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The role of traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem services management: the case of four rural communities in Northern Ghana

The role of traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem services management: the case of four... INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT, 2016 VOL. 12, NOS. 1–2, 24–38 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2015.1124454 Special Issue: Traditional knowledge for sustainable forest management and provision of ecosystem services The role of traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem services management: the case of four rural communities in Northern Ghana a b c b a,b Yaw Agyeman Boafo , Osamu Saito , Sadahisa Kato , Chiho Kamiyama , Kazuhiko Takeuchi and Miri Nakahara Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S), The University of Tokyo Institute for Advanced Study (UTIAS), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), Tokyo, Japan; c d International Strategy and Affairs Coordinator, Office of International Strategy, Ibaraki University, Ibaraki, Japan; UNDP Representation Office in Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 29 December 2014 This study combines qualitative and quantitative research to examine perceptions held by Accepted 20 November 2015 rural households in Northern Ghana regarding the value of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) in the management of ecosystem services. Key informant interviews (n = 14), household EDITED BY questionnaire surveys (n = 195), field observations, and dissemination meetings were Leni Camacho employed to collect data. Results suggest the regular use of different but interrelated forms KEYWORDS of TEK, i.e. taboos and totems, customs and rituals, rules and regulations, and traditional Awareness and compliance; protected areas, to manage ecosystem services through existing sociocultural mechanisms. ecosystem services; However, household awareness of TEK did not equate with compliance. A wide discrepancy Northern Ghana; in views on TEK was observed across surveyed households. A generalized linear model (GLM) management; traditional regression analysis suggests age to be the most significant determinant of TEK awareness and ecological knowledge compliance. Compared with mature and younger adults, the elderly appear more likely to be aware of and comply with characterized TEK systems. Notwithstanding these findings, the use of traditional protected areas as a form of TEK appears to be highly valued by the majority of survey participants. Demand-led research aimed at examining TEK’s role in the face of changing socioeconomic and environmental conditions can contribute to the formulation and implementation of policy-relevant strategies. created opportunities for the inclusion of indigenous 1. Introduction and local communities and their TEK systems in Against the backdrop of unprecedented global degra- ecosystem and biodiversity assessment by making it dation and reduction in biodiversity and ecosystem a key component in its established conceptual frame- services with impacts on human well-being over the work (Diaz et al. 2015). On a local scale, several last 50 years, there is a growing interest in the role of studies over the years have provided empirical evi- traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) practices and dence of past and present successes and challenges systems of local communities in ensuring the sustain- encountered in the application of local TEK in mana- able utilization and management of ecosystems ser- ging and governing natural resources in traditional vices. On a multilateral level, Article 8 (j) of the and complex socio-ecological landscapes, as well as in United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity dealing with changing conditions in different ecosys- explicitly states the need to respect, preserve, and tems (Usher 2000; Agrawal 2001; Elias et al. 2005; Liu maintain knowledge practices of local and indigenous 2006; Nyong et al. 2007; Ranganathan et al. 2008; communities related to biological diversity (United Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2010; Takeuchi 2010; Nations 1992). The Intergovernmental Panel on Molnar 2012; Parrotta & Trosper 2012). Climate Change (IPCC), since its establishment in Often regarded as a variant of indigenous knowl- 1988, has highlighted the role that TEK can play in edge, TEK broadly refers to any form of knowledge addressing the negative effects of global climate unique or peculiar to a particular society or culture change and variability. The Millennium Ecosystem that relates to their immediate environment. In addi- Assessment (MA) report, published in 2005, also tion to the term TEK that is adopted in this study, identified TEK as relevant in addressing the current other terms commonly used in the literature include unsustainable utilization of different categories of indigenous local knowledge (ILK), traditional knowl- ecosystem services (MA 2005). More recently, the edge (TK), traditional forest knowledge (TFK), local Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on ecological knowledge (LEK), and indigenous ecological Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) has knowledge (IEK). Despite these variations in CONTACT Yaw Agyeman Baofo yaboafo@yahoo.co.uk © 2015 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 25 management are currently perceived and applied terminology, the general consensus remains that such in the face of increasing threat to biodiversity and knowledge systems have evolved over many years and are retained by local communities outside the formal ecosystem services across scale (TEEB 2010). The objective of this study is to enhance under- or Western scientific domains. In the context of this standing of TEK’s role in the management and gov- research, Berkes’ definition of TEK as ‘acumulative body of knowledge and beliefs handed down through ernance of ecosystem services by conducting qualitative generations by cultural transmission, about the rela- and quantitative assessments of house- tionship of living beings (including humans) with one holds’ perception regarding the use and relevance of another and with their environment’ (Berkes 1993,p. community TEK practices and systems. Toward this 3) is more encompassing and applicable to local-scale end, the study formulated and analyzed responses to considerations. A deeper analysis of Berkes’ definition four principal questions: reveals that TEK systems are constantly evolving, con- (1) What are the existing forms of TEK for mana- trary to some widely held assumptions that TEK is ging ecosystem services across the four study static and archaic, a view that has been rightly refuted sites? by many empirical studies (Agrawal 1995;Berkes et al. (2) To what extent is awareness and compliance of 2000;Allison &Badjeck 2004;Eyssartier et al. 2011; existing TEK different across communities? Gómez-Baggethun & Reyes-García 2013). (3) Which socio-demographic variables have the Current renewed interest in the role of TEK there- most influence on awareness and compliance fore marks a welcome shift from Western approaches with TEK? and to ecosystem services management and governance, (4) How do views on the role of TEK in ecosystem which in most cases regard local communities and management vary across different age groups? their knowledge systems as detrimental to the func- Section 2 of this paper provides some relevant geogra- tioning of ecosystems (Fairhead & Leach 1998; phical and socioeconomic information on the study DeGeorges & Reilly 2008). Consequently, many have area, the techniques employed in collecting and analyz- argued that the extensive utilization of Western knowl- ing data, as well as some study limitations. Section 3 edge systems in the management of ecosystem services focuses on the study results, which are categorized in is responsible for relegating TEK to the background accordance with the principal research questions iden- and is thus a major reason for the current decline of tified above. Section 4 is devoted to the discussion of the TEK across socioecological regions (Kingsbury 2001; research outcomes, while Section 5 examines the prac- Turner & Turner 2008;Berkes 2012). tical and theoretical policy implications of this study. In many rural areas of Ghana, vast amounts of The concluding Section 6 provides insights into the role TEK are known to exist and to be applied through of TEK in managing ecosystem services by summariz- well-established social and cultural mechanisms in ing key findings and examining the way forward. the form of local beliefs, values, rituals, customs, and taboos for managing natural resources (Dorm- Adzorbu et al. 1991; Ntiamoa-Baidu 1995;Abayie- 2. Methodology Boateng 1998; Appiah-Opoku & Hyma 1999). A 2.1. Study area number of studies have reported a general and increasing decline in the local communities’ appli- Northern Ghana comprises three administratively cation of these valuable knowledge systems and autonomous regions, namely the Northern, Upper practices in managing local ecosystems (Millar West, and Upper East, which together cover a land 2003;Hens 2006; Gyampoh et al. 2008). area of approximately 97,702 km (41%) of Ghana’s Communities in recent decades have had to con- total land mass (Figure 1). Their characterization is tend with the many challenges associated with largely defined by their peculiar semi-arid climatic and rapidly changing socioeconomic conditions. These physical conditions, high poverty levels ranging from challenges are further aggravated by the effects of 68% to 88% across regions attributed to many years of climate change and variability, with prolonged social, political, and economic exclusion (Whitehead drought and flooding being experienced (Gyasi 2006; Songsore 2011;World Bank 2011), and extreme 2002;van De Geest 2004;Acheampong etal. vulnerability to climate change compared with the 2014). Such rapidly changing socioeconomic and other parts of Ghana (Dietz et al. 2004; Acheampong environmental conditions may compel communities et al. 2014). The majority of the population here is and households to abandon or disregard local TEKs rural (Northern: 69.7%, Upper West: 79.5%, and that have long been applied in regulating and con- Upper East: 76.4%) meaning that there is high reliance trolling ecosystem services for livelihood suste- on the local ecosystem to meet livelihood needs (Boafo nance. In the face of these changes, it has become et al. 2014). Rain-fed agriculture, which is a blend of necessary to examine how rural communities’ TEK crop farming and livestock raising, is undertaken by knowledge systems relating to ecosystem services the majority of the population in this area 26 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. Figure 1. Map showing case study communities in relation to the study area. (approximately 78%) (Ghana Statistical Service 2013). Table 1. Geographic location, land area, and estimated Crop-farming systems are dominantly traditional and population of study sites. can involve the use of hoes, organic fertilizer, and Estimated Study land area Estimated burning, although gradual modification is being wit- Region District community Location (km ) population nessed across the region. Northern Tolon Yoggu 9°28ʹ N, 8.20 3,751 In this semi-arid ecosystem, the mean annual tem- 1°5ʹ W Kpalgun 9°30′ N, 1.74 1,573 perature is approximately 28°C, with daily temperatures 1°4ʹ W ranging from evening lows of approximately 15°C to Upper Wa Baleufili 9°53ʹ N, 21.52 802 West West 2°41ʹ W daytime highs of 40°C. Average annual rainfall is Bankpama 9°54′ N, 11.33 799 between 800 and 1100 mm. Relative humidity varies 2°43ʹ W widely, averaging approximately 54% (Ghana Meteorological Agency 2015). Vegetation is dominated primary and secondary livelihood needs; and (3) dif- by herbaceous grasses, shrubs, and drought-resistant ferent levels of proneness to perennial drought and trees such as Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa, flooding events. Yoggu and Kpalgun lie on a relative and Ceiba pentandra. Owing to the sparse ground flat and level landscape. Compared to Baluefili and cover most months of the year, evapotranspiration is Bankpama communities, Yoggu and Kpalgun are very high. Drought and seasonal food shortages are considered to be drought prone (Antwi et al. 2014). common. In response, seasonal migration of youthful Baleufili and Bankpama, on the other hand, are population especially females to urban centers in south- located on a fairly uneven elevation and undulating ern Ghana to work as porters is widely undertaken landscape. Both communities are impacted signifi- (Awumbila & Ardayfio-Schandorf 2008). cantly by the Black Volta River, which, along with For the purpose of this study, four rural commu- its tributaries, drains through the area and leaves nities were selected for the focus of an in-depth communities’ resources, especially farmlands, flooded survey. These communities include Yoggu and during the short rainy season (Boafo et al. 2014). Kpalgun located in the Tolon district of the Northern region and Baleufili and Bankpama in the Wa West district of the Upper West region (Figure 1, 2.2. Methods Table 1). Community in the context of this study refers to a group of local people living and interacting 2.2.1. Field data collection processes and with one another. These four communities were techniques selected because they have (1) common livelihood Survey data were collected between February 2013 activities and share common boundaries; (2) high and September 2014. A mixed-method approach reliance on the local ecosystem for meeting both using quantitative and qualitative techniques was INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 27 NEXUS BETWEEN TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE (TEK) AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN RURAL NORTHERN GHANA Community-entry meeting (I) Participant observations (II) Key informant interviews (n = 14) Identification and characterization of TEK practices and systems for ecosystem services management at community level (III) Household questionnaire surveys (n = 195) (IV) Dissemination meetings (n = 4) and group discussions (n = 12) Figure 2. Field data collection process and techniques. employed in this study to collect data (Creswell informants were selected under the guidance of the 2014). Structured field data collection activities community head (Tongco 2007). A snowball sam- began with community-entry meetings with the com- pling technique was used to identify more informants munity head and other elders as well as with opinion (Bernard 2005). Targeted informants were inter- leaders. Such meetings were used as a medium for the viewed using a semi-structured interview guide study team to explain the research objectives and the between February and March 2013. Overall, 14 infor- expected role of the community and its members. mants across the study communities: Yoggu (n = 5), During such meetings, oral consent was sought Kpalgun (n = 3), Baleufili (n = 4), and Bankpama from community leaders, paving the way for the (n = 2) were interviewed. Informants comprised team to undertake the main field activities: partici- household heads, herbalists, rainmakers, lead farmers, pant observations, key informant interviews, house- and assemblymen (formal government representative hold questionnaire surveys, and dissemination at the community level). To aid informants in the workshops and