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Local fishers’ knowledge on the ecology, economic importance, and threats faced by populations of African snakehead fish, Parachanna obscura, within Côte d'Ivoire freshwater ecosystems

Local fishers’ knowledge on the ecology, economic importance, and threats faced by populations of... INTRODUCTIONThe goods and services resulting from freshwater ecosystems have an estimated global value of up to USD 15 trillion. This sum includes essential products such as food and drinking water in addition to services such as water filtration and flood control (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Fishes form the most important freshwater product globally and provide the primary source of protein for almost 3.3 billion people worldwide (FAO, 2020). Africa's freshwater fishery harvest is estimated to be around 2.5 million tonnes per year, accounting for nearly 25% of the world's freshwater capture (Kpogue et al., 2012a). It provides essential nutrition for the poorest of communities and is a source of employment and income for many African people (Smith et al., 2009; WorldFish Center, 2008). Despite the importance and enormous contribution of freshwater fish to fish production in Africa, most African countries cannot entirely satisfy their national demand of fish products (Kpogue et al., 2012a) and still depend on imports of fish. Accordingly, the development of aquaculture through the farming of local African freshwater species is needed (Kpogue et al., 2012a).In Côte d'Ivoire, fishes represent about 50% of animal protein sources (COMHAFAT, 2014). Unfortunately, the country remains highly dependent on imports to satisfy its national demand for fishery products (COMHAFAT, 2014). National fish production is about 50,000 tonnes on average per year, while there is a need for more than 360,000 tonnes, with the difference being filled through imports. These imports represent a value of around 289 million euros, resulting in a trade deficit (COMHAFAT, 2014). The country has considerable potential for the development of aquaculture if its natural resources are taken into account. One fish species of interest is Parachanna obscura, also known as snakehead fish, belonging to the Channidae family. The genus Parachanna includes two others species, namely Parachanna africana and Parachanna isignis (Bonou & Teugels, 1985). Parachanna obscura is the most popular and widespread African Channidae (Bonou & Teugels, 1985). It is generally distributed in the intertropical convergence zone where the water temperature ranges from 26 to 28°C, principally in West Africa. Nevertheless, it is also found in the upper course of the White Nile, the Chad lake basin, and the Congo River basin (Lalèyè, 2020; Teugels, 2003; Union Africaine, 2013). It represents a valuable fish resource for African populations due to its high nutritional value and economic potential (Odo, 2012). While these fish are rarely used in aquaculture, they represent future potential for increasing Ivorian aquaculture productivity. However, some preliminary studies and information about biology, reproduction, ecology, and market price are needed before aquaculture of the species could start.Previous studies carried out in Côte d'Ivoire and other parts of Africa mainly focused on P. obscura biology (Bolaji al., 2011; Odo, 2012) and reproduction ( ; Kpogue et al., 2012b; Vodounnou et al., 2017). However, there is a gap in information related to the goods and services provided by this fish to Ivorian local fishers. In addition, regarding the past, current, and future trends of climate change and the rate of urbanization, more information is needed on the threats to which P. obscura are exposed. Indeed, in Côte d'Ivoire, the urbanization rate increased from 18% to over 50% between 1960 and 2018 (USAID, 2017). The climate has also considerably changed in the country over the 20th century, and it is expected to continue changing in the future. According to the prediction of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change under the RCP4.5 scenario, the temperature will rise by 3°C by 2100, over most of Côte d'Ivoire. The daily precipitation is predicted to drop by 8% during the season from April to July for the next 100 years (Bernard, 2014). Aquatic organisms are very sensitive to any change in their environment (Amoutchi et al., 2021). Freshwater organisms have the highest proportion of species globally categorized as extinct or threatened in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (Costello, 2015; IUCN, 2022). Climate change and human actions such as water pollution, water extraction, overexploitation, habitat loss or transformation, and dam construction have been acknowledged to stress Africa's freshwater biodiversity (Darwall et al., 2011). Thus, providing information on P. obscura will be helpful for decision‐making about its introduction in aquaculture and for the management and conservation of its natural populations.People who have remained in a single location for many generations, sometimes for millennia, possess unique knowledge about their home environments, the species that live there, the changes that have occurred over time, and the close, interdependent relationships between people and other life forms (Turner et al., 2022). The locally held and mobilized knowledge of these people is variously referred to as traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK), local ecological knowledge (LEK), or experience‐based, practical, or experiential knowledge (Joa et al., 2018). However, LEK is part of people's site‐specific ecological knowledge, which includes knowledge held and used by traditionally living indigenous people with a historical continuity of resource use as well as by non‐indigenous natural resource users, which can be practically applied (Joa et al., 2018). Thus, according to Charnley et al. (2007), LEK is defined as knowledge, practices, and beliefs regarding ecological relationships that are gained through extensive personal observation and interaction with local ecosystems and shared among local resource users. In contrast to the frequent practice in academia and Western science, such knowledge systems represent cumulative lived experience and are not typically divided or reduced to their constituent pieces (Turner et al., 2022). These knowledge systems have several features that can be taken into account in terms of the contributions they have made and will continue to make to the long‐term sustainability and wellness of the planet (Houde, 2007). Fishers are people whose livelihoods directly depend on the aquatic ecosystem's services. Consequently, they are the group most impacted by any environmental disturbance in this ecosystem and are also the primary group with the greatest knowledge about the characteristics of the disturbances (Amoutchi et al., 2021). Thus, they are key groups for providing local ecological knowledge regarding habitat, ecosystem services, population dynamics, and threats on P. obscura populations. In our case, we consider fishers’ knowledge as local ecological knowledge, since fishers’ communities are made up of traditional or indigenous fishers as well as non‐indigenous people with well‐rooted and accumulated knowledge. Such knowledge is relevant for the sustainability and