larger, while that in HuiZhou to house height in JiLin, BeiJing, JiangSu and FuJian and JiangXi is limited by the Zhang House Rule, and are 15:3, 10:3, 5:3, and 6:5, respectively. In the above the width is usually less than one Zhang. The shape of areas, the noonday solar altitude angles of the sum- TianJing gradually changes from rectangular to square mer solstice are 68°, 73°, 82°, 87°, and the angles of the from west to east, forming a quadrate yard instead of winter solstice are 22°, 27°, 36°, 41°. From the perspec- a narrow yard. The depth-to-width ratio of TianJing in tive of architectural physics, northern China needs JiangXi is approximately 2:5, that in HuiZhou is 1:2, and sunshine in winter. The solar angle is low, and there that in SuZhou tends to be 1:1, as shown in the figure must be enough space between houses to ensure In this table, survey data from the research group were taken from the project group supported by the science foundation in Tongji University. Liu (2019); College of Architecture and Urban Planning TongJi University (2014) 18 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Figure 22. Investigation and distribution map of construction rulers in JiangNan region. (Figure 26). The appearances of TianJing dwellings vary after JiangNan, first appeared. At that time, JiangNan with traditional construction systems in different Dao covered most areas south of the middle and lower regions, and the corresponding scale characteristics reaches of the Yangtze River, including JingZhou adapt to local geographical conditions according to (southeastern HuBei, HuNan and GuiZhou) and specific rules. YangZhou (JiangXi, southern AnHui, FuJian, southern JiangSu, ShangHai and ZheJiang). Because of its broad jurisdiction, JiangNan Dao was divided into East JiangNan Dao, West JiangNan Dao and QianZhong 5. Implication of regionality Dao in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. GuiZhou, western Through the above analysis, it can be concluded that HuBei and western HuNan under the jurisdiction of the distribution of TianJing types differs from the QianZhong Dao withdrew from JiangNan area. In the existing administrative divisions but is relatively Middle Tang Dynasty, East JiangNan Dao was divided close to historical administrative divisions. The con- into four Daos: western ZheJiang, eastern ZheJiang, cept of JiangNan region can be traced back to the southern AnHui and FuJian. West JiangNan mainly pre-Qin period. From the pre-Qin Dynasty to the Sui included JiangXi, eastern HuBei and HuNan. In this Dynasty, the Central Plains region was always the regard, the scope of the historical JiangNan region geographical center of China. JiangNan often refers was somewhat consistent with the vast JiangNan defi - to the area south of the Yangtze River, including nition today. In the Song Dynasty, the political and HuBei, HuNan and JiangXi provinces, which is the cultural center began to move southward. The scope of ancient JingZhou. JiangNan region include JiangNan West Dao (most of The administrative districts of the Tang Dynasty JiangXi and southeast HuBei), JiangNan East Dao (one were divided into the three levels of Dao, Fu, Xian, Fu: JiangNing; seven Zhou: Xuan, Hui, Jiang, Chi, Rao, while the administrative unit JiangNan Dao, named Xin and TaiPing; two Jun: NanKang and GuangDe), East JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 19 Table 4. Statistical table of TianJing scale data of some dwellings in JiangNan region. TianJing Scale (measurement mm/ Restore size Traditional Unit) Building TianJing Ratio (D: No. Location Name Location Depth (D) Width (W) W) Information Sources 1 ZhenZe JingGui Hall / 3425 5250 2:3 Surveying, Department of Architecture, Tongji SuZhou 1Zhang 2Chi 1Zhang 9Chi University JiangSu 5Cun 2 JiuShi Hall Forward 3690 4720 4:5 Ditto 1Zhang 3Chi 