discussions (Figure 2). identification of TEK practices related to ecosystem services, the study team relied on data from Boafo et al. (2014), whose study in the same study sites 2.2.1.1. Participant observations. Participant obser- inventoried and assessed households’ utilization and vation activities entailed visits to elemental locations management of critical provisioning ecosystem ser- such as water points, sacred groves, shrines, commu- vices (Appendix 1). Several studies (Sinclair & Walker nity woodlots, and fallow lands where TEK is per- 1999; Millar 2003; Tengo et al. 2007; Ormsby & ceived to be applied or observed. Social events and Bhagwat 2010) have investigated the existence and ceremonies, such as marriages, funerals, and child application of TEK in managing natural resources in naming ceremonies, as well as daily and seasonal live- different socio-ecological regions adopting similar lihood activities, including preparation, planting and approaches. Discussions with interviewees centered harvesting crops, food processing, and collection of on (1) the identification of different forms of TEKs wild food and plants, were relevant avenues for iden- that relate to the control, regulation, and overall tifying and assessing TEK forms applied at both com- management of ecosystem services; (2) the spatial munity and household levels. Data were collected in and temporal characteristics of existing TEK prac- the form of field notes and photographs. tices; and (3) the views on the usefulness and chal- lenges associated with TEK application. Interviews 2.2.1.2. Informant interviews. To gain a deeper lasted on average between one and two hours. In understanding and appreciation of TEK as it relates some instances, interviews were interrupted if the to different categories of ecosystem services, key 28 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. informant became exhausted or had to attend to an goal and agenda. Meetings usually lasted one and a half hours. Immediately after each dissemination urgent task. Most of the interviews were recorded and later transcribed. meeting, small group discussions stratified into elderly and mature adults and younger adults were held separately. Discussions often lasted between 30 2.2.1.3. Household questionnaire survey. The quali- and 35 minutes, with an average participation of 11 tative information gathered from the earlier field activities (entry meetings, field observations, infor- individuals. The discussions aided in clarifying con- tentious issues that emerged during the dissemination mant interviews) was used to develop a household meetings. questionnaire instrument. This questionnaire was used to investigate respondents’ knowledge and gen- eral perceptions of existing TEK in managing the 2.2.2. Data analysis local ecosystem. The questionnaire was also used to Qualitative data were analyzed by categorizing the collect information on respondents’ sociodemo- information obtained, which mainly came from graphic and economic characteristics. Face-to-face reflexive and field notes taken during field survey interviews using the questionnaire were carried out activities (Strauss & Corbin 1998). Quantitative data between August and September 2014. Based on the were categorized, numerically coded, and analyzed proven assumption that holders and users of TEK using the IBM Statistical Product and Service knowledge vary across and within households Solutions package (SPSS version 20). Pearson Chi- (Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2010), the selection of square (Χ ) tests of independence were used to deter- respondents for this survey was carried out in differ- mine the significance of associations between catego- ent stages. First, 65 households representing a sample rical (dichotomous and nominal) variable pairs. To size of about 10% of the total households in each of analyze the influence of socio-demographic variables the four study communities were randomly selected on respondents’ awareness of and compliance with [Yoggu (n = 22), Kpalgun (n = 16), Baleufili (n = 14), identified TEK, a simple generalized linear model and Bankpama (n = 13)]. Second, applying a quota (GLM) using the R 3.1.2 software was applied. The sampling technique, three individual respondents in explanatory variables of the model were age group, each sampled household were purposively identified gender, educational status, length of stay, residency and interviewed using their age differences as the status, and religion. The error distribution was benchmark. These three respondents were categor- assumed to be binomial, and the logit link function ized as follows: (1) younger adults (respondents was chosen. The effects of explanatory variables were aged between 18 and 40 years); (2) mature adults evaluated by checking whether the Wald 95% con- (respondents aged between 41 and 60 years); and fidence interval for each coefficient included zero. (3) the elderly (respondents aged 61 years and above). Furthermore, the above age categorizations 2.2.3. Study limitations were undertaken with the assumption that individual In this study, two major limitations that might have respondents in each category had varying levels of influenced the general findings need to be empha- interaction with their biophysical environment on the sized. First, four local dialects namely Dagbani, basis of them being either active or non-active out- Dagaare, Hausa, and Waala were used as the primary migrants. Adopting representative sampling was mechanism for collecting field data and then simul- necessary as it has been shown that knowledge varies taneously translated into English. Under such cir- across individuals and groups (Reyes-Garcia et al. cumstances, it is possible that some relevant 2005). Overall, 195 face-to-face interviews were con- information might have been lost or mistranslated. ducted across the four study communities: Yoggu Second, answers given by respondents regarding their (n = 66), Kpalgun (n = 48), Baleufili (n = 42), and awareness and compliance with TEK systems may be Bankpama (n = 39). The majority of the face-to-face influenced by variables not included in this study. interviews were prearranged; this contributed signifi- cantly to achieving a 100% response rate. 3. Results 2.2.1.4. Dissemination meetings. To identify further 3.1. Identification and characterization of TEK knowledge and validate the already-collected infor- mation on TEK, four findings dissemination and From community entry meetings, field observations, feedback meetings with community members were and key informant interviews, different and interdepen- organized (one per village) in September 2014. The dently used TEK practices for managing different cate- meetings took place at the communal meeting point gories of ecosystem services were identified across the in each study community. The meetings were orga- study communities (Table 2). Informants elaborated nized in collaboration with the community heads that TEK is applied at household and community levels after the research team had informed him of the through sociocultural mechanisms and is enforced by INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 29 Table 2. TEK characterization, category of ecosystem service(s) river. Thus, the West African crocodile (crocodylus targeted, and applicability in studied communities. suchus) is regarded as a totemic (a revered animal) TEK system with Applicability in and must not be killed for food and other purposes. specific examples of Category of community Informants across all study communities emphasized practices, values, and ecosystem services beliefs used by directly targeted by that because the identity of their entire community is households and TEK practice for dependent on the provisions made to them by the No. communities management YG KP BL BK local ecosystem, they deem it obligatory to use the 1 Taboos and totems a No killing of crocodile Provisioning, cultural + + + + TEK passed on to them by their ancestors to sustain- (crocodylus suchus) and ably manage it for future generations. python (pythoniade) b No cutting down of Provisioning + + + + Based on spatio-temporal considerations with shea trees during emphasis on their peculiar functions and character- farming c No entry into sacred Provisioning, cultural + + + + istics, identified TEK practices were characterized shrine to collect fuel into four main systems: (1) TEK in the form of wood taboos and totems, (2) TEK in the form of customs d No fishing on Tuesdays Provisioning −− ++ e No farming on Fridays Provisioning, cultural + + + + and rituals, (3) TEK in the form of rules and regula- 2 Customs and rituals tions, and (4) TEK in the form of traditional pro- a Rainmaking Cultural tected areas. The above characterization was useful in ceremonies b Using parts of shea and Provisioning, cultural + + + + obtaining household views and perceptions of differ- locust bean during ent forms of TEK in the communities. Thus, it is birth, death, and consecration of chiefs important not to regard them as entirely independent c Chasing famine (eating Provisioning, cultural + + −− as they all contribute to performing a common con- new harvest, e.g. yam) d Traditional medicine Provisioning + + + − servation and ecosystem management function. not to be sold to local These different aspects with specific examples are households e Festivals to celebrate Provisioning, cultural + + + − shown in Table 2 and are also described in detail in planting or harvesting the subsequent sections. season 3 Rules and regulations a No harvesting of shea Provisioning + + + + 3.1.1. TEK in the form of taboos and totems nuts on individual This category of TEK enjoins community members to farms without permission partly or completely refrain from collecting and/or b Seek permission from Provisioning, ++ + + using part or whole of certain plant and animal chief to farm land supporting species. In the study, community taboos are consid- d Fire belts around farms Regulating −− ++ in dry season to ered necessary management strategies for reducing prevent bush fires over-harvesting of critical provisioning services as e No hunting of Provisioning + + + + pregnant animals well as restoring endangered animal and plant spe- during open season cies. As hunter informants regularly elaborated, most 4 Traditional protected areas taboos forbid the killing of different types of animals a Sacred groves/forests, Cultural, provisioning + + + + shrines under certain circumstances, such as when they are b Woodlot, water points, Supporting, ++ + + pregnant, nursing young ones, or mating. Taboos also provisioning c Rice valleys Provisioning, −− ++ allow or forbid the collection or use of certain wild regulating plants for specified purposes only. For example, the d River banks Regulating, −− ++ provisioning shea tree (vitellaria paradoxa) has many taboos relat- Source: community entry meetings, participant observations, and key ing to the use of different parts at different times and informant interviews locations (Table 2). When taboos are applied to cer- YG = Yoggu; KP = Kpalgun; BL = Baleufili; BK = Bankpama; + = tain animal species as in the case of the crocodile and applicable in community; and − = not applicable in community African rock python (python sabae) in the study communities, such a species is referred to as a local traditional authorities and institutions. Results totem (Awedora 2002). Taboos may be imposed on from the study indicate high-level similarities in the a daily, weekly, or seasonal basis and may apply to use and application of TEK practices across all four different individuals on the basis of age, gender, or study communities. According to the survey, TEK is status. In the study communities, violating local manifested in daily, seasonal, periodic, and temporal taboos will require the sacrifice of fowls or in some livelihood activities and systems such as farming and cases a zebu (humped cattle) to appease the gods. collection of wild food or plants to the performance of Informants provided the following responses as rituals and ceremonies. examples to illustrate what could happen to any indi- In Kpalgun and Yoggu villages, a folk tale holds vidual who violates taboos: ‘The person, if a woman, that when the original settlers (ancestors) were could become barren’; and ‘You will be bitten by an migrating, a crocodile guided them to cross a big invisible snake’. 30 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. 3.1.4. TEK in the form of traditional protected 3.1.2. TEK in the form of customs and rituals areas Customs and rituals are specific social behaviors, prac- tices, and ceremonies performed on a regular basis by This category of TEK provides the basis for commu- individuals or specialized people within the study com- ities to protect and conserve specific locations of their munities. This category of TEK is performed either local landscape. Within the study communities, these proactively or reactively and is considered a duty to be locations include sacred groves, woodlots, riverbanks, fulfilled to enhance access to critical ecosystem services rice valleys, and fallow land (Millar 2004). These areas or promote the land’s productivity. Examples in the are protected by virtue of their unique and peculiar study communities include consulting traditional healers contribution to the social, economic, cultural, and to perform rites and pacifying the gods with drinks for environmental well-being of communities and house- rains during a drought or for a good harvest, or celebrat- holds. For example, according to inhabitants, sacred ing a new harvesting season for staples by sharing with groves harbor their ancestors and gods of the land neighbors. In Kpalgun and Yoggu communities, a cere- who have sustained them for generations (Tengo et al. mony for yam harvesting is regularly performed usually 2007). These groves are also regarded as a place to find at the household level. Furthermore, it is a custom that rare plants and animals used for medicinal and ritual parts of the shea tree can only be harvested for firewood purposes. Boakye-Danquah et al. (2014) found high soil when a newborn is introduced to the community. organic carbon content (a proxy indicator of a healthy ecosystem) in the sacred groves of Tolon when com- pared to land used for other types of activities. The strict 3.1.3. TEK in the form of rules and regulations protection accorded to groves accounts for this differ- Rules and regulations governing TEK facilitate common ence. In Yoggu and Kpalgun communities, entrance to agreement on the use or non-use of a particular ecosys- traditional protected areas was found to be highly tem service. At critical stages when a particular ecosys- restricted. The research team was allowed to enter the tem service is found to be at the point of extinction or sacred groves only under the guidance of a village elder vulnerable to environmental changes, communities – after a thorough consultation with the chief. In addition through their traditional authorities – may enact new to the smaller groves scattered within the Yoggu and rules to regulate the service’s withdrawal to ensure total Kpalgun villages, the Jaagbo grove was frequently men- or partial protection. Strict sanctions and fines are levied tioned by participants in field survey activities as one of on individuals or households found to have violated such the biggest and most highly revered by households rules and regulations; these rules and regulations usually within and across the area (Corbin 2008). complement other aspects of TEK and hence cannot function independently. In all four study communities, for example, it is a common rule that one can harvest the 3.2. Assessment of community- and household- fruit of the shea tree from community-owned land, but if level TEK awareness and compliance at thetreeislocatedon an individual’s farm, permission needs to be sought from the farm owner before harvest- 3.2.1. Intercommunity comparison of TEK ing. Failure to comply with such rules and regulations awareness and compliance often results in a fine of money or livestock, public The results of the household questionnaire survey sug- flogging, and, in extreme cases, expulsion from the gest that a respondent’s awareness of a TEK did not village. necessarily equate with compliance. Results indicate a Figure 3. Comparison of TEK awareness and compliance across study communities. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 31 high degree of variation between awareness and compli- a statistically significant difference between younger adults and mature adults with respect to compliance ance, as reflected in the higher responses for awareness of all four TEK systems compared to compliance (Figure 3). with taboos and totems (p ˂ 0.001); rules and regulations The responseratefor allfourTEK indicatestraditional (p ˂ 0.5); and traditional protected areas (p ˂ 0.1) (Table 3). protected areas received the highest response rate in terms of both awareness (84%) and compliance (69%). The analysis showed that, compared with women, Taboos and totems ranked second (76% and 54%, men were more likely to be aware of rules and regula- tions (p ˂ 0.1). Anecdotal evidence from informants in respectively), followed closely by customs and rituals (70% and 45%, respectively), with rules and regulations the study communities indicates that men dominate in being the least (67% and 44%, respectively). leadership positions, and are also responsible for most decision-making. Length of stay in a village has a A comparison of awareness and compliance among the study communities revealed that across the four statistically significant effect on awareness of tradi- characterized TEK systems, households in Bankpama tional protected areas. Results showed that respon- dents who have lived in their community for more community exhibited significantly different levels of awareness and compliance compared to the Yoggu, than 50 years were more likely to be aware of the Kpalgun, and Baluefili communities. For instance, existence of protected areas than those who have whereas traditional protected areas were the least rated been residents for less than 10 years (p ˂ 0.1). by households in Bankpama in terms of compliance and The GLM regression result also revealed the influence awareness, households in Yoggu, Kpalgun, and Baluefili of residency status (settler or native) on awareness of rated this aspect the highest across the four aspects taboos and customs, as migrants were found to be less (Figure 3). An informant in Bankpama may have pro- likely to be aware of taboos and customs (p ˂ 0.1) than vided one plausible explanation for the observed varia- the natives. Again, when compared to natives, migrants tion during an interview: were less likely to be aware of traditional protected areas (p ˂ 0.001). This distinction also applies to compliance ‘Because we are not natives of this area, we always have to with customs and rituals; the results indicate that natives seek permission from the chief of Baleufili to use any area were more likely to comply compared with migrant of land that is outside our original boundary. Moreover, respondents (p ˂ 0.5). Religion appeared to have a sig- our population has increased, thus putting pressure on the land for farming. Even now we cannot allow the land nificant effect on the awareness of customs and rituals as toliefallowasweusedtodosomeyears back’. well as of rules and regulations. Compared with Muslims, traditionalists were more likely to be aware of customs 3.2.2. Influence of socio-demographic and rituals (p ˂ 0.1). By contrast, Muslims were found to characteristics on TEK awareness and compliance have a higher level of awareness of rules and regulations To examine the influence of household socio-demo- than Christians (p ˂ 0.1). graphic characteristics on TEK awareness and compli- ance, a simple GLM regression analysis was performed. Results showed significant intergenerational (age groups) 3.3. Intergenerational perceptions of TEK for differences in awareness of customs and rituals, with the ecosystem management elderly group much more likely to be aware compared with mature adults (p ˂ 0.1) and younger adults 3.3.1. Respondents’ views on the current role of (p ˂ 0.001). Regarding compliance, mature adults com- TEK in ecosystem management pared with the elderly (p ˂ 0.5) appeared less likely to Respondents were asked to share their views on the comply with taboos and totems. The results also indicated changing role of TEK for ecosystem management by Table 3. Influence of socio-demographic characteristics on TEK awareness and compliance (generalized linear model regression analysis). Awareness of TEK system Compliance with TEK system AW_TAB AW_CR AW_RR AW_TPA CO_TAB CO_CR CO_RR CO_TPA Predictor variables Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Intercepts 0.82 2.11 1.50 * 1.90 * 2.44 ** 6.03 1.36 2.81 ** Age groups: mature adults (compared with the elderly) 0.48 −0.92 −0.32 −0.38 −1.69 ** −2.93 −0.56 −1.05 Age groups: younger adults (compared with the elderly) −0.74 −2.05 *** −0.57 −0.42 −2.92 *** −7.73 −1.49 * −1.27 Gender: male (compared with female) 0.58 −0.30 −0.63 −0.68 −0.092 1.11 0.37 −0.42 Education: junior high (compared with non- formal) 0.20 0.24 −0.35 16.3 0.48 1.40 1.53 0.66 Length of stay: 10–30 years (compared with less than 10 years) 0.21 0.04 −0.25 0.77 0.07 −1.99 −0.26 0.04 Length of stay: more than 50 years (compared with less than 10 0.82 −0.49 −0.60 1.76 −0.32 −3.61 −0.33 −1.27 years) Residency status: migrant (compared with native) −0.68 0.18 −0.07 −1.54 *** 0.18 9.40 * 0.58 −0.02 Religion: Christian (compared with Muslim) 0.40 −0.08 0.07 0.72 0.04 2.99 −0.61 0.13 + + Religion: traditional (compared with Muslim) 0.57 1.27 1.01 −0.36 0.48 9.63 0.45 −0.53 P-values are significant at p ˂ 0.1, +; p ˂ 0.05, *; p ˂ 0.01, **; p ˂ 0.001, ***. AW = Awareness; CO = Compliance; TAB = Taboos and totems; CR = Customs and rituals; RR = Rules and regulations; TPA = Traditional protected area 32 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. Table 4. Inter-generational (age-group) views on the role of TEK in ecosystem services management. Statement and perception level of respondents TEK remains relevant for ecosystem TEK should be disregarded as it is Government must support communities with services management and governance (%) no longer applicable (%) policies to protect their good TEK systems (%) Generational group Agree Disagree Don’t know Agree Disagree Don’t know Agree Disagree Don’t know Younger adults (n = 65) 18.5 58.5 23.0 66.2 16.9 16.9 60.0 15.4 24.6 Mature adults (n = 65) 69.2 18.5 12.3 26.2 30.8 43.1 53.8 20.4 26.2 Elderly (n = 65) 83.1 10.8 6.2 10.8 81.5 7.7 46.2 38.5 15.4 Total (n = 195) 56.9 29.2 13.8 34.4 43.1 22.6 53.3 24.6 22.1 χ ** ** * ** ** ** * * * n = number of observations, χ = Chi-square (Pearson’s) test of significance: *: p ˂ 0.05; **: p ˂ 0, p ˂ 0.01. choosing one of three options (agree, disagree, and followed by younger adults (16.9%) and the elderly don’t know) in response to three different statements. (7.7%). These results strongly validate the views of The three statements were: (1) TEK remains relevant respondents for the first statement. A 28-year-old for ecosystem services management; (2) TEK should younger adult at Baleufili community supported his be disregarded, as it is no longer applicable for eco- view by saying: system services management; and (3) government Why should one stay here to apply all the numerous agencies should support communities to protect and TEK practices when they do not even work any- preserve their good TEK systems. Table 4 presents more? Even my father who has been farming for so the results on the views of respondents stratified many years in this village tells me that he has started using modern practices. Personally, I do not think across the three age groups. For the first statement, TEK is practical; I prefer to travel to Kumasi to work TEK remains relevant for ecosystem services manage- for money. ment and governance, a significant statistical variation in opinion between age groups was observed. An Regarding the statement ‘Government agencies must overwhelming proportion of the elderly (83.1%, support communities to protect and preserve their good p ˂ 0.01) agreed with this statement, followed by TEK systems’, respondents’ views were fairly and 69.2% of mature adults. Only 18.5% of the younger evenly spread across each of the three response adults agreed. By contrast, 58.5% of the younger options. However, younger adults (60%) compared adults disagreed with this statement (p ˂ 0.01), com- with mature adults (53.8%) and the elderly (46.2%) pared with 18.5% of mature adults and only 10.8% of agreed, while the majority who disagreed with the the elderly. Younger adults also gave the highest statement were the elderly (38.5%, p ˂ 0.05). The percentage of ‘don’t know’ answers (23.0%, elderly often cited their distrust of government insti- p ˂ 0.05), followed by 12.3% of mature adults and tutions and agencies based on their past experiences, 6.2% of the elderly. The above discrepancy in opinion and hence felt that they could not rely on the govern- may be supported by the words of a 73-year-old ment for any form of support. informant farmer at Kpalgun community when he stated: 3.3.2. Prioritizing TEK for use and application The main reason for the continuous survival of all Using a six-point Likert scale (1 = not a priority, the tanga (vitellaria paradoxa) and dawadawa (par- 2 = low priority, 3 = somewhat of a priority, 4 = mod- kia biglobosa) trees you see in this community is that erate priority, 5 = high priority, and 6 = essential we used the TEK practices passed on from our priority) in the questionnaire surveys, respondents ancestors to preserve them. If we had cut them were asked to prioritize their choice of preference of indiscriminately as some people (especially the youth) are doing nowadays, I am sure we all would the four identified TEKs given the opportunity not have survived till now, so I am confident that (Figure 4). Carter et al. (2000) applied a similar TEK will still be relevant. point-scoring system to evaluate attitudes toward the conservation of non-game birds and their habitats There was also a significant variation in respondents’ in the United States. views regarding the second statement: TEK should be Overall, the analysis indicates a wide contrast in disregarded, as it is no longer applicable for ecosystem the preferred choice of TEK for managing the local services management (Table 4). While the majority of ecosystem. Among the younger adults, rules and reg- the younger adults (66.2%, p ˂ 0.01) agreed with this ulations were given an essential priority rating, the statement, the strongest level of disagreement came highest in terms of preference for application. from the elderly (81.5%, p ˂ 0.01), followed by 30.8% Traditional protected areas and taboos and totems of mature adults and 16.9% of younger adults dis- were both given a moderate priority rating, with agreeing. Interestingly, the ‘don’t know’ responses customs and rituals being given somewhat of a prior- were dominated by mature adults (43.1%, p ˂ 0.01), ity rating, indicative of it being less preferred as a INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 33 Taboos and totems Traditional protected areas 0 Customs and rituals Rules and regulations Younger Adults Mature Adults The Elderly Figure 4. Respondents’ priority choice for the use and application of TEK. TEK management practice for ecosystem services. As different age groups regarding the role of TEK for one respondent at Kpalgun village during the survey managing the local ecosystem as was found earlier. made clear: My grandfather strongly believes in all the taboos, 4. Discussion totems, and rituals in this village for regulating the harvesting of dawadawa (parkia biglobosa).He Results from the survey suggest that households in all taught me about the importance of tibuni (sacred four study communities interdependently use and groves and shrines) because his father transferred apply different forms of TEK aimed directly and the knowledge to him. Now, I feel it is not an indirectly at regulating or controlling different cate- effective practice so I do not adhere to it, I prefer gories of ecosystem services that are embedded in rules and regulations which is free from spiritualism. Moreover, I am a Christian and it is not allowed. local sociocultural mechanisms (Berkes et al. 2000; Colding & Folke 2001). Despite the significant geo- Results from mature adults indicate that traditional graphical distance between communities in Tolon protected areas are this group’s most preferred TEK, (Yoggu and Kpalgun) and those in Wa West and hence its essential priority rating. Customs and (Baleufili and Bankpama) districts, high similarities rituals were given a high-priority rating, whereas in TEK practices across all four study communities taboos and totems were offered a moderate priority. were noted (Table 2). These similarities may be Rules and regulations as a TEK system were given a attributed to the limited environmental differences low-priority rating. A mature adult respondent dur- (vegetative and climatic) and common socioeco- ing the face-to-face interview at Yoggu community nomic and cultural conditions across Northern explained: Ghana. A more obvious explanation can be that com- munities recognize TEK as the most practical and The reason why I believe in the use of traditional readily available tool for dealing with the common protected areas and taboos and customs more than rules and regulations is that they have been used by challenge of sustainably managing limited and dimin- our ancestors to preserve this very land for us. These ishing natural resources against the backdrop of practices scare people, unlike rules and regulations environmental and socioeconomic changes. which are more recent and have not really been Observable differences in practices can be attributed observed, especially by the younger generation. to local-scale variations in ecosystem conditions. Similar to the results from mature adults, the elderly With households known to be highly dependent also gave traditional protected areas an essential on provisioning services (Boafo et al. 2014), it was priority rating. Taboos and totems and customs and not surprising that most informants interviewed con- rituals were assessed as a high-priority TEK, with sidered TEK an economic and social asset, as it con- rules and regulations being given the lowest priority tributes to ensuring the productivity and score. The analysis here corroborates the views of sustainability of the local ecosystem. Key informants 34 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. Overall, the survey results suggest the weak influ- and respondents from face-to-face interviews across ence of socio-demographic variables on awareness the study communities cited a number of examples to elaborate on how their local environment has been and compliance of all TEK systems. However, the statistically significant