conservation of P. obscura fishery resources. To this end, the study was designed to investigate the knowledge of local fishers from various ethnic groups on local names, habitats, uses, market price, population dynamics, and the threats faced by the snakehead fish P. obscura in Ivorian freshwaters, considering the distinct climate zones of the country.MATERIALS AND METHODSStudy areaThe study was carried out in Cote d'Ivoire located in West Africa (Figure 1). Three among the four Ivorian climate zones were selected for this study: the Guinean, Sudano‐Guinean, and Sudanian. Fishers from Bia River, Ayame lake, and Faye Lake were randomly selected in the Guinean climate zone. These fishers were from Krindjabo, Bianou, Alliekro, and Ayame localities. The Guinean climate zone is the sub‐equatorial climate characterized by annual precipitation estimated to be more than 1500 mm per year, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons (Bernard, 2014). Within Sudano‐Guinean, fishers from the localities of Koubi, Dibobly, and Guiglo working on Kan Lake, Buyo lake, and Nzo River, respectively, were selected. The Sudano‐Guinean climatic zone is characterized by an equatorial transition climate, with an annual precipitation of 1200–1500 mm. This climate zone also has two rainy and two dry seasons. The Sudanian zone is characterized by a tropical climate with an annual precipitation that comprises between 900 and 1200 mm. The Sudanian climatic zone has one rainy and one dry seasons. Fishers from Samorosso village fishing on Bagoue river were selected for the study.1FIGUREMap of the study area, showing the borders of Côte d'Ivoire, its position in West Africa, the main climate zones, and the locations where the study was conducted.Sampling procedure and data collectionA preliminary investigation was done in the three selected climatic zones with 30 fishers per zone in order to determine the proportion of them involved in P. obscura business, resulting in 60% of fishers among the interviewees involved in P. obscura fishing or trading process. The 60% obtained proportion was then used in Dagnelie's (1998) formula with a 95% confidence level to estimate the necessary sample size:N=U1−α/22p1−pd2,$$\begin{equation*}N = \frac{{U_{1 - \alpha /2}^2p\left( {1 - p} \right)}}{{{d}^2}},\end{equation*}$$where N represents the total number of fishers to be surveyed; U21 −α/2 is the value of the normal random variable for a probability value of 1–α/2 = 0.975, U1−α/2  = 1.96; p is the estimated proportion of fishers fishing P. obscura, obtained from the preliminary investigation (p = 0.60); and d represents the margin of error of a parameter estimated from the sample fixed at 0.05. From the calculation, the sample size of 369 fishers was the minimum needed, but to be more accurate, 381 fishers were interviewed in this study.Concerning the data collection, 381 fishers were randomly selected within the different sites. Because of various local languages of local people, in each of the communities, we engaged the services of a translator who is usually a member of such community, with some level of formal education. The interviewed fishers included those from indigenous and non‐indigenous ethnic groups involved in fishing activities of the locations where the study was conducted. Most of non‐indigenous fishers relied solely on fisheries as their main source of income, whereas indigenous fishers had diversified sources (e.g., agriculture, livestock, and retail shopping) of incomes. The interview was conducted face‐to‐face using a structured questionnaire (see Appendix) during the period from October 2020 to February 2021. The respondents were distributed into 14 ethnic groups including both Ivorian and foreign ( from Mali, a neighbouring country) ethnic groups. A set of information about the selected fishers’ socio‐demographic background is summarized in Table 1. The questionnaire was designed to assess the fishers’ knowledge of the local names, habitats (where the species is caught or found), market price, uses, and production. Fishers’ perceptions of decrease in P. obscura fish abundance or quantity over the last decade were also assessed. Furthermore, the threats faced by the snakehead fish populations in Ivorian aquatic ecosystems were additionally addressed by a questionnaire. The data collection and the procedure of fishers’ selection are summarized in Figure 2.1TABLEOverview of the socio‐demographic background of fishers (N = 381) by their climate zone and ethnic groupClimate zoneSample sizeEthnic groupEthnic groupSexEducation levelTotal per ethnic group[20–29][30–39][40–49][50–59]≥60MaleFemaleNo formal educationPrimaryJunior high schoolSenior high schoolUniversityGuinean Zone171Agni728307266817271710374Apollo44314Bambara (Mali)97168816Baoulé13444Bozo (Mali)188211282212730Dioula844448Guéré224224Keke (Mali)12333Koroboro (Mali)77617Samogor4444Sénoufo4482248Songai (Mali)63999Total4175418614130794728107171Sudano‐Guinean zone156Abron1111Agni1111Bambara (Mali)1111Baoule461928443181232113361Bozo (Mali)110166258238233Guere4122764458617201053Sénoufo1211232215Tagbana1111Total103265341511937455733156156Sudanian zone54Samorgo1121426485474253Sénoufo1111Total11215264864752542FIGUREFramework summarizing the sampling procedure and data collection.Data analysisDescriptive statistics (frequency, percentage) were applied to analyze fishers’ demographic information and their knowledge of market price, uses, production, and threats faced by P. obscura populations. A binary logistic regression model was used to test the relationship between demographic variables (climate zone, fishing watersheds, age, and education) and fishers’ perception of decrease in P. obscura abundance. The binary logistic regression model is an extension of simple linear regression that is used to predict the probability of an observation falling into one of two categories of a dichotomous dependent variable as a function of one or more independent variables (or predictors), which may be continuous or categorical. In this study, all the independent variables were categorical. We considered socio‐demographic and geographic variables of fishers as the independent (predictors) variables, and perception of decrease in P. obscura abundance variable as dependent variables. The perception variable included the following categories: 0 = no decrease and 1 = decrease. The significance was evaluated against the reference category, which was the first category of each of the independent variables. Guinean zone, age group of 60 years and over, Agni ethnic group, Bia River and university level were considered reference groups of the following independent variables: climate zone, age, ethnic group, watershed and education level, and sex. Z‐test was applied to test the significant differences among the threats listed by fishers as affecting snakehead fish in each climate zone and to compare the proportions of each habitat type of the species between climate zones. Alpha lesser than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. SPSS version 2.2 software was used for the descriptive statistics, while the binary logistic regression model and Z‐test were performed in R 3.6.3 software (R Core Team, 2020).RESULTSocio‐demographic background of respondentsIn total, 381 questionnaires were successfully completed. Both men and