1Zhang 7Chi 4Cun 2Cun Backward 3640 3740 1:1 1Zhang 3Chi 1Zhang 3Chi 2Cun 6Cun 3 NingQing Forward 5035 4640 5:4 Ditto Hall 1Zhang 8Chi 1Zhang 6Chi Backward 3930 4820 2:3 1Zhang 2Chi 1Zhang 7Chi 3Cun 5Cun 4 NingRui Hall / 4110 5140 3:4 Ditto 1Zhang 4Chi 1Zhang 8Chi 5Cun 7Cun 5 XiaoQi No.11 House Forward 1350 3085 1:2 Surveying, Department of Architecture, Southeast HuiZhou 3Chi 9Cun 8Chi 8Cun University, 1999 6 AnHui DaFu Di Forward 2985 4905 2:3 8Chi 5Cun 1Zhang 4Chi 7 HanLing DaFu Di First Entrance 6510 9290 2:3 Surveying by the Research Group NingBo 2Zhang 3Chi 3Zhang 3Chi ZheJiang 4Cun 4Cun Second 7590 11,220 2:3 Entrance 2Zhang 7Chi 4Zhang 3Cun 3Cun Third Entrance 8625 13,200 2:3 3Zhang 1Chi 4Zhang 7Chi 5Cun 8 AnFang / 8640 11,440 3:4 Ditto 3Zhang 1Chi 4Zhang 2Chi 9 CaiFang / 11,555 11,440 1:1 Ditto 4Zhang 1Chi 4Zhang 1Chi 6Cun 2Cun 10 DongYang Qian Familly / 8560 14,235 3:5 Wang (2008) ZheJiang 3Zhang 5Zhang 1Chi 11 LiuKeng MingShan First Entrance 1200 4710 1:4 Surveying by the Research Group FuZhou Hall 3Chi 3Cun 1Zhang 2Chi JiangXi 8Cun Second 960 3340 1:4 Entrance 2Chi 6Cun 9Chi 1Cun 12 ZiShen Hall Forward 1975 3450 3:5 Ditto 5Chi 4Cun 9Chi 4Cun Backward 800 3165 1:4 2Chi 2Cun 8Chi 6Cun 13 Liang / 2240 5080 2:5 Ditto Temple 6Chi 1Cun 1Zhang 3Chi 8Cun 14 TangYin Wu House First Entrance 1990 5925 1:3 Ditto FuZhou 5Chi 4Cun 1Zhang 6Chi JiangXi 2Cun Second 1710 5160 1:3 Entrance 4Chi 6Cun 1Zhang 4Chi 5Fen 5Fen 15 No.11 House / 1750 5540 1:3 Ditto 4Chi 7Cun 1Zhang 5Chi 5Fen 1Cun 16 YanFang DaFu Di First Entrance 2210 3520 2:3 Ditto JiAn 6Chi 3Cun 1Zhang JiangXi Second 1385 2160 2:3 Entrance 3Chi 9Cun 6Chi 2Cun 5Fen Side Hall 1100 2800 2:5 TianJing 3Chi 1Cun 8Chi 5Fen 17 SiMa Di / 1685 4380 2:5 Ditto 4Chi 8Cun 1Zhang 2Chi 5Cun 18 Twenty / 1930 3270 3:5 Ditto House 5Chi 5Cun 9Chi 3Cun 5Fen 20 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Table 5. Statistical table of TianJing scale situation in JiangNan region. TianJing TianJing No. Typical TianJing Dwelling Ratio (D:W) Scale (D × W) Over-White Condition Remarks 1 SuZhou Dwelling 1:1 2Zhang+×2Zhang+ Rare Over-White 2 HangZhou Dwelling 1:2∼1:1 Wide Range and Span Rare Over-White Various types and large span of TianJing pool bottom 3 HuiZhou Dwelling 1:2 0.5Zhang×1Zhang Rare Over-White 4 ChiZhou Dwelling 4:5 8Chi×1Zhang Rare Over-White 5 NingShao Dwelling 3:4 3Zhang×4Zhang Rare Over-White 6 WenZhou Dwelling 3:4 1.5Zhang×2Zhang Rare Over-White 7 DongYang Dwelling 2:3 2Zhang+×3Zhang+ Occasionally Over- White 8 FuZhou Dwelling 1:3 5Chi×1.5Zhang Occasionally Over- White 9 NanChang Dwelling 2:5 5Chi×1Zhang+ Occasionally Over- White 10 JiAn Dwelling 1:2 5Chi×1Zhang+ Rare Over-White Figure 23. Distribution of the depth-to-width ratio of TianJing in JiangNan region. of ZheJiang Dao (ShaoXing Fu) and West of ZheJiang has been divided into JiangSu province and AnHui Dao (Lin’An Fu). This area is still used today and is province. The regional delimitation and administrative known as the large JiangNan. In the early Yuan unit division for JiangNan region became increasingly Dynasty, the JiangNan region and its north–south blurred (Zhou 2007). expansion areas were divided into the provinces of By using the scope of JiangNan in historical geo- HuGuang, JiangXi, JiangHuai and FuJian. In the Ming graphy to investigate its traditional dwellings, we Dynasty, western ZheJiang was divided into two parts can more clearly discern the relationships among for political reasons. The north was divided into south- different types of local residences in different regions ern ZhiLi (NanJing), and the south was divided into (Figure 27). For example, the TianJing similarity ZheJiang province. In the Qing Dynasty, Southern between SuZhou and HangZhou may be attributed ZhiLi in the Ming Dynasty was changed to the to the connecting passage of ancient West ZheJiang JiangNan