relationships between local maintained largely due to the active and effective inhabitants’ awareness of and compliance with differ- application of TEK passed on to them from preceding generations. A classic example of TEK benefits that ent aspects of TEK as observed in this study under- score the variations in their use and application emerged throughout the field survey was that in the across the study sites and regions (Table 3). long dry seasons, when vegetative cover is almost non-existent on the land, unprotected and bare soils Findings from this study corroborate with those of previous research conducted in other parts of Ghana around settlements are enriched by evenly spreading (Anane 1997; Sarfo-Mensah & Oduro 2010) and the droppings from livestock (mainly cattle). The dung, along with other decomposed organic materials from world (Ulluwishewa et al. 2008). The significant effect daily household activities, serves as the main nutrient of age on awareness of customs and rituals and tradi- tional protected areas can be directly attributed to enhancement strategy for compound farms. This rapidly changing socioeconomic and environmental particular traditional technique of land management could be the reason crops such as maize, peppers, and changes across the study area (Millar 2004; Songsore 2011). The interplay between the perennial out- groundnuts flourish annually on compound farms migration by youthful populations to Southern despite intensive land use (Derbile 2009). Findings from Boakye-Danquah et al. (2014) study in Fihini Ghana and the general disinterest in agriculture are plausible explanations for the observed variations in at the Tolon area on farm land management showed TEK awareness and compliance across age groups. that, apart from sacred groves, compound farms retained the highest soil organic carbon content, lar- Since the majority of the youthful population in the study communities move to urban centers in search gely because of the use of intensive management of jobs, old people remain and, therefore, have a high practices involving household organic materials, further supporting this relationship. awareness and compliance compared with the The high discrepancy between locals’ awareness younger and matured adults. As observed during household interviews, the majority of interviewees and compliance with the four characterized TEK systems – taboos and totems, customs and rituals, were returning migrants who had plans of going rules and regulations, and traditional protected areas back after a short stay. It is therefore not surprising that, compared with younger and mature adults, the as observed in this case study – calls into question the usefulness of TEK for rural communities. With elderly were more likely to be aware of and comply awareness not equating to compliance, as evidence with the observed TEK. However, the lack of a recep- in the comparatively low and declining level of com- tive population to transmit and operationalize TEK in pliance with all TEK aspects (Figure 3), it is possible the study communities, the erosion of once-resilient that enforcement of TEK is weak overall, owing to and effective practices for the identification, utiliza- closely related social, economic, cultural, and envir- tion, and management of ecosystem services are onmental factors such as migration, education, land imminent, as is happening in other parts of the tenure arrangements, climate variability, and change, world. and effects of drought and floods are known to sig- The result that men were more likely than women nificantly impact livelihood systems in Northern to be aware of rules and regulations provides evi- Ghana (Dietz et al. 2004; Acheampong et al. 2014). dence of the ingrained traditional system of leader- Similarly, Gibson et al. (2005) discussed effective ship in the study communities, which often excludes enforcement as a required condition if natural- women from public decision-making. The fact that resource management is to be successful. Even with women sampled for household questionnaire inter- the common patterns in household awareness and views were often hesitant to participate, even in the compliance of TEK systems in the study commu- absence of men, is evidence of strongly gendered nities, with traditional protected areas scoring the roles. Results indicate that respondents who have highest rating in terms on both awareness and com- stayed longer in the community (more than pliance, it is worth noting that the views of house- 50 years compared to less than 10 years) are more holds in Bankpama community deviated significantly likely to be aware of the existence of traditional from this observed trend (Figure 3). This is attributed protected areas; it is therefore unsurprising that, to the fact that, compared with the other three com- compared with migrants or settlers, natives were munities, Bankpama is dominated by an immigrant more likely to be aware of taboos and customs as population, meaning that they possess less-accurate well as traditional protected areas, and also more detailed adaptive knowledge of their local ecosystem likely to comply with customs and rituals (Table 3). compared to natives who have resided there for a This influence of religion on TEK-based awareness of longer period (Atran 2001). customs and rituals as well as rules and regulations INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 35 management strategies as people may not be willing can be attributed to the significant role played by to share TEK that may be relevant for the conserva- traditional authorities in the enforcement of TEK. In comparison with Christians and Muslims, tradi- tion and sustainable use of ecosystems. tionalists are more likely to be the holders and enfor- cers of TEK knowledge, and hence their high 5. Policy implications awareness overall. In the study, intergenerational views on TEK’s As findings from this study have demonstrated, TEK roles in ecosystem management were found to be is gradually being abandoned by communities and highly contradictory. Whereas most mature adults households in rural Northern Ghana as a result of and the elderly still perceived TEK as relevant for the combination of rapid changes to socioeconomic, managing diverse ecosystem services, the younger cultural, and environmental conditions. Considering adult generation overwhelmingly dismissed TEK the effects that this has on ecosystem services utiliza- (Table 4). An explanation for the high proportion of tion and management across in rural landscapes pol- mature adults and the elderly holding positive views icymakers in Ghana need to act urgently to design on TEK reflects these groups’ constant engagement and implement proactive and practical measures as with the local environment through livelihood activ- part of rural development policies. This is necessary ities such as farming, wild food collection, and others. because, despite the country’s high involvement in Analysis of informant interview transcripts revealed ratifying many international and multilateral policy that supporters of TEK view it as critical in support- initiatives targeted at reviving TEK, there appears to ing formal knowledge systems in managing the local be little or no clear action at the national, regional, or ecosystem. Conversely, younger adults’ high propen- local levels toward this end, resulting in little scien- sity to migrate to urban centers means they lack tific knowledge on TEK. practical knowledge of TEK practices and their use- This study recommends the development of a fulness as used in managing ecosystem services. participatory methodology for assessing the TEK Even though the opinions held by different age of local communities, identifying, collecting, mea- groups did not vary greatly for the question of suring, validating, and monitoring its contents and whether government should support the maintenance use. For such an assessment to be successful, local of good TEK systems, different reasons can be communities need to collaborate closely with gov- adduced for their views, relating strongly to the pre- ernment agencies and departments, academia, and ferred form of TEK system for managing ecosystem nongovernmental organizations, all of which need services. As the household survey revealed (Figure 4), to play a major role at different stages. Local com- younger people prefer the application of rules and munities’ active involvement will go a long way regulations, which they view as more modern and toward overcoming their perception of their knowl- also lacking spiritual or religions connotations, edge system being marginalized (often the case) or which are perceived to be associated with disrespect- ‘stolen’ from them. In addition to having national ing taboos and totems, customs and rituals, and tra- relevance, the outcome data can serve as a vital tool ditional protected areas. The mature adult and elderly for international and multilateral biodiversity and groups, however, believe that the government cannot ecosystem assessment programs, such as the be trusted to manage ecosystem services and that, ongoing IPBES, which counts assessment of existing therefore, other TEK practices, such as taboos and knowledge systems as one of its key functions (Diaz totems, customs and rituals, and traditional protected et al. 2015). areas should continue to be applied. This lack of trust Furthermore, policymakers should mainstream in government by mature adults and the elderly may TEK into formal educational curricula right from stem from past natural resource management policies the primary level. This might help promote knowl- and practices performed by formal governance sys- edge, understanding, and appreciation of TEK asso- tems, which have often undermined local peoples’ ciated with the sustainable management of ecosystem access to critical ecosystem services such as bush services at an early age. In the context of Northern meat and fuel wood. Recognizing that modern gov- Ghana, where youthful populations migrate to the ernance systems cannot be ruled out completely in urban south even before completing their basic edu- the management of ecosystem services, a substantial cation, this could be an important step toward brid- number of elderly participants (nearly half) did sup- ging the current wide gap in awareness between port a role for government institutions and agencies. younger and elderly populations that this study It is, however, important to note that the apparent found. It is recommended that informal education lack of trust in government agencies expressed by a stakeholders such as parents and traditional authori- large proportion of mature adults and the elderly can ties be actively engaged in the transmission of TEK be a stumbling block in efforts to build synergy knowledge in formal school systems. These stake- between TEK and formal ecosystem services holders can contribute by offering practical sessions 36 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. implementing potent TEK are formulated to help to students in their local context. Finally, the study safeguard ecosystems and improve livelihood sys- recommends that policymakers enact ecosystem management policies and conservation strategies tems, especially in rural areas of Ghana. that pay attention to the links between local commu- nities and nature. Note 1. Two main farm types exist in the study area: com- 6. Conclusions pound farms and bush farms. Compound farms, typically averaging 1.7 hectares per household, are While recognizing that modern scientific knowledge present around household settlements; bush farms is invaluable in ecosystem services management, the (average size being 3.1 hectares) are distant from need remains to incorporate resilient and practical settlements and are based on the bush fallow systems forms of TEK held by local communities, as both (Kranjac-Berisavljevic et al. 1999; Gyasi 2002). empirical data and research outcomes have shown these to be of great significance especially in this era Acknowledgements of global environmental change (Turner & Berkes 2006; Takeuchi 2010). This study explored commu- This paper evolved out of the doctoral thesis ‘Provisioning nity and household knowledge and perceptions of ecosystem services utilization and management in Northern Ghana: A community-based approach’ for the United TEKs role in the management of ecosystem services Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of through a case study of four rural communities in Sustainability (UNU-IAS). We would like to thank Northern Ghana. Professor Toshiya Okuro and Dr Alexandros Gasparatos for Findings suggest that diverse forms of TEK devel- their invaluable knowledge and inputs. The constructive feed- oped over generations are still being applied by com- backs and suggestions from the three anonymous reviewers munities and households in the form of taboos and also contributed greatly to enhancing the quality of this paper. totems, customs and rituals, rules and regulations, and traditional protected areas. Results from the pre- Disclosure statement sent study indicate the existence of an inverse rela- tionship between awareness and compliance with No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. TEK systems, which is reflected in the relatively high awareness and low compliance of all TEK cate- Funding gories assessed across the study communities. A high The study was conducted as part of the ‘Enhancing variation among age groups was found with regard to Resilience to Climate and Ecosystem Changes in Semi- the respondents’ views on the role of TEK in sustain- Arid Africa: An Integrated Approach (CECAR Africa)’ able ecosystem management. Compared to mature project, jointly sponsored by the Japan International adults and the elderly, younger adults showed less Cooperation for Development (JICA) and Japan Science understanding and appreciation of TEK. and Technology Agency (JST). 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Agroforestry in sustainable agricultural systems. Leiden, The Netherlands: African Studies Centre. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press LLC; p. 245–275. Whitehead A. 2006. Persistent poverty in North East Songsore J. 2011. Regional development in Ghana: the Ghana. J Dev Stud. 42:278–300. theory and reality. Accra: Woeli Publishing Services. World Bank. 2011. Global facility for disaster reduction and Strauss AL, Corbin JM. 1998. Basics of qualitative research: recovery (GFDRR) country report Ghana. Washington techniques and procedures for developing grounded the- (DC): World Bank. [cited 2014 Oct 13]. Available from: ory, 2nd ed. London: Sage Publications. http://gfdrr.org/ctrydrmnotes/Ghana.pdf. Appendix 1 Ecosystem services utilization and knowledge index in study communities Household utilization and knowledge index (%) Category of ecosystem service and local examples Overall (%) Yoggu Kpalgun Baleufili Bankpama Provisioning 1. Bushmeat 47.9 45.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 2. Food: Crop and animals 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 3. Food: Fish catch 32.3 20.0 13.6 55.6 62.5 4. Fodder and forage 92.7 95.0 95.5 83.3 93.2 5. Fuel wood 94.8 90.0 100.0 94.4 100.0 6. Building materials 86.5 100.0 100.0 50.0 75.0 7. Freshwater 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 8. Wild plants/food 92.7 92.5 90.9 88.9 100.0 9. Medicinal plants and animals 69.8 70.0 72.7 61.1 75.0 Cultural 1. Sacred groves 69.8 72.5 81.8 55.6 62.5 2. Spiritual sacrifices 61.5 67.5 54.5 50.0 68.8 3. Place of heart 60.4 60.0 72.7 55.6 50.0 Regulating 1. Pest and disease control 59.4 55.0 68.2 61.1 56.3 2. Drought reduction 53.1 47.5 59.1 66.7 43.8 3. Pollination 13.5 22.5 13.6 5.6 0.0 4. Erosion prevention 60.4 57.5 68.2 50.0 68.8 5. Flood prevention 47.9 47.5 45.5 31.3 66.7 Supporting 1. Soil fertility enhancement 65.6 72.5 86.4 38.9 50.0 2. Animal dung burial 37.5 50.0 40.9 11.1 31.3 1 2 Source: Boafo et al. (2014); Field survey, 2013. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management Taylor & Francis