women were interviewed, with 141 (82.5%), 119 (76.3%), and 48 (88.9%) men compared to 30 (17.5%), 37 (23.7%), and 6 (11.1%) women in Guinean, Sudano‐Guinean, and Sudanian zones, respectively. Women were principally engaged with P. obscura fish trading activities, while men were engaged with fishing. Most of the respondents were between 30 and 39 years old in the Guinean zone, while in the Sudano‐Guinean and Sudanian zones, fishers interviewed were mostly older, between 40 and 59 years old. The majority of respondents in all three climate zones were either illiterate (no formal education) or had a low level of education (primary education, Table 1).Local names for P. obscuraFourteen ethnic groups involved in Ivorian fishery belonging to several socio‐linguistics groups were surveyed. For P. obscura fish known as ‘Poisson dormant’ (meaning sleeping fish) in Ivory Coast, various names were recorded according to the socio‐linguistic group and the related ethnic groups. A total of seven local names were recorded (Table 2). The most popular name is ‘Sounôgô‐djêguê’ (used in 35.7% of fishers’ ethnic groups) used by the ethnic groups originating from the northern part of Ivory Coast (Dioula, Sénoufo, and Tagbana) and some Malian ethnic groups, notably Bambara and Keke involved in Ivorian fishery. Another popular name of P. obscura fish is ‘Édjoué‐bilé’ (used in 21.4% of interviewed fishers’ ethnic groups) used by almost the majority of Akan group ethnics. ‘Pino’ is also one of the popular names of the snakehead fish used in Bozo, Bambara, and Songhaï ethnics groups (21.4% of ethnic groups). The fish is called ‘Ablo’, ‘Blinguidé’, ‘Poupougboon’, and ‘Guossa’ in Baoule, Samogor, Guere, and Koroboro ethnic groups, respectively.2TABLEFishers’ knowledge regarding local names of the snakehead fish P. obscura according to the socio‐linguistic and ethnic groupsSocio‐linguistic groupEthnic groupLocal namesNumber of respondentsAkanAbronÉdjoué‐bile1AgniÉdjoué‐bile75AppoloÉdjoué‐bile4BaouleAblo65GoreGuerePoupougboon57MandeeSénoufoSounôgô‐djêguê14TagbanaSounôgô‐djêguê1MalinkéDioulaSounôgô‐djêguê8SamogoBlinguidé57Foreign ethnic group (from Mali)BozoPino63BambaraSounôgô‐djêguê/Pino17KekeSounôgô‐djêguê3KoroboroGuossa7SonghaïPino9Total5147381Habitats of P. obscuraMajor freshwater ecosystems were listed by the local fishers as favoured habitats of P. obscura. Wetland (38%) and rivers (26%) were the most often mentioned, in general. Guinean and Sudano‐Guinean zones’ fishers mostly mentioned wetland as a favourite habitat of the species, whereas fishers in the Sudanian zone mentioned rivers as the dominant habitat (Figure 3). The proportion of each habitat type of P. obscura mentioned in the interviews differed significantly (p < 0.05) between fishers from the three climate zones (Table 3).3FIGUREPerception of fishers about the types of habitats where P. obscura fish is caught or found in the climate zones of Côte d'Ivoire.3TABLEResult of Z‐test comparing proportions of perceptions of fishers about each type of habitat of the snakehead fish among the three climate zones.Habitatχ2dfp‐ValueWetland38.12<0.001Lake17.12<0.001River138.02<0.001Stream12.020.002Use of P. obscuraMost respondents (N = 377; 99%) consume snakehead fish. The majority (87% or 327) of those consuming P. obscura do so because of the good taste of its flesh, whereas 11% (41 respondents) consume it for its high nutritional value, 1.3% (five respondents) for cultural reasons, and the remaining respondents (1.1%) did not know why they consume it (Figure 4). In addition to consumption, 1.6% of respondents, belonging to Bouale and Guere ethnics groups, responded that P. obscura fish is used in traditional medicine to treat deafness. In addition, one respondent within Songhai ethnic group said that this fish is used in magic for luck attraction.4FIGUREReasons for the consumption of P. obscura by the 377 fishers who consume this fish.Market priceThe majority of the 381 respondents mentioned that P. obscura is a valuable fish mostly sold for up to 3€ per kilogramme. However, the price per kilogramme varied significantly according to the localities and the climate zone. In the Guinean and Sudanian climates zones, the price of P. obscura is cheapest (varies from 1.5 to 3€), while the price of P. obscura per kilogramme in the Sudano‐Guinean climate zone is considered expensive, principally varying between 3.1 and 4.5€. Table 4 summarizes the fishers’ perceptions about the market price per kilogramme of P. obscura in Côte d'Ivoire.4TABLEFishers’ perception (N = 381) about the market price of the snakehead fish of P. obscura.Climate zoneMarket price (€ per kilogramme)Percentage of respondentsGuinean zoneLess than <1.549Between 1.5 and 348More than 4.51I have never sold2Total100Sudano‐Guinean zone<1.536Between 1.5 and 39Between 3.1 and 4.552More than 4.53Total100Sudanian zoneBetween 1.5 and 3100Total100Respondents’ willingness for introducing P. obscura in aquacultureAll (100%) of the respondents mentioned that P. obscura is not yet produced in aquaculture in Côte d'Ivoire. According to them, P. obscura should be introduced into aquaculture. They justified their interest by the sweet taste and high nutritional value of the fish. Some even said ‘because of the sweet taste of P. obscura fish, I prefer to keep them for household consumption whenever I catch them, instead of selling them’.Threats faced by P. obscura populations within Ivorian aquatic ecosystemFrom the 381 respondents, 71% reported a significant decrease in P. obscura abundance in Côte d'Ivoire over the last decade, whereas 29% did not observe any change. Of the total percentage of the respondents who observed a decrease in P. obscura abundance, respondents of the Guinean zone principally pointed out deforestation around watersheds (17.8%), obnoxious fishing practices (chemical products used for fishing, 17.8%), habitat destruction/modification (11.9%), and overfishing (12.9%) as the practices that are causing these decreases. Respondents from the Sudano‐Guinean zone reported that pesticide use in farms close to watersheds (36.8%), overfishing (21.6%), and water reduction in watersheds due to lack of rainfall (20%) were the main causes of these decreases in the species’ abundance. Habitat destruction/modification (84.4%) was reported by respondents from the Sudanian zone as the main threat affecting the decline in snakehead fish's abundance (Figure 5 and Table 5). Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed among proportions of the threats cited by fishers within each climate zone (Table 5).5FIGUREChord diagram showing fishers’ perceptions regarding the threats faced by Parachanna obscura fish populations within Ivorian freshwaters according to the 271 fishers who reported a decrease in the species’ populations. ChPrUseF, obnoxious fishing practices (chemical products use for fishing); DeArWa, deforestation around watersheds; HaDes/Mo, habitat destruction/modification; IdoKn, I do not know; Overf, overfishing; PeUsFar, pesticides use in farms close to watersheds; UsSmFi, use of small‐mesh fishing nets; WaReDLR, water reduction in watersheds due to lack of rainfall; Guinean, Guinean climate zone; Sudanian, Sudanian climate zone; Sudano‐Guinean, Sudano‐Guinean zone.5TABLEThe result of the significance of Z‐tests comparing the proportions of threats faced by the snakehead population P. obscura in Ivorian freshwater ecosystems considering each climatic zone (N = 271)Climate zoneThreatPercentageχ2p‐ValueGuinean zone (N = 101)Deforestation around watersheds17.814.370.03Habitat destruction/modification11.9Chemical products use for fishing17.8Overfishing12.9Use of small‐mesh fishing nets7.9Water reduction in watersheds due to lack of rainfall8.9I do not know22.8Total100Sudano‐Guinean zone (N = 125)Deforestation around watersheds1.6350.7<0.001Habitat destruction/modification13.7Chemical products use for fishing4.0Overfishing21.6Water reduction in watersheds due to lack of rainfall20Pesticides use in farms close to watersheds36.8I do not know2.4Total100Sudanian zone (N = 45)God8.9113.63<0.001Habitat destruction/modification84.4Overfishing4.4I do not know2.2Total100Respondents’ fishing watershed, climate zone and ethnic group (Koroboro and Songhai ethnic groups only), education, and gender were significantly associated with fishers’ perception of decrease in P. obscura fish abundance (Table 6). Perception of decrease in P. obscura fish abundance was higher (positive coefficients) among fishers in Buyo and Kan lakes, while it was lower (negative coefficients) among those in Ayame and Faye lakes. Perception of decrease in the amount of the snakehead fish was stronger in Koroboro and Songhai ethnic groups’ fishers and lower in those of Senoufo ethnic group. This perception was also stronger in females and lower in fishers from the Sudano‐Guinean zone.6TABLEResults of binary logistic regression of geographic and socio‐demographic variables determining fishers’ perception about a decrease in amount of the snakehead fish P. obscuraExplanatory variableCategoryObserved decrease in Parachanna obscura fish quantityCoefSig (SE)Climate zoneGuinean (Ref. group)Sudanian−0.26 (1.72)Sudano‐Guinean−2.16* (1.08)WatershedBia river (Ref. group)–Lake Ayame−1.65* (0.68)Lake Buyo2.21* (0.80)Lake faye−3.59* (1.02)Lake Kan4.13* (1.53)BagoueNARiver NzoNAEthnic groupAgni (Ref. group)–Abron14.50 (2399.55)Appolo−17.51 (1199.57)Bambara0.96 (0.94)Baoule−2.30 (1.35)Bozo0.54 (1.02)Dioula−0.05 (0.92)Guere1.80 (1.00)Keke16.27 (1384.50)Koroboro3.65* (1.49)Samorgor0.17 (1.69)Senoufo−2.05* (0.99)Songhaī3.93*(1.48)Tagbana10.87 (2399.55)Age≥60 (Ref. group)–[20–29]0.12 (0.78)[30–39]0.02 (0.65)[40–49]0.28 (0.64)[50–59]−0.12 (0.71)Education levelUniversity (Ref. group)–No formal education−1.98 (1.48)Primary−2.07 (1.48)Junior high school−3.07*(1.47)Senior high school−2.23 (1.57)GenderMale (Ref. group)Female0.87* (0.46)Log likelihood−168.49Akaike Inf. Crit.394.99Note: Significant correlations (p < 0.05) are given in bold, with the level of significance indicated by asterisks, and standard errors (SE) are given in brackets.Abbreviations: Akaike Inf. Crit., Akaike information criterion; Ref., reference.*p < 0.05.DISCUSSIONEffective and sustainable research for wildlife conservation depends upon having long‐term information that can keep pace with the unprecedented global changes we are seeing today. Traditionally, population sizes, ecology, and threats to species and their habitats have been obtained through empirical studies. However, the knowledge of local and indigenous communities worldwide has been acknowledged as an extremely rich and underused resource of information on how the environment, biodiversity, and local conditions are changing over time (Baird & Flaherty, 2005; Sobral et al., 2017; Turner et al., 2022). Results showed that seven local names are used in fishing communities to refer to P. obscura. Fishers principally cited wetland and rivers as the main habitat of the fish. Respondents also considered P. obscura to be a valuable fish species for their livelihoods with a market price ranging from <1.5 to 4.5€ depending on the zones. Most respondents expressed a willingness to support aquaculture of the species. Substantial decreases in the abundance of individuals of this fish populations were observed by the respondents, caused by many anthropogenic pressures such as deforestation around watersheds, obnoxious fishing practices, habitat destruction/modification, overfishing, and pesticide use in farms close to watersheds.Worldwide, species are known by their local or vernacular names, which are usually given by indigenous people in their languages (Singh, 2008). Local names are the result of a human's long‐standing interaction with their surrounding environment. Most often, the local names are given based on some salient characteristics, which can be appearance, shape, size, habitat, smell, taste, colour, utility, or other characters of the species (Singh, 2008). They are essential for improving the exchange of information between academic and non‐academic fields. Several local names of P. obscura fish were relieved by fishers of the various ethnic groups surveyed, meaning that these fish play an important cultural role in these communities. Indeed, according to the theory of ethno‐taxonomic diversity, the species identified by several traditional names are likely to be culturally important (Gaoué et al., 2017). Ethnic groups where the same local name is used for P. obscura belong to the same socio‐linguistic group or live in most cases in a close area. Thus, the similarity of local name facilitates communication about species between communities.Parachanna obscura is a demersal, potamodromous fish species that inhabits marginal vegetation and floodplains (Lalèyè, 2020). It lives in the creeks of swamps, ponds, streams, rivers, lakes, marshes, and floodplains. Parachanna obscura prefers calm and muddy areas and marginal vegetation stands in flowing water (Kpogue et al., 2012; Teugels et al., 1992). The different P. obscura habitats enumerated by the fishers in this study agree with the above habitat types, confirming the reliability of the local peoples’ knowledge on the ecology of this species. The highest proportion of respondents said that wetlands represent the favourite habitats of this fish. That emphasizes the preference of the species for the muddy and vegetated area and calm water (Kpogue et al., 2012b). The clear identification of the African snakehead fish habitat types by local fishers shows the importance for incorporating local knowledge in the study of ecology of fish, especially from developing countries where there is often a lack of data and resources. For example, the study by Begossi et al. (2016) in Brazil showed that fishers were able to provide information on the biology and ecology of species such as Rhinobatos percellens, Sphoeroides dorsalis, Mycteroperca acutirostris, and Dasyatis guttata, for which there was scarce or no information on diet and habitat. In addition, Le Fur et al. (2011) showed that fishers in West Africa were able to identify the migration periods of mature adults to spawning grounds and the recruitment periods of juveniles of many fish species.Parachanna obscura is a favourite fish for food and constitutes an extremely important part of the staple food for African people because of the taste, few bones, remarkable growth, and high economic value (Bryen & Lee, 2007). The present study showed that the majority of the respondents consume P. obscura, mostly for the good taste of its flesh and high nutritional value. The study also revealed that P. obscura is valuable, with a considerable