province, which also included northern Dao, from SuZhou to HangZhou with TaiHu Lake as HuaiAn and JiangSu. Since then, JiangNan province the center. NingBo and ShaoXing (formerly known as In view of the limited cases, scale statistics are approximations after averaging the limited data. The actual size will deviate slightly by time and place. JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 21 Figure 24. Analysis of TianJing over-white in JiangNan region. Figure 25. variation rule of the depth-to-width ratio of courtyards in North China. Figure 26. Variation rule of the depth-to-width ratio of TianJing in JiangNan region. YueZhou), DongYang (formerly known as WuZhou) The four geographical regions in the Southern and WenZhou, all of which belong to the East Song Dynasty, East and West JiangNan and ZheJiang Dao, have similar scales. In ancient times, ZheJiang Dao, converging at HuaiYu Mountain and administrative divisions were mainly based on the XianXiaLing Mountain, were separated by moun- locations of mountains and rivers. Natural and geo- tains, but their terrain was flat when extended out- graphical conditions created channels for and obsta- ward. The dimensions of TianJing vary greatly cles to social and cultural exchanges in various among regions, and their scale and shape ratio in regions. mountainous and plain areas differs. However, the 22 C. LIU AND H. TIAN Figure 27. Schematic diagram of the TianJing scale distribution in JiangNan region based on the historical map of the Southern song dynasty. TianJing scales are close to the same in adjacent architecture (Zhang 2002). Courtyards, as a form of mountain dwellings. Furthermore, although the space, are a universal phenomenon worldwide. From scales of various types of dwellings in the core Vitruvius’s Ten Books on Architecture to modernism and region are relatively similar, they still have indepen- postmodernism, there are numerous architectural the- dent characteristics. In the small JiangNan Region, ories and in-depth discussions of courtyard space. from NanJing and SuZhou to HangZhou and within However, TianJing, as a common form of yard in south- the TaiHu Lake Basin, the economy and culture ern China, is a unique feature of Chinese architecture have been closely linked since ancient times, and that does not exist abroad. As architecture is the carrier its architectural form and scale also have similar of residential culture, regional differences have fre- characteristics that significantly differ from those of quently been mentioned, but in-depth discussion of other regions. These differences, beyond current TianJing is relatively rare. Especially for the TianJing administrative districts, coincide with historical divi- space prototype and scale standard, a summary of sions influenced by geographical factors. technical rules and rational analysis of data are lacking. This paper takes only the scale of TianJing as an ele- ment of architectural cultural geography and analyzes 6. Conclusion traditional dwellings in various regions in an experi- mental discussion of the quantitative research of con- In traditional Chinese dwellings, courtyards and ventional architecture. TianJing are the essence of ancient Chinese JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 23 The statistical analysis of the data shows that in east Residences in Traditional Towns.” National Building Standard Design Atlas, No. 11SJ937-1. China Planning and west JiangNan and ZheJiang historically, from the Press. plains to the hills to the mountainous areas, the abso- Dönmez, M. 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Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering
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Published: Sep 3, 2023
Keywords: Vernacular residences; TianJing; scale and ratio; regionality; JiangNan region