The role of traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem services management: the case of four rural communities in Northern Ghana

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT, 2016 VOL. 12, NOS. 1–2, 24–38 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2015.1124454 Special Issue: Traditional knowledge for sustainable forest management and provision of ecosystem services The role of traditional ecological knowledge in ecosystem services management: the case of four rural communities in Northern Ghana a b c b a,b Yaw Agyeman Boafo , Osamu Saito , Sadahisa Kato , Chiho Kamiyama , Kazuhiko Takeuchi and Miri Nakahara Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S), The University of Tokyo Institute for Advanced Study (UTIAS), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), Tokyo, Japan; c d International Strategy and Affairs Coordinator, Office of International Strategy, Ibaraki University, Ibaraki, Japan; UNDP Representation Office in Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 29 December 2014 This study combines qualitative and quantitative research to examine perceptions held by Accepted 20 November 2015 rural households in Northern Ghana regarding the value of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) in the management of ecosystem services. Key informant interviews (n = 14), household EDITED BY questionnaire surveys (n = 195), field observations, and dissemination meetings were Leni Camacho employed to collect data. Results suggest the regular use of different but interrelated forms KEYWORDS of TEK, i.e. taboos and totems, customs and rituals, rules and regulations, and traditional Awareness and compliance; protected areas, to manage ecosystem services through existing sociocultural mechanisms. ecosystem services; However, household awareness of TEK did not equate with compliance. A wide discrepancy Northern Ghana; in views on TEK was observed across surveyed households. A generalized linear model (GLM) management; traditional regression analysis suggests age to be the most significant determinant of TEK awareness and ecological knowledge compliance. Compared with mature and younger adults, the elderly appear more likely to be aware of and comply with characterized TEK systems. Notwithstanding these findings, the use of traditional protected areas as a form of TEK appears to be highly valued by the majority of survey participants. Demand-led research aimed at examining TEK’s role in the face of changing socioeconomic and environmental conditions can contribute to the formulation and implementation of policy-relevant strategies. created opportunities for the inclusion of indigenous 1. Introduction and local communities and their TEK systems in Against the backdrop of unprecedented global degra- ecosystem and biodiversity assessment by making it dation and reduction in biodiversity and ecosystem a key component in its established conceptual frame- services with impacts on human well-being over the work (Diaz et al. 2015). On a local scale, several last 50 years, there is a growing interest in the role of studies over the years have provided empirical evi- traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) practices and dence of past and present successes and challenges systems of local communities in ensuring the sustain- encountered in the application of local TEK in mana- able utilization and management of ecosystems ser- ging and governing natural resources in traditional vices. On a multilateral level, Article 8 (j) of the and complex socio-ecological landscapes, as well as in United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity dealing with changing conditions in different ecosys- explicitly states the need to respect, preserve, and tems (Usher 2000; Agrawal 2001; Elias et al. 2005; Liu maintain knowledge practices of local and indigenous 2006; Nyong et al. 2007; Ranganathan et al. 2008; communities related to biological diversity (United Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2010; Takeuchi 2010; Nations 1992). The Intergovernmental Panel on Molnar 2012; Parrotta & Trosper 2012). Climate Change (IPCC), since its establishment in Often regarded as a variant of indigenous knowl- 1988, has highlighted the role that TEK can play in edge, TEK broadly refers to any form of knowledge addressing the negative effects of global climate unique or peculiar to a particular society or culture change and variability. The Millennium Ecosystem that relates to their immediate environment. In addi- Assessment (MA) report, published in 2005, also tion to the term TEK that is adopted in this study, identified TEK as relevant in addressing the current other terms commonly used in the literature include unsustainable utilization of different categories of indigenous local knowledge (ILK), traditional knowl- ecosystem services (MA 2005). More recently, the edge (TK), traditional forest knowledge (TFK), local Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on ecological knowledge (LEK), and indigenous ecological Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) has knowledge (IEK). Despite these variations in CONTACT Yaw Agyeman Baofo yaboafo@yahoo.co.uk © 2015 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 25 management are currently perceived and applied terminology, the general consensus remains that such in the face of increasing threat to biodiversity and knowledge systems have evolved over many years and are retained by local communities outside the formal ecosystem services across scale (TEEB 2010). The objective of this study is to enhance under- or Western scientific domains. In the context of this standing of TEK’s role in the management and gov- research, Berkes’ definition of TEK as ‘acumulative body of knowledge and beliefs handed down through ernance of ecosystem services by conducting qualitative generations by cultural transmission, about the rela- and quantitative assessments of house- tionship of living beings (including humans) with one holds’ perception regarding the use and relevance of another and with their environment’ (Berkes 1993,p. community TEK practices and systems. Toward this 3) is more encompassing and applicable to local-scale end, the study formulated and analyzed responses to considerations. A deeper analysis of Berkes’ definition four principal questions: reveals that TEK systems are constantly evolving, con- (1) What are the existing forms of TEK for mana- trary to some widely held assumptions that TEK is ging ecosystem services across the four study static and archaic, a view that has been rightly refuted sites? by many empirical studies (Agrawal 1995;Berkes et al. (2) To what extent is awareness and compliance of 2000;Allison &Badjeck 2004;Eyssartier et al. 2011; existing TEK different across communities? Gómez-Baggethun & Reyes-García 2013). (3) Which socio-demographic variables have the Current renewed interest in the role of TEK there- most influence on awareness and compliance fore marks a welcome shift from Western approaches with TEK? and to ecosystem services management and governance, (4) How do views on the role of TEK in ecosystem which in most cases regard local communities and management vary across different age groups? their knowledge systems as detrimental to the func- Section 2 of this paper provides some relevant geogra- tioning of ecosystems (Fairhead & Leach 1998; phical and socioeconomic information on the study DeGeorges & Reilly 2008). Consequently, many have area, the techniques employed in collecting and analyz- argued that the extensive utilization of Western knowl- ing data, as well as some study limitations. Section 3 edge systems in the management of ecosystem services focuses on the study results, which are categorized in is responsible for relegating TEK to the background accordance with the principal research questions iden- and is thus a major reason for the current decline of tified above. Section 4 is devoted to the discussion of the TEK across socioecological regions (Kingsbury 2001; research outcomes, while Section 5 examines the prac- Turner & Turner 2008;Berkes 2012). tical and theoretical policy implications of this study. In many rural areas of Ghana, vast amounts of The concluding Section 6 provides insights into the role TEK are known to exist and to be applied through of TEK in managing ecosystem services by summariz- well-established social and cultural mechanisms in ing key findings and examining the way forward. the form of local beliefs, values, rituals, customs, and taboos for managing natural resources (Dorm- Adzorbu et al. 1991; Ntiamoa-Baidu 1995;Abayie- 2. Methodology Boateng 1998; Appiah-Opoku & Hyma 1999). A 2.1. Study area number of studies have reported a general and increasing decline in the local communities’ appli- Northern Ghana comprises three administratively cation of these valuable knowledge systems and autonomous regions, namely the Northern, Upper practices in managing local ecosystems (Millar West, and Upper East, which together cover a land 2003;Hens 2006; Gyampoh et al. 2008). area of approximately 97,702 km (41%) of Ghana’s Communities in recent decades have had to con- total land mass (Figure 1). Their characterization is tend with the many challenges associated with largely defined by their peculiar semi-arid climatic and rapidly changing socioeconomic conditions. These physical conditions, high poverty levels ranging from challenges are further aggravated by the effects of 68% to 88% across regions attributed to many years of climate change and variability, with prolonged social, political, and economic exclusion (Whitehead drought and flooding being experienced (Gyasi 2006; Songsore 2011;World Bank 2011), and extreme 2002;van De Geest 2004;Acheampong etal. vulnerability to climate change compared with the 2014). Such rapidly changing socioeconomic and other parts of Ghana (Dietz et al. 2004; Acheampong environmental conditions may compel communities et al. 2014). The majority of the population here is and households to abandon or disregard local TEKs rural (Northern: 69.7%, Upper West: 79.5%, and that have long been applied in regulating and con- Upper East: 76.4%) meaning that there is high reliance trolling ecosystem services for livelihood suste- on the local ecosystem to meet livelihood needs (Boafo nance. In the face of these changes, it has become et al. 2014). Rain-fed agriculture, which is a blend of necessary to examine how rural communities’ TEK crop farming and livestock raising, is undertaken by knowledge systems relating to ecosystem services the majority of the population in this area 26 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. Figure 1. Map showing case study communities in relation to the study area. (approximately 78%) (Ghana Statistical Service 2013). Table 1. Geographic location, land area, and estimated Crop-farming systems are dominantly traditional and population of study sites. can involve the use of hoes, organic fertilizer, and Estimated Study land area Estimated burning, although gradual modification is being wit- Region District community Location (km ) population nessed across the region. Northern Tolon Yoggu 9°28ʹ N, 8.20 3,751 In this semi-arid ecosystem, the mean annual tem- 1°5ʹ W Kpalgun 9°30′ N, 1.74 1,573 perature is approximately 28°C, with daily temperatures 1°4ʹ W ranging from evening lows of approximately 15°C to Upper Wa Baleufili 9°53ʹ N, 21.52 802 West West 2°41ʹ W daytime highs of 40°C. Average annual rainfall is Bankpama 9°54′ N, 11.33 799 between 800 and 1100 mm. Relative humidity varies 2°43ʹ W widely, averaging approximately 54% (Ghana Meteorological Agency 2015). Vegetation is dominated primary and secondary livelihood needs; and (3) dif- by herbaceous grasses, shrubs, and drought-resistant ferent levels of proneness to perennial drought and trees such as Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa, flooding events. Yoggu and Kpalgun lie on a relative and Ceiba pentandra. Owing to the sparse ground flat and level landscape. Compared to Baluefili and cover most months of the year, evapotranspiration is Bankpama communities, Yoggu and Kpalgun are very high. Drought and seasonal food shortages are considered to be drought prone (Antwi et al. 2014). common. In response, seasonal migration of youthful Baleufili and Bankpama, on the other hand, are population especially females to urban centers in south- located on a fairly uneven elevation and undulating ern Ghana to work as porters is widely undertaken landscape. Both communities are impacted signifi- (Awumbila & Ardayfio-Schandorf 2008). cantly by the Black Volta River, which, along with For the purpose of this study, four rural commu- its tributaries, drains through the area and leaves nities were selected for the focus of an in-depth communities’ resources, especially farmlands, flooded survey. These communities include Yoggu and during the short rainy season (Boafo et al. 2014). Kpalgun located in the Tolon district of the Northern region and Baleufili and Bankpama in the Wa West district of the Upper West region (Figure 1, 2.2. Methods Table 1). Community in the context of this study refers to a group of local people living and interacting 2.2.1. Field data collection processes and with one another. These four communities were techniques selected because they have (1) common livelihood Survey data were collected between February 2013 activities and share common boundaries; (2) high and September 2014. A mixed-method approach reliance on the local ecosystem for meeting both using quantitative and qualitative techniques was INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 27 NEXUS BETWEEN TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE (TEK) AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN RURAL NORTHERN GHANA Community-entry meeting (I) Participant observations (II) Key informant interviews (n = 14) Identification and characterization of TEK practices and systems for ecosystem services management at community level (III) Household questionnaire surveys (n = 195) (IV) Dissemination meetings (n = 4) and group discussions (n = 12) Figure 2. Field data collection process and techniques. employed in this study to collect data (Creswell informants were selected under the guidance of the 2014). Structured field data collection activities community head (Tongco 2007). A snowball sam- began with community-entry meetings with the com- pling technique was used to identify more informants munity head and other elders as well as with opinion (Bernard 2005). Targeted informants were inter- leaders. Such meetings were used as a medium for the viewed using a semi-structured interview guide study team to explain the research objectives and the between February and March 2013. Overall, 14 infor- expected role of the community and its members. mants across the study communities: Yoggu (n = 5), During such meetings, oral consent was sought Kpalgun (n = 3), Baleufili (n = 4), and Bankpama from community leaders, paving the way for the (n = 2) were interviewed. Informants