market price, more or less similar to the price of other common species such as Oreochromis niloticus, Oreochromis aureus, Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus, Heterotis niloticus, Heterobranchus longifilis, and Clarias gariepinus sold on the Ivorian fish markets between 2.2 and 4.5€ per kilogramme (FAO, 2021). Therefore, it is a source of income for Ivorian fishers who are involved in its fishing or trading. Parachanna obscura occupies a prominent place in the diet of African local people, but its natural production cannot meet local demands (Anonymous, 2010; O'Bryen & Lee, 2007). Therefore, its introduction to aquaculture is needed to satisfy the national demand. According to the result of this study, P. obscura is not yet produced in Ivorian aquaculture. However, respondents clearly expressed their willingness to engage with production in Ivorian aquaculture. Some fishers clearly express a preference for eating the fish rather than selling it, which they justified by the good taste of the fish. Thus, policymakers and researchers should start exploring possibilities and conditions to realize P. obscura aquaculture. The introduction of P. obscura in aquaculture will be useful to fulfil the country's national demand for fishery products. It will also reduce human pressures on its wild populations.Regarding the other uses of the fish, some fishers reported that the fish is used in traditional medicine for treating deafness, and some used it in magic for luck attraction. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 80% of the world's population depend mainly on medicines of animal and plant origin (Alves & Rosa, 2005). A wide range of natural pharmacopoeia consisting of wild plants and animals is available to traditional human populations. Wildlife and plant ingredients are not only used in traditional medicines, but are also increasingly valued as raw materials in the preparation of modern medicines and herbal preparations (Kang, 2003). Thus, attention has to be paid by governments for conserving natural populations of P. obscura in order to sustain its use in traditional medicine.From the result of the present study, fishers observed a significant reduction in the abundance of P. obscura (according to their catches). Overfishing was mentioned by fishers from all the climate zones as one of the major causes of the decline in wild populations of the species. Earlier, it was noted that some populations of this fish have declined in western Africa, possibly due to overfishing (Lalèyè, 2020). In addition to overfishing, climate change, especially lack of rainfall, and human actions such as deforestation around watersheds, habitat destruction/modification, obnoxious fishing practices, the use of small‐mesh fishing nets, and pesticide use in farms close to watersheds are the other main causes mentioned by fishers for the decline in P. obscura fish populations in this study. Poor harvesting methods using poison, fire, and dynamite, together with the use of poor quality or illegal nets, have been reported affecting this fish species in Africa (Union Africaine, 2013). The greatest number of threats were principally perceived by fishers in the Guinean and Sudano‐Guinean climate zones. Indeed, most of the economic activities are carried out in Guinean and Sudano‐Guinean regions of the country, which depend mainly on agriculture, including traditional export crops such as cocoa and coffee, and other export crops such as palm oil, rubber, and pineapple. The cultivation of such crop is greatly associated with deforestation of large land surface and intensive use of pesticides. Loss of forest cover destroys several fish species’ shelters and draw changes in water temperature (Brummett et al., 2009; Fugère et al., 2018). Additionally, deforestation alters surface runoff and increases river sediment loads, which may lead to aquatic habitat change (Brummett et al., 2009). The watersheds in which the fishers of these regions fish are among the main continental fishing grounds of Cote D'Ivoire (Kassoum, 1996); therefore, they are subject to intensive threats as reported by respondents. The preference of this species for wetlands and floodplains, which are often surrounded by vegetation areas, explains why deforestation around watersheds and use of pesticide have led to a decline in populations of this species, according to respondents. Parachanna obscura breeds preferably during and immediately after floods (Teugels, 2003). Thus, lack of rainfall is likely a cause disturbing the reproduction cycle of the fish, leading to a decline in their abundance. This explains why fishers have mentioned the lack of rainfall as one of the main causes of its decline. The factors threatening P. obscura fish according to our results are among the factors threatening West Africa's freshwater ecosystems and organisms in general. Indeed, climate change, water pollution, habitat loss due to deforestation, overfishing, mining, and agriculture represent the greatest threats to freshwater fishes in Africa and specifically in West Africa (Smith et al., 2009). In addition, the study by Amoucthi et al. (2021), based on local fishers’ ecological knowledge, showed that Cote d'Ivoire's freshwater ecosystems are impacted by climate change, mining activities, water withdrawal for human needs, overfishing, industrial waste discharge, and many other pressures. Thus, our study clearly demonstrated the importance of local ecological knowledge of fishers in identifying threats to fish populations, and thus the need to integrate local knowledge into biomonitoring and conservation of aquatic biodiversity. The study by Veneroni and Fernandes (2021) in Europe also showed how fishers help to accurately identify significant declines in the abundance of sole (Solea solea), common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), and mantis shrimp (Squilla mantis).The results showed that perceptions of decrease in P. obscura fish abundance were significantly associated with socio‐demographical variables such as respondents’ fishing watershed, climate zone, and ethnic group. According to many other studies, socio‐demographic backgrounds of respondents are factors likely to influence individuals’ local ecological knowledge (Avakoudjo et al., 2019; Sobral et al., 2017). For example, Sobral et al. (2017) showed that age influenced the knowledge of local communities on climate indicators and population structure of Caryocar coriaceum. Our results did not show any influence of age on fishers’ knowledge. We found that fishers’ perception of decrease in the amount of the snakehead fish was stronger in Koroboro and Songhai ethnic groups’ fishers. These people are non‐indigenous with fisheries as the main source of income, therefore continuously in contact with their fishing aquatic ecosystem. Thus, they are most likely to observe any change.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study provided important insights about the knowledge of local fishers involved in Ivorian fishery on P. obscura. The local names of P. obscura recorded in this study will be helpful for researchers in carrying out studies on the species in the respective indigenous communities and will facilitate communication and the exchange of information about the species. Nevertheless, an extension of the study within the other communities or regions of Africa where the species is found will be necessary for a broad database on its local names. The result of the study showed that the fish is very appreciated by the local communities because of its taste and nutritional value. The species is a valuable source of income for local fishers. Its introduction to Ivorian aquaculture will be necessary to satisfy the national demand of fishery products. However, this study captured only the perspective and opinion of fishers and did not include those of consumers; hence, further investigations will be needed to fill this gap. This study also highlighted that the decline in P. obscura fish abundance is perceived to be caused from anthropogenic pressures. Thus, rules and regulations should be established by local authorities and water resources managers for mitigating the threat caused by humans. For instance, the prohibition of deforestation of vegetation surrounding watersheds for preventing the destruction of the species habitat is of major importance. Campaigns with local populations that increase the awareness about the negative impacts of poor and obnoxious fishing practices on populations of the species as well as on the entire aquatic organisms are needed. Additionally, assessments of the distribution of the fish are needed for the monitoring of the species populations and also for establishing an efficient conservation policy. Overall, the present study demonstrates the major importance of local ecological knowledge on the sustainable use of natural resources, which has to be taken into account before exploitation is expanded. Local fishers’ knowledge must therefore be taken into account in further studies on ecology and biology of fish and in the planning of conservation policy.AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONSAmien Isaac Amoutchi: Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, project administration, resources, software, validation, visualization, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing; Kamelan Marius: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, & writing – review & editing; Alpha Kargbo: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, & writing – review & editing; Doh Arioste Delchinor Gneho: Data curation, investigation, methodology, project administration, validation, & writing – review & editing; Paul Kouamelan: Conceptualization, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, supervision, validation, & writing – review & editing; Thomas Mehner: Conceptualization, formal analysis, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, resources, supervision, validation, visualization, & writing – review & editingACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis study was funded by the scholarship programme of WASCAL, sponsored by German Federal Ministry for Education and Research. We are grateful to fishers’ associations and the local officers of Côte d'Ivoire Ministry of Water and Animal Resources for their support during fieldwork. We are grateful to Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB) for additional financial support.Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENTThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.ETHICS STATEMENTThe survey was carried out with the agreement of local representatives of the Ivorian Ministry of Water and Animal Resources and with the permission of the local authorities in the sampling localities. The consent and agreement of each informant was obtained prior to their participation in the study.DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENTThe data generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.PEER REVIEWThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/aff2.106REFERENCESAlves, R.R.N. & Rosa, I.L. (2005) Why study the use of animal products in traditional medicines? Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 1, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746‐4269‐1‐5Amoutchi, A.I., Mehner, T., Ugbor, O.N., Kargbo, A. & Kouamelan, E.P. (2021) Fishermen’ s perceptions and experiences toward the impact of climate change and anthropogenic activities on freshwater fish biodiversity in Côte d'Ivoire. Discover Sustainability, 2, 56.Anonymous. (2010) Aquafish collaborative research support program implementation. Plan 2009–2011. 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(2017) Determination of sexual dimorphism of African snakehead (Parachanna obscura): morphometric and meristic parameters, weight‐length relationship and condition factor. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 11(4), 1742.APPENDIXSURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ON ‘LOCAL FISHERS’ KNOWLEDGE ON THE ECOLOGY, ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE, AND THREATS FACED BY POPULATIONS OF AFRICAN SNAKEHEAD FISH, PARACHANNA OBSCURA, WITHIN CÔTE D'IVOIRE FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS’Questionnaire number: ................................................Socio‐demographic background of fishersLocality ................................................Watershed ................................................Climate zone................................................Ethnic group ................................................Gender: (1) male […]; (2) female […]Age: (1) 20–29 […]; (2) 30–39 […]; (3) 40–49 […]; (4) 50–59 [....]; (5) 60 and over […]Education level; (1) illiterate […]; (2) primary […]; (3) junior high school […]; (4) senior high school […]; (5) university[…]Preliminary assessment formDo you know the snakehead fish (Parachanna obscura), also known as ‘poisson dormant’ in the French language? Yes […]; 2) no […]Have you ever fish and/or sold this fish before? (1) Yes […]; (2) no […]Is this fish among your fishing targeting species or marketing species?How many years have you been fishing or selling this species?Main investigationHow do you call Parachanna obscura in your ethnic?......In which habitat types do you catch this fish? (1) River […]; (2) streams […]; (3) ponds […]; (4) wetlands […]; (5) lakes; (6) floodplains, (7) other......Do you eat snakehead fish? (1) Yes […]; (2) no […].Why do you eat this fish? (1) For its high nutritional quality […]; (2) for cultural reasons […]; (3) for its taste […]; (4) other(list) ......For which other purposes do you use this fish for? (1) Traditional medicine […] What disease(s) please.........; (3) traditional ritual […] More information please......; (4) Other (please specify) ......How much the kilogram of snakehead fish is sold in your region? (1) Less than 1000 FCFA (1.5€) […]; (2) 1000–2000 FCFA [1.5 to 3€]; (3) 2100–3000 FCFA [3.1 and 4.5€]; (4) more than 3000 FCFA [more than 4.5€].Is this fish farmed in your region? (1) Yes […]; (2) no […].Have you noticed a reduction in the populations of this fish in recent years? (1) Yes […]; (2) no[…]If yes, what do you think could explain this decrease? (1) Overexploitation (overfishing) […]; (2) deforestation around watersheds […]; (3) the increase in temperature in recent years […]; (4) decrease in water level due to lack of rain […]; other(s) (please, specify) ......Would you like this fish to be produced in aquaculture? (1) Yes […]; (2) no […]If yes, why? ......Any other comments? http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Aquaculture Fish and Fisheries Wiley

Local fishers’ knowledge on the ecology, economic importance, and threats faced by populations of African snakehead fish, Parachanna obscura, within Côte d'Ivoire freshwater ecosystems

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Abstract

INTRODUCTIONThe goods and services resulting from freshwater ecosystems have an estimated global value of up to USD 15 trillion. This sum includes essential products such as food and drinking water in addition to services such as water filtration and flood control (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Fishes form the most important freshwater product globally and provide the primary source of protein for almost 3.3 billion people worldwide (FAO, 2020). Africa's freshwater fishery harvest is estimated to be around 2.5 million tonnes per year, accounting for nearly 25% of the world's freshwater capture (Kpogue et al., 2012a). It provides essential nutrition for the poorest of communities and is a source of employment and income for many African people (Smith et al., 2009; WorldFish Center, 2008). Despite the importance and enormous contribution of freshwater fish to fish production in Africa, most African countries cannot entirely satisfy their national demand of fish products (Kpogue et al., 2012a) and still depend on imports of fish. Accordingly, the development of aquaculture through the farming of local African freshwater species is needed (Kpogue et al., 2012a).In Côte d'Ivoire, fishes represent about 50% of animal protein sources (COMHAFAT, 2014). Unfortunately, the country remains highly dependent on imports to satisfy its national demand for fishery products (COMHAFAT, 2014). National fish production is about 50,000 tonnes on average per year, while there is a need for more than 360,000 tonnes, with the difference being filled through imports. These imports represent a value of around 289 million euros, resulting in a trade deficit (COMHAFAT, 2014). The country has considerable potential for the development of aquaculture if its natural resources are taken into account. One fish species of interest is Parachanna obscura, also known as snakehead fish, belonging to the Channidae family. The genus Parachanna includes two others species, namely Parachanna africana and Parachanna isignis (Bonou & Teugels, 1985). Parachanna obscura is the most popular and widespread African Channidae (Bonou & Teugels, 1985). It is generally distributed in the intertropical convergence zone where the water temperature ranges from 26 to 28°C, principally in West Africa. Nevertheless, it is also found in the upper course of the White Nile, the Chad lake basin, and the Congo River basin (Lalèyè, 2020; Teugels, 2003; Union Africaine, 2013). It represents a valuable fish resource for African populations due to its high nutritional value and economic potential (Odo, 2012). While these fish are rarely used in aquaculture, they represent future potential for increasing Ivorian aquaculture productivity. However, some preliminary studies and information about biology, reproduction, ecology, and market price are needed before aquaculture of the species could start.Previous studies carried out in Côte d'Ivoire and other parts of Africa mainly focused on P. obscura biology (Bolaji al., 2011; Odo, 2012) and reproduction ( ; Kpogue et al., 2012b; Vodounnou et al., 2017). However, there is a gap in information related to the goods and services provided by this fish to Ivorian local fishers. In addition, regarding the past, current, and future trends of climate change and the rate of urbanization, more information is needed on the threats to which P. obscura are exposed. Indeed, in Côte d'Ivoire, the urbanization rate increased from 18% to over 50% between 1960 and 2018 (USAID, 2017). The climate has also considerably changed in the country over the 20th century, and it is expected to continue changing in the future. According to the prediction of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change under the RCP4.5 scenario, the temperature will rise by 3°C by 2100, over most of Côte d'Ivoire. The daily precipitation is predicted to drop by 8% during the season from April to July for the next 100 years (Bernard, 2014). Aquatic organisms are very sensitive to any change in their environment (Amoutchi et al., 2021). Freshwater organisms have the highest proportion of species globally categorized as extinct or threatened in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (Costello, 2015; IUCN, 2022). Climate change and human actions such as water pollution, water extraction, overexploitation, habitat loss or transformation, and dam construction have been acknowledged to stress Africa's freshwater biodiversity (Darwall et al., 2011). Thus, providing information on P. obscura will be helpful for decision‐making about its introduction in aquaculture and for the management and conservation of its natural populations.People who have remained in a single location for many generations, sometimes for millennia, possess unique knowledge about their home environments, the species that live there, the changes that have occurred over time, and the close, interdependent relationships between people and other life forms (Turner et al., 2022). The locally held and mobilized knowledge of these people is variously referred to as traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK), local ecological knowledge (LEK), or experience‐based, practical, or experiential knowledge (Joa et al., 2018). However, LEK is part of people's site‐specific ecological knowledge, which includes knowledge held and used by traditionally living indigenous people with a historical continuity of resource use as well as by non‐indigenous natural resource users, which can be practically applied (Joa et al., 2018). Thus, according to Charnley et al. (2007), LEK is defined as knowledge, practices, and beliefs regarding ecological relationships that are gained through extensive personal observation and interaction with local ecosystems and shared among local resource users. In contrast to the frequent practice in academia and Western science, such knowledge systems represent cumulative lived experience and are not typically divided or reduced to their constituent pieces (Turner et al., 2022). These knowledge systems have several features that can be taken into account in terms of the contributions they have made and will continue to make to the long‐term sustainability and wellness of the planet (Houde, 2007). Fishers are people whose livelihoods directly depend on the aquatic ecosystem's services. Consequently, they are the group most impacted by any environmental disturbance in this ecosystem and are also the primary group with the greatest knowledge about the characteristics of the disturbances (Amoutchi et al., 2021). Thus, they are key groups for providing local ecological knowledge regarding habitat, ecosystem services, population dynamics, and threats on P. obscura populations. In our case, we consider fishers’ knowledge as local ecological knowledge, since fishers’ communities are made up of traditional or indigenous fishers as well as non‐indigenous people with well‐rooted and accumulated knowledge. Such knowledge is relevant for the sustainability and conservation of P. obscura fishery