comprised team to undertake the main field activities: partici- household heads, herbalists, rainmakers, lead farmers, pant observations, key informant interviews, house- and assemblymen (formal government representative hold questionnaire surveys, and dissemination at the community level). To aid informants in the workshops and discussions (Figure 2). identification of TEK practices related to ecosystem services, the study team relied on data from Boafo et al. (2014), whose study in the same study sites 2.2.1.1. Participant observations. Participant obser- inventoried and assessed households’ utilization and vation activities entailed visits to elemental locations management of critical provisioning ecosystem ser- such as water points, sacred groves, shrines, commu- vices (Appendix 1). Several studies (Sinclair & Walker nity woodlots, and fallow lands where TEK is per- 1999; Millar 2003; Tengo et al. 2007; Ormsby & ceived to be applied or observed. Social events and Bhagwat 2010) have investigated the existence and ceremonies, such as marriages, funerals, and child application of TEK in managing natural resources in naming ceremonies, as well as daily and seasonal live- different socio-ecological regions adopting similar lihood activities, including preparation, planting and approaches. Discussions with interviewees centered harvesting crops, food processing, and collection of on (1) the identification of different forms of TEKs wild food and plants, were relevant avenues for iden- that relate to the control, regulation, and overall tifying and assessing TEK forms applied at both com- management of ecosystem services; (2) the spatial munity and household levels. Data were collected in and temporal characteristics of existing TEK prac- the form of field notes and photographs. tices; and (3) the views on the usefulness and chal- lenges associated with TEK application. Interviews 2.2.1.2. Informant interviews. To gain a deeper lasted on average between one and two hours. In understanding and appreciation of TEK as it relates some instances, interviews were interrupted if the to different categories of ecosystem services, key 28 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. informant became exhausted or had to attend to an goal and agenda. Meetings usually lasted one and a half hours. Immediately after each dissemination urgent task. Most of the interviews were recorded and later transcribed. meeting, small group discussions stratified into elderly and mature adults and younger adults were held separately. Discussions often lasted between 30 2.2.1.3. Household questionnaire survey. The quali- and 35 minutes, with an average participation of 11 tative information gathered from the earlier field activities (entry meetings, field observations, infor- individuals. The discussions aided in clarifying con- tentious issues that emerged during the dissemination mant interviews) was used to develop a household meetings. questionnaire instrument. This questionnaire was used to investigate respondents’ knowledge and gen- eral perceptions of existing TEK in managing the 2.2.2. Data analysis local ecosystem. The questionnaire was also used to Qualitative data were analyzed by categorizing the collect information on respondents’ sociodemo- information obtained, which mainly came from graphic and economic characteristics. Face-to-face reflexive and field notes taken during field survey interviews using the questionnaire were carried out activities (Strauss & Corbin 1998). Quantitative data between August and September 2014. Based on the were categorized, numerically coded, and analyzed proven assumption that holders and users of TEK using the IBM Statistical Product and Service knowledge vary across and within households Solutions package (SPSS version 20). Pearson Chi- (Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2010), the selection of square (Χ ) tests of independence were used to deter- respondents for this survey was carried out in differ- mine the significance of associations between catego- ent stages. First, 65 households representing a sample rical (dichotomous and nominal) variable pairs. To size of about 10% of the total households in each of analyze the influence of socio-demographic variables the four study communities were randomly selected on respondents’ awareness of and compliance with [Yoggu (n = 22), Kpalgun (n = 16), Baleufili (n = 14), identified TEK, a simple generalized linear model and Bankpama (n = 13)]. Second, applying a quota (GLM) using the R 3.1.2 software was applied. The sampling technique, three individual respondents in explanatory variables of the model were age group, each sampled household were purposively identified gender, educational status, length of stay, residency and interviewed using their age differences as the status, and religion. The error distribution was benchmark. These three respondents were categor- assumed to be binomial, and the logit link function ized as follows: (1) younger adults (respondents was chosen. The effects of explanatory variables were aged between 18 and 40 years); (2) mature adults evaluated by checking whether the Wald 95% con- (respondents aged between 41 and 60 years); and fidence interval for each coefficient included zero. (3) the elderly (respondents aged 61 years and above). Furthermore, the above age categorizations 2.2.3. Study limitations were undertaken with the assumption that individual In this study, two major limitations that might have respondents in each category had varying levels of influenced the general findings need to be empha- interaction with their biophysical environment on the sized. First, four local dialects namely Dagbani, basis of them being either active or non-active out- Dagaare, Hausa, and Waala were used as the primary migrants. Adopting representative sampling was mechanism for collecting field data and then simul- necessary as it has been shown that knowledge varies taneously translated into English. Under such cir- across individuals and groups (Reyes-Garcia et al. cumstances, it is possible that some relevant 2005). Overall, 195 face-to-face interviews were con- information might have been lost or mistranslated. ducted across the four study communities: Yoggu Second, answers given by respondents regarding their (n = 66), Kpalgun (n = 48), Baleufili (n = 42), and awareness and compliance with TEK systems may be Bankpama (n = 39). The majority of the face-to-face influenced by variables not included in this study. interviews were prearranged; this contributed signifi- cantly to achieving a 100% response rate. 3. Results 2.2.1.4. Dissemination meetings. To identify further 3.1. Identification and characterization of TEK knowledge and validate the already-collected infor- mation on TEK, four findings dissemination and From community entry meetings, field observations, feedback meetings with community members were and key informant interviews, different and interdepen- organized (one per village) in September 2014. The dently used TEK practices for managing different cate- meetings took place at the communal meeting point gories of ecosystem services were identified across the in each study community. The meetings were orga- study communities (Table 2). Informants elaborated nized in collaboration with the community heads that TEK is applied at household and community levels after the research team had informed him of the through sociocultural mechanisms and is enforced by INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 29 Table 2. TEK characterization, category of ecosystem service(s) river. Thus, the West African crocodile (crocodylus targeted, and applicability in studied communities. suchus) is regarded as a totemic (a revered animal) TEK system with Applicability in and must not be killed for food and other purposes. specific examples of Category of community Informants across all study communities emphasized practices, values, and ecosystem services beliefs used by directly targeted by that because the identity of their entire community is households and TEK practice for dependent on the provisions made to them by the No. communities management YG KP BL BK local ecosystem, they deem it obligatory to use the 1 Taboos and totems a No killing of crocodile Provisioning, cultural + + + + TEK passed on to them by their ancestors to sustain- (crocodylus suchus) and ably manage it for future generations. python (pythoniade) b No cutting down of Provisioning + + + + Based on spatio-temporal considerations with shea trees during emphasis on their peculiar functions and character- farming c No entry into sacred Provisioning, cultural + + + + istics, identified TEK practices were characterized shrine to collect fuel into four main systems: (1) TEK in the form of wood taboos and totems, (2) TEK in the form of customs d No fishing on Tuesdays Provisioning −− ++ e No farming on Fridays Provisioning, cultural + + + + and rituals, (3) TEK in the form of rules and regula- 2 Customs and rituals tions, and (4) TEK in the form of traditional pro- a Rainmaking Cultural tected areas. The above characterization was useful in ceremonies b Using parts of shea and Provisioning, cultural + + + + obtaining household views and perceptions of differ- locust bean during ent forms of TEK in the communities. Thus, it is birth, death, and consecration of chiefs important not to regard them as entirely independent c Chasing famine (eating Provisioning, cultural + + −− as they all contribute to performing a common con- new harvest, e.g. yam) d Traditional medicine Provisioning + + + − servation and ecosystem management function. not to be sold to local These different aspects with specific examples are households e Festivals to celebrate Provisioning, cultural + + + − shown in Table 2 and are also described in detail in planting or harvesting the subsequent sections. season 3 Rules and regulations a No harvesting of shea Provisioning + + + + 3.1.1. TEK in the form of taboos and totems nuts on individual This category of TEK enjoins community members to farms without permission partly or completely refrain from collecting and/or b Seek permission from Provisioning, ++ + + using part or whole of certain plant and animal chief to farm land supporting species. In the study, community taboos are consid- d Fire belts around farms Regulating −− ++ in dry season to ered necessary management strategies for reducing prevent bush fires over-harvesting of critical provisioning services as e No hunting of Provisioning + + + + pregnant animals well as restoring endangered animal and plant spe- during open season cies. As hunter informants regularly elaborated, most 4 Traditional protected areas taboos forbid the killing of different types of animals a Sacred groves/forests, Cultural, provisioning + + + + shrines under certain circumstances, such as when they are b Woodlot, water points, Supporting, ++ + + pregnant, nursing young ones, or mating. Taboos also provisioning c Rice valleys Provisioning, −− ++ allow or forbid the collection or use of certain wild regulating plants for specified purposes only. For example, the d River banks Regulating, −− ++ provisioning shea tree (vitellaria paradoxa) has many taboos relat- Source: community entry meetings, participant observations, and key ing to the use of different parts at different times and informant interviews locations (Table 2). When taboos are applied to cer- YG = Yoggu; KP = Kpalgun; BL = Baleufili; BK = Bankpama; + = tain animal species as in the case of the crocodile and applicable in community; and − = not applicable in community African rock python (python sabae) in the study communities, such a species is referred to as a local traditional authorities and institutions. Results totem (Awedora 2002). Taboos may be imposed on from the study indicate high-level similarities in the a daily, weekly, or seasonal basis and may apply to use and application of TEK practices across all four different individuals on the basis of age, gender, or study communities. According to the survey, TEK is status. In the study communities, violating local manifested in daily, seasonal, periodic, and temporal taboos will require the sacrifice of fowls or in some livelihood activities and systems such as farming and cases a zebu (humped cattle) to appease the gods. collection of wild food or plants to the performance of Informants provided the following responses as rituals and ceremonies. examples to illustrate what could happen to any indi- In Kpalgun and Yoggu villages, a folk tale holds vidual who violates taboos: ‘The person, if a woman, that when the original settlers (ancestors) were could become barren’; and ‘You will be bitten by an migrating, a crocodile guided them to cross a big invisible snake’. 30 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. 3.1.4. TEK in the form of traditional protected 3.1.2. TEK in the form of customs and rituals areas Customs and rituals are specific social behaviors, prac- tices, and ceremonies performed on a regular basis by This category of TEK provides the basis for commu- individuals or specialized people within the study com- ities to protect and conserve specific locations of their munities. This category of TEK is performed either local landscape. Within the study communities, these proactively or reactively and is considered a duty to be locations include sacred groves, woodlots, riverbanks, fulfilled to enhance access to critical ecosystem services rice valleys, and fallow land (Millar 2004). These areas or promote the land’s productivity. Examples in the are protected by virtue of their unique and peculiar study communities include consulting traditional healers contribution to the social, economic, cultural, and to perform rites and pacifying the gods with drinks for environmental well-being of communities and house- rains during a drought or for a good harvest, or celebrat- holds. For example, according to inhabitants, sacred ing a new harvesting season for staples by sharing with groves harbor their ancestors and gods of the land neighbors. In Kpalgun and Yoggu communities, a cere- who have sustained them for generations (Tengo et al. mony for yam harvesting is regularly performed usually 2007). These groves are also regarded as a place to find at the household level. Furthermore, it is a custom that rare plants and animals used for medicinal and ritual parts of the shea tree can only be harvested for firewood purposes. Boakye-Danquah et al. (2014) found high soil when a newborn is introduced to the community. organic carbon content (a proxy indicator of a healthy ecosystem) in the sacred groves of Tolon when com- pared to land used for other types of activities. The strict 3.1.3. TEK in the form of rules and regulations protection accorded to groves accounts for this differ- Rules and regulations governing TEK facilitate common ence. In Yoggu and Kpalgun communities, entrance to agreement on the use or non-use of a particular ecosys- traditional protected areas was found to be highly tem service. At critical stages when a particular ecosys- restricted. The research team was allowed to enter the tem service is found to be at the point of extinction or sacred groves only under the guidance of a village elder vulnerable to environmental changes, communities – after a thorough consultation with the chief. In addition through their traditional authorities – may enact new to the smaller groves scattered within the Yoggu and rules to regulate the service’s withdrawal to ensure total Kpalgun villages, the Jaagbo grove was frequently men- or partial protection. Strict sanctions and fines are levied tioned by participants in field survey activities as one of on individuals or households found to have violated such the biggest and most highly revered by households rules and regulations; these rules and regulations usually within and across the area (Corbin 2008). complement other aspects of TEK and hence cannot function independently. In all four study communities, for example, it is a common rule that one can harvest the 3.2. Assessment of community- and household- fruit of the shea tree from community-owned land, but if level TEK awareness and compliance at thetreeislocatedon an individual’s farm, permission needs to be sought from the farm owner before harvest- 3.2.1. Intercommunity comparison of TEK ing. Failure to comply with such rules and regulations awareness and compliance often results in a fine of money or livestock, public The results of the household questionnaire survey sug- flogging, and, in extreme cases, expulsion from the gest that a respondent’s awareness of a TEK did not village. necessarily equate with compliance. Results indicate a Figure 3. Comparison of TEK awareness and compliance across study communities. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 31 high degree of variation between awareness and compli- a statistically significant difference between younger adults and mature adults with respect to compliance ance, as reflected in the higher responses for awareness of all four TEK systems compared to compliance (Figure 3). with taboos and totems (p ˂ 0.001); rules and regulations The responseratefor allfourTEK indicatestraditional (p ˂ 0.5); and traditional protected areas (p ˂ 0.1) (Table 3). protected areas received the highest response rate in terms of both awareness (84%) and compliance (69%). The analysis showed that, compared with women, Taboos and totems ranked second (76% and 54%, men were more likely to be aware of rules and regula- tions (p ˂ 0.1). Anecdotal evidence from informants in respectively), followed closely by customs and rituals (70% and 45%, respectively), with rules and regulations the study communities indicates that men dominate in being the least (67% and 44%, respectively). leadership positions, and are also responsible for most decision-making. Length of stay in a village has a A comparison of awareness and compliance among the study communities revealed that across the four statistically significant effect on awareness of tradi- characterized TEK systems, households in Bankpama tional protected areas. Results showed that respon- dents who have lived in their community for more community exhibited significantly different levels of awareness and compliance compared to the Yoggu, than 50 years were more likely to be aware of the Kpalgun, and Baluefili communities. For instance, existence of protected areas than those who have whereas traditional protected areas were the least rated been residents for less than 10 years (p ˂ 0.1). by households in Bankpama in terms of compliance and The GLM regression result also revealed the influence awareness, households in Yoggu, Kpalgun, and Baluefili of residency status (settler or native) on awareness of rated this aspect the highest across the four aspects taboos and customs, as migrants were found to be less (Figure 3). An informant in Bankpama may have pro- likely to be aware of taboos and customs (p ˂ 0.1) than vided one plausible explanation for the observed varia- the natives. Again, when compared to natives, migrants tion during an interview: were less likely to be aware of traditional protected areas (p ˂ 0.001). This distinction also applies to compliance ‘Because we are not natives of this area, we always have to with customs and rituals; the results indicate that natives seek permission from the chief of Baleufili to use any area were more likely to comply compared with migrant of land that is outside our original boundary. Moreover, respondents (p ˂ 0.5). Religion appeared to have a sig- our population has increased, thus putting pressure on the land for farming. Even now we cannot allow the land nificant effect on the awareness of customs and rituals as toliefallowasweusedtodosomeyears back’. well as of rules and regulations. Compared with Muslims, traditionalists were more likely to be aware of customs 3.2.2. Influence of socio-demographic and rituals (p ˂ 0.1). By contrast, Muslims were found to characteristics on TEK awareness and compliance have a higher level of awareness of rules and regulations To examine the influence of household socio-demo- than Christians (p ˂ 0.1). graphic characteristics on TEK awareness and compli- ance, a simple GLM regression analysis was performed. Results showed significant intergenerational (age groups) 3.3. Intergenerational perceptions of TEK for differences in awareness of customs and rituals, with the ecosystem management elderly group much more likely to be aware compared with mature adults (p ˂ 0.1) and younger adults 3.3.1. Respondents’ views on the current role of (p ˂ 0.001). Regarding compliance, mature adults com- TEK in ecosystem management pared with the elderly (p ˂ 0.5) appeared less likely to Respondents were asked to share their views on the comply with taboos and totems. The results also indicated changing role of TEK for ecosystem management by Table 3. Influence of socio-demographic characteristics on TEK awareness and compliance (generalized linear model regression analysis). Awareness of TEK system Compliance with TEK system AW_TAB AW_CR AW_RR AW_TPA CO_TAB CO_CR CO_RR CO_TPA Predictor variables Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Intercepts 0.82 2.11 1.50 * 1.90 * 2.44 ** 6.03 1.36 2.81 ** Age groups: mature adults (compared with the elderly) 0.48 −0.92 −0.32 −0.38 −1.69 ** −2.93 −0.56 −1.05 Age groups: younger adults (compared with the elderly) −0.74 −2.05 *** −0.57 −0.42 −2.92 *** −7.73 −1.49 * −1.27 Gender: male (compared with female) 0.58 −0.30 −0.63 −0.68 −0.092 1.11 0.37 −0.42 Education: junior high (compared with non- formal) 0.20 0.24 −0.35 16.3 0.48 1.40 1.53 0.66 Length of stay: 10–30 years (compared with less than 10 years) 0.21 0.04 −0.25 0.77 0.07 −1.99 −0.26 0.04 Length of stay: more than 50 years (compared with less than 10 0.82 −0.49 −0.60 1.76 −0.32 −3.61 −0.33 −1.27 years) Residency status: migrant (compared with native) −0.68 0.18 −0.07 −1.54 *** 0.18 9.40 * 0.58 −0.02 Religion: Christian (compared with Muslim) 0.40 −0.08 0.07 0.72 0.04 2.99 −0.61 0.13 + + Religion: traditional (compared with Muslim) 0.57 1.27 1.01 −0.36 0.48 9.63 0.45 −0.53 P-values are significant at p ˂ 0.1, +; p ˂ 0.05, *; p ˂ 0.01, **; p ˂ 0.001, ***. AW = Awareness; CO = Compliance; TAB = Taboos and totems; CR = Customs and rituals; RR = Rules and regulations; TPA = Traditional protected area 32 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. Table 4. Inter-generational (age-group) views on the role of TEK in ecosystem services management. Statement and perception level of respondents TEK remains relevant for ecosystem TEK should be disregarded as it is Government must support communities with services management and governance (%) no longer applicable (%) policies to protect their good TEK systems (%) Generational group Agree Disagree Don’t know Agree Disagree Don’t know Agree Disagree Don’t know Younger adults (n = 65) 18.5 58.5 23.0 66.2 16.9 16.9 60.0 15.4 24.6 Mature adults (n = 65) 69.2 18.5 12.3 26.2 30.8 43.1 53.8 20.4 26.2 Elderly (n = 65) 83.1 10.8 6.2 10.8 81.5 7.7 46.2 38.5 15.4 Total (n = 195) 56.9 29.2 13.8 34.4 43.1 22.6 53.3 24.6 22.1 χ ** ** * ** ** ** * * * n = number of observations, χ = Chi-square (Pearson’s) test of significance: *: p ˂ 0.05; **: p ˂ 0, p ˂ 0.01. choosing one of three options (agree, disagree, and followed by younger adults (16.9%) and the elderly don’t know) in response to three different statements. (7.7%). These results strongly validate the views of The three statements were: (1) TEK remains relevant respondents for the first statement. A 28-year-old for ecosystem services management; (2) TEK should younger adult at Baleufili community supported his be disregarded, as it is no longer applicable for eco- view by saying: system services management; and (3) government Why should one stay here to apply all the numerous agencies should support communities to protect and TEK practices when they do not even work any- preserve their good TEK systems. Table 4 presents more? Even my father who has been farming for so the results on the views of respondents stratified many years in this village tells me that he has started using modern practices. Personally, I do not think across the three age groups. For the first statement, TEK is practical; I prefer to travel to Kumasi to work TEK remains relevant for ecosystem services manage- for money. ment and governance, a significant statistical variation in opinion between age groups was observed. An Regarding the statement ‘Government agencies must overwhelming proportion of the elderly (83.1%, support communities to protect and preserve their good p ˂ 0.01) agreed with this statement, followed by TEK systems’, respondents’ views were fairly and 69.2% of mature adults. Only 18.5% of the younger evenly spread across each of the three response adults agreed. By contrast, 58.5% of the younger options. However, younger adults (60%) compared adults disagreed with this statement (p ˂ 0.01), com- with mature adults (53.8%) and the elderly (46.2%) pared with 18.5% of mature adults and only 10.8% of agreed, while the majority who disagreed with the the elderly. Younger adults also gave the highest statement were the elderly (38.5%, p ˂ 0.05). The percentage of ‘don’t know’ answers (23.0%, elderly often cited their distrust of government insti- p ˂ 0.05), followed by 12.3% of mature adults and tutions and agencies based on their past experiences, 6.2% of the elderly. The above discrepancy in opinion and hence felt that they could not rely on the govern- may be supported by the words of a 73-year-old ment for any form of support. informant farmer at Kpalgun community when he stated: 3.3.2. Prioritizing TEK for use and application The main reason for the continuous survival of all Using a six-point Likert scale (1 = not a priority, the tanga (vitellaria paradoxa) and dawadawa (par- 2 = low priority, 3 = somewhat of a priority, 4 = mod- kia biglobosa) trees you see in this community is that erate priority, 5 = high priority, and 6 = essential we used the TEK practices passed on from our priority) in the questionnaire surveys, respondents ancestors to preserve them. If we had cut them were asked to prioritize their choice of preference of indiscriminately as some people (especially the youth) are doing nowadays, I am sure we all would the four identified TEKs given the opportunity not have survived till now, so I am confident that (Figure 4). Carter et al. (2000) applied a similar TEK will still be relevant. point-scoring system to evaluate attitudes toward the conservation of non-game birds and their habitats There was also a significant variation in respondents’ in the United States. views regarding the second statement: TEK should be Overall, the analysis indicates a wide contrast in disregarded, as it is no longer applicable for ecosystem the preferred choice of TEK for managing the local services management (Table 4). While the majority of ecosystem. Among the younger adults, rules and reg- the younger adults (66.2%, p ˂ 0.01) agreed with this ulations were given an essential priority rating, the statement, the strongest level of disagreement came highest in terms of preference for application. from the elderly (81.5%, p ˂ 0.01), followed by 30.8% Traditional protected areas and taboos and totems of mature adults and 16.9% of younger adults dis- were both given a moderate priority rating, with agreeing. Interestingly, the ‘don’t know’ responses customs and rituals being given somewhat of a prior- were dominated by mature adults (43.1%, p ˂ 0.01), ity rating, indicative of it being less preferred as a INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 33 Taboos and totems Traditional protected areas 0 Customs and rituals Rules and regulations Younger Adults Mature Adults The Elderly Figure 4. Respondents’ priority choice for the use and application of TEK. TEK management practice for ecosystem services. As different age groups regarding the role of TEK for one respondent at Kpalgun village during the survey managing the local ecosystem as was found earlier. made clear: My grandfather strongly believes in all the taboos, 4. Discussion totems, and rituals in this village for regulating the harvesting of dawadawa (parkia biglobosa).He Results from the survey suggest that households in all taught me about the importance of tibuni (sacred four study communities interdependently use and groves and shrines) because his father transferred apply different forms of TEK aimed directly and the knowledge to him. Now, I feel it is not an indirectly at regulating or controlling different cate- effective practice so I do not adhere to it, I prefer gories of ecosystem services that are embedded in rules and regulations which is free from spiritualism. Moreover, I am a Christian and it is not allowed. local sociocultural mechanisms (Berkes et al. 2000; Colding & Folke 2001). Despite the significant geo- Results from mature adults indicate that traditional graphical distance between communities in Tolon protected areas are this group’s most preferred TEK, (Yoggu and Kpalgun) and those in Wa West and hence its essential priority rating. Customs and (Baleufili and Bankpama) districts, high similarities rituals were given a high-priority rating, whereas in TEK practices across all four study communities taboos and totems were offered a moderate priority. were noted (Table 2). These similarities may be Rules and regulations as a TEK system were given a attributed to the limited environmental differences low-priority rating. A mature adult respondent dur- (vegetative and climatic) and common socioeco- ing the face-to-face interview at Yoggu community nomic and cultural conditions across Northern explained: Ghana. A more obvious explanation can be that com- munities recognize TEK as the most practical and The reason why I believe in the use of traditional readily available tool for dealing with the common protected areas and taboos and customs more than rules and regulations is that they have been used by challenge of sustainably managing limited and dimin- our ancestors to preserve this very land for us. These ishing natural resources against the backdrop of practices scare people, unlike rules and regulations environmental and socioeconomic changes. which are more recent and have not really been Observable differences in practices can be attributed observed, especially by the younger generation. to local-scale variations in ecosystem conditions. Similar to the results from mature adults, the elderly With households known to be highly dependent also gave traditional protected areas an essential on provisioning services (Boafo et al. 2014), it was priority rating. Taboos and totems and customs and not surprising that most informants interviewed con- rituals were assessed as a high-priority TEK, with sidered TEK an economic and social asset, as it con- rules and regulations being given the lowest priority tributes to ensuring the productivity and score. The analysis here corroborates the views of sustainability of the local ecosystem. Key informants 34 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. Overall, the