resources. To this end, the study was designed to investigate the knowledge of local fishers from various ethnic groups on local names, habitats, uses, market price, population dynamics, and the threats faced by the snakehead fish P. obscura in Ivorian freshwaters, considering the distinct climate zones of the country.MATERIALS AND METHODSStudy areaThe study was carried out in Cote d'Ivoire located in West Africa (Figure 1). Three among the four Ivorian climate zones were selected for this study: the Guinean, Sudano‐Guinean, and Sudanian. Fishers from Bia River, Ayame lake, and Faye Lake were randomly selected in the Guinean climate zone. These fishers were from Krindjabo, Bianou, Alliekro, and Ayame localities. The Guinean climate zone is the sub‐equatorial climate characterized by annual precipitation estimated to be more than 1500 mm per year, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons (Bernard, 2014). Within Sudano‐Guinean, fishers from the localities of Koubi, Dibobly, and Guiglo working on Kan Lake, Buyo lake, and Nzo River, respectively, were selected. The Sudano‐Guinean climatic zone is characterized by an equatorial transition climate, with an annual precipitation of 1200–1500 mm. This climate zone also has two rainy and two dry seasons. The Sudanian zone is characterized by a tropical climate with an annual precipitation that comprises between 900 and 1200 mm. The Sudanian climatic zone has one rainy and one dry seasons. Fishers from Samorosso village fishing on Bagoue river were selected for the study.1FIGUREMap of the study area, showing the borders of Côte d'Ivoire, its position in West Africa, the main climate zones, and the locations where the study was conducted.Sampling procedure and data collectionA preliminary investigation was done in the three selected climatic zones with 30 fishers per zone in order to determine the proportion of them involved in P. obscura business, resulting in 60% of fishers among the interviewees involved in P. obscura fishing or trading process. The 60% obtained proportion was then used in Dagnelie's (1998) formula with a 95% confidence level to estimate the necessary sample size:N=U1−α/22p1−pd2,$$\begin{equation*}N = \frac{{U_{1 - \alpha /2}^2p\left( {1 - p} \right)}}{{{d}^2}},\end{equation*}$$where N represents the total number of fishers to be surveyed; U21 −α/2 is the value of the normal random variable for a probability value of 1–α/2 = 0.975, U1−α/2  = 1.96; p is the estimated proportion of fishers fishing P. obscura, obtained from the preliminary investigation (p = 0.60); and d represents the margin of error of a parameter estimated from the sample fixed at 0.05. From the calculation, the sample size of 369 fishers was the minimum needed, but to be more accurate, 381 fishers were interviewed in this study.Concerning the data collection, 381 fishers were randomly selected within the different sites. Because of various local languages of local people, in each of the communities, we engaged the services of a translator who is usually a member of such community, with some level of formal education. The interviewed fishers included those from indigenous and non‐indigenous ethnic groups involved in fishing activities of the locations where the study was conducted. Most of non‐indigenous fishers relied solely on fisheries as their main source of income, whereas indigenous fishers had diversified sources (e.g., agriculture, livestock, and retail shopping) of incomes. The interview was conducted face‐to‐face using a structured questionnaire (see Appendix) during the period from October 2020 to February 2021. The respondents were distributed into 14 ethnic groups including both Ivorian and foreign ( from Mali, a neighbouring country) ethnic groups. A set of information about the selected fishers’ socio‐demographic background is summarized in Table 1. The questionnaire was designed to assess the fishers’ knowledge of the local names, habitats (where the species is caught or found), market price, uses, and production. Fishers’ perceptions of decrease in P. obscura fish abundance or quantity over the last decade were also assessed. Furthermore, the threats faced by the snakehead fish populations in Ivorian aquatic ecosystems were additionally addressed by a questionnaire. The data collection and the procedure of fishers’ selection are summarized in Figure 2.1TABLEOverview of the socio‐demographic background of fishers (N = 381) by their climate zone and ethnic groupClimate zoneSample sizeEthnic groupEthnic groupSexEducation levelTotal per ethnic group[20–29][30–39][40–49][50–59]≥60MaleFemaleNo formal educationPrimaryJunior high schoolSenior high schoolUniversityGuinean Zone171Agni728307266817271710374Apollo44314Bambara (Mali)97168816Baoulé13444Bozo (Mali)188211282212730Dioula844448Guéré224224Keke (Mali)12333Koroboro (Mali)77617Samogor4444Sénoufo4482248Songai (Mali)63999Total4175418614130794728107171Sudano‐Guinean zone156Abron1111Agni1111Bambara (Mali)1111Baoule461928443181232113361Bozo (Mali)110166258238233Guere4122764458617201053Sénoufo1211232215Tagbana1111Total103265341511937455733156156Sudanian zone54Samorgo1121426485474253Sénoufo1111Total11215264864752542FIGUREFramework summarizing the sampling procedure and data collection.Data analysisDescriptive statistics (frequency, percentage) were applied to analyze fishers’ demographic information and their knowledge of market price, uses, production, and threats faced by P. obscura populations. A binary logistic regression model was used to test the relationship between demographic variables (climate zone, fishing watersheds, age, and education) and fishers’ perception of decrease in P. obscura abundance. The binary logistic regression model is an extension of simple linear regression that is used to predict the probability of an observation falling into one of two categories of a dichotomous dependent variable as a function of one or more independent variables (or predictors), which may be continuous or categorical. In this study, all the independent variables were categorical. We considered socio‐demographic and geographic variables of fishers as the independent (predictors) variables, and perception of decrease in P. obscura abundance variable as dependent variables. The perception variable included the following categories: 0 = no decrease and 1 = decrease. The significance was evaluated against the reference category, which was the first category of each of the independent variables. Guinean zone, age group of 60 years and over, Agni ethnic group, Bia River and university level were considered reference groups of the following independent variables: climate zone, age, ethnic group, watershed and education level, and sex. Z‐test was applied to test the significant differences among the threats listed by fishers as affecting snakehead fish in each climate zone and to compare the proportions of each habitat type of the species between climate zones. Alpha lesser than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. SPSS version 2.2 software was used for the descriptive statistics, while the binary logistic regression model and Z‐test were performed in R 3.6.3 software (R Core Team, 2020).RESULTSocio‐demographic background of respondentsIn total, 381 questionnaires were successfully completed. Both men and women were interviewed, with 141 