survey results suggest the weak influ- and respondents from face-to-face interviews across ence of socio-demographic variables on awareness the study communities cited a number of examples to elaborate on how their local environment has been and compliance of all TEK systems. However, the statistically significant relationships between local maintained largely due to the active and effective inhabitants’ awareness of and compliance with differ- application of TEK passed on to them from preceding generations. A classic example of TEK benefits that ent aspects of TEK as observed in this study under- score the variations in their use and application emerged throughout the field survey was that in the across the study sites and regions (Table 3). long dry seasons, when vegetative cover is almost non-existent on the land, unprotected and bare soils Findings from this study corroborate with those of previous research conducted in other parts of Ghana around settlements are enriched by evenly spreading (Anane 1997; Sarfo-Mensah & Oduro 2010) and the droppings from livestock (mainly cattle). The dung, along with other decomposed organic materials from world (Ulluwishewa et al. 2008). The significant effect daily household activities, serves as the main nutrient of age on awareness of customs and rituals and tradi- tional protected areas can be directly attributed to enhancement strategy for compound farms. This rapidly changing socioeconomic and environmental particular traditional technique of land management could be the reason crops such as maize, peppers, and changes across the study area (Millar 2004; Songsore 2011). The interplay between the perennial out- groundnuts flourish annually on compound farms migration by youthful populations to Southern despite intensive land use (Derbile 2009). Findings from Boakye-Danquah et al. (2014) study in Fihini Ghana and the general disinterest in agriculture are plausible explanations for the observed variations in at the Tolon area on farm land management showed TEK awareness and compliance across age groups. that, apart from sacred groves, compound farms retained the highest soil organic carbon content, lar- Since the majority of the youthful population in the study communities move to urban centers in search gely because of the use of intensive management of jobs, old people remain and, therefore, have a high practices involving household organic materials, further supporting this relationship. awareness and compliance compared with the The high discrepancy between locals’ awareness younger and matured adults. As observed during household interviews, the majority of interviewees and compliance with the four characterized TEK systems – taboos and totems, customs and rituals, were returning migrants who had plans of going rules and regulations, and traditional protected areas back after a short stay. It is therefore not surprising that, compared with younger and mature adults, the as observed in this case study – calls into question the usefulness of TEK for rural communities. With elderly were more likely to be aware of and comply awareness not equating to compliance, as evidence with the observed TEK. However, the lack of a recep- in the comparatively low and declining level of com- tive population to transmit and operationalize TEK in pliance with all TEK aspects (Figure 3), it is possible the study communities, the erosion of once-resilient that enforcement of TEK is weak overall, owing to and effective practices for the identification, utiliza- closely related social, economic, cultural, and envir- tion, and management of ecosystem services are onmental factors such as migration, education, land imminent, as is happening in other parts of the tenure arrangements, climate variability, and change, world. and effects of drought and floods are known to sig- The result that men were more likely than women nificantly impact livelihood systems in Northern to be aware of rules and regulations provides evi- Ghana (Dietz et al. 2004; Acheampong et al. 2014). dence of the ingrained traditional system of leader- Similarly, Gibson et al. (2005) discussed effective ship in the study communities, which often excludes enforcement as a required condition if natural- women from public decision-making. The fact that resource management is to be successful. Even with women sampled for household questionnaire inter- the common patterns in household awareness and views were often hesitant to participate, even in the compliance of TEK systems in the study commu- absence of men, is evidence of strongly gendered nities, with traditional protected areas scoring the roles. Results indicate that respondents who have highest rating in terms on both awareness and com- stayed longer in the community (more than pliance, it is worth noting that the views of house- 50 years compared to less than 10 years) are more holds in Bankpama community deviated significantly likely to be aware of the existence of traditional from this observed trend (Figure 3). This is attributed protected areas; it is therefore unsurprising that, to the fact that, compared with the other three com- compared with migrants or settlers, natives were munities, Bankpama is dominated by an immigrant more likely to be aware of taboos and customs as population, meaning that they possess less-accurate well as traditional protected areas, and also more detailed adaptive knowledge of their local ecosystem likely to comply with customs and rituals (Table 3). compared to natives who have resided there for a This influence of religion on TEK-based awareness of longer period (Atran 2001). customs and rituals as well as rules and regulations INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & MANAGEMENT 35 management strategies as people may not be willing can be attributed to the significant role played by to share TEK that may be relevant for the conserva- traditional authorities in the enforcement of TEK. In comparison with Christians and Muslims, tradi- tion and sustainable use of ecosystems. tionalists are more likely to be the holders and enfor- cers of TEK knowledge, and hence their high 5. Policy implications awareness overall. In the study, intergenerational views on TEK’s As findings from this study have demonstrated, TEK roles in ecosystem management were found to be is gradually being abandoned by communities and highly contradictory. Whereas most mature adults households in rural Northern Ghana as a result of and the elderly still perceived TEK as relevant for the combination of rapid changes to socioeconomic, managing diverse ecosystem services, the younger cultural, and environmental conditions. Considering adult generation overwhelmingly dismissed TEK the effects that this has on ecosystem services utiliza- (Table 4). An explanation for the high proportion of tion and management across in rural landscapes pol- mature adults and the elderly holding positive views icymakers in Ghana need to act urgently to design on TEK reflects these groups’ constant engagement and implement proactive and practical measures as with the local environment through livelihood activ- part of rural development policies. This is necessary ities such as farming, wild food collection, and others. because, despite the country’s high involvement in Analysis of informant interview transcripts revealed ratifying many international and multilateral policy that supporters of TEK view it as critical in support- initiatives targeted at reviving TEK, there appears to ing formal knowledge systems in managing the local be little or no clear action at the national, regional, or ecosystem. Conversely, younger adults’ high propen- local levels toward this end, resulting in little scien- sity to migrate to urban centers means they lack tific knowledge on TEK. practical knowledge of TEK practices and their use- This study recommends the development of a fulness as used in managing ecosystem services. participatory methodology for assessing the TEK Even though the opinions held by different age of local communities, identifying, collecting, mea- groups did not vary greatly for the question of suring, validating, and monitoring its contents and whether government should support the maintenance use. For such an assessment to be successful, local of good TEK systems, different reasons can be communities need to collaborate closely with gov- adduced for their views, relating strongly to the pre- ernment agencies and departments, academia, and ferred form of TEK system for managing ecosystem nongovernmental organizations, all of which need services. As the household survey revealed (Figure 4), to play a major role at different stages. Local com- younger people prefer the application of rules and munities’ active involvement will go a long way regulations, which they view as more modern and toward overcoming their perception of their knowl- also lacking spiritual or religions connotations, edge system being marginalized (often the case) or which are perceived to be associated with disrespect- ‘stolen’ from them. In addition to having national ing taboos and totems, customs and rituals, and tra- relevance, the outcome data can serve as a vital tool ditional protected areas. The mature adult and elderly for international and multilateral biodiversity and groups, however, believe that the government cannot ecosystem assessment programs, such as the be trusted to manage ecosystem services and that, ongoing IPBES, which counts assessment of existing therefore, other TEK practices, such as taboos and knowledge systems as one of its key functions (Diaz totems, customs and rituals, and traditional protected et al. 2015). areas should continue to be applied. This lack of trust Furthermore, policymakers should mainstream in government by mature adults and the elderly may TEK into formal educational curricula right from stem from past natural resource management policies the primary level. This might help promote knowl- and practices performed by formal governance sys- edge, understanding, and appreciation of TEK asso- tems, which have often undermined local peoples’ ciated with the sustainable management of ecosystem access to critical ecosystem services such as bush services at an early age. In the context of Northern meat and fuel wood. Recognizing that modern gov- Ghana, where youthful populations migrate to the ernance systems cannot be ruled out completely in urban south even before completing their basic edu- the management of ecosystem services, a substantial cation, this could be an important step toward brid- number of elderly participants (nearly half) did sup- ging the current wide gap in awareness between port a role for government institutions and agencies. younger and elderly populations that this study It is, however, important to note that the apparent found. It is recommended that informal education lack of trust in government agencies expressed by a stakeholders such as parents and traditional authori- large proportion of mature adults and the elderly can ties be actively engaged in the transmission of TEK be a stumbling block in efforts to build synergy knowledge in formal school systems. These stake- between TEK and formal ecosystem services holders can contribute by offering practical sessions 36 Y. A. BOAFO ET AL. implementing potent TEK are formulated to help to students in their local context. Finally, the study safeguard ecosystems and improve livelihood sys- recommends that policymakers enact ecosystem management policies and conservation strategies tems, especially in rural areas of Ghana. that pay attention to the links between local commu- nities and nature. Note 1. Two main farm types exist in the study area: com- 6. Conclusions pound farms and bush farms. Compound farms, typically averaging 1.7 hectares per household, are While recognizing that modern scientific knowledge present around household settlements; bush farms is invaluable in ecosystem services management, the (average size being 3.1 hectares) are distant from need remains to incorporate resilient and practical settlements and are based on the bush fallow systems forms of TEK held by local communities, as both (Kranjac-Berisavljevic et al. 1999; Gyasi 2002). empirical data and research outcomes have shown these to be of great significance especially in this era Acknowledgements of global environmental change (Turner & Berkes 2006; Takeuchi 2010). This study explored commu- This paper evolved out of the doctoral thesis ‘Provisioning nity and household knowledge and perceptions of ecosystem services utilization and management in Northern Ghana: A community-based approach’ for the United TEKs role in the management of ecosystem services Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of through a case study of four rural communities in Sustainability (UNU-IAS). We would like to thank Northern Ghana. Professor Toshiya Okuro and Dr Alexandros Gasparatos for Findings suggest that diverse forms of TEK devel- their invaluable knowledge and inputs. The constructive feed- oped over generations are still being applied by com- backs and suggestions from the three anonymous reviewers munities and households in the form of taboos and also contributed greatly to enhancing the quality of this paper. totems, customs and rituals, rules and regulations, and traditional protected areas. Results from the pre- Disclosure statement sent study indicate the existence of an inverse rela- tionship between awareness and compliance with No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. TEK systems, which is reflected in the relatively high awareness and low compliance of all TEK cate- Funding gories assessed across the study communities. A high The study was conducted as part of the ‘Enhancing variation among age groups was found with regard to Resilience to Climate and Ecosystem Changes in Semi- the respondents’ views on the role of TEK in sustain- Arid Africa: An Integrated Approach (CECAR Africa)’ able ecosystem management. Compared to mature project, jointly sponsored by the Japan International adults and the elderly, younger adults showed less Cooperation for Development (JICA) and Japan Science understanding and appreciation of TEK. and Technology Agency (JST). 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Food: Crop and animals 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 3. Food: Fish catch 32.3 20.0 13.6 55.6 62.5 4. Fodder and forage 92.7 95.0 95.5 83.3 93.2 5. Fuel wood 94.8 90.0 100.0 94.4 100.0 6. Building materials 86.5 100.0 100.0 50.0 75.0 7. Freshwater 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 8. Wild plants/food 92.7 92.5 90.9 88.9 100.0 9. Medicinal plants and animals 69.8 70.0 72.7 61.1 75.0 Cultural 1. Sacred groves 69.8 72.5 81.8 55.6 62.5 2. Spiritual sacrifices 61.5 67.5 54.5 50.0 68.8 3. Place of heart 60.4 60.0 72.7 55.6 50.0 Regulating 1. Pest and disease control 59.4 55.0 68.2 61.1 56.3 2. Drought reduction 53.1 47.5 59.1 66.7 43.8 3. Pollination 13.5 22.5 13.6 5.6 0.0 4. Erosion prevention 60.4 57.5 68.2 50.0 68.8 5. Flood prevention 47.9 47.5 45.5 31.3 66.7 Supporting 1. Soil fertility enhancement 65.6 72.5 86.4 38.9 50.0 2. Animal dung burial 37.5 50.0 40.9 11.1 31.3 1 2 Source: Boafo et al. (2014); Field survey, 2013.

Journal

International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management – Taylor & Francis

Published: Jan 2, 2016

Keywords: Awareness and compliance; ecosystem services; Northern Ghana; management; traditional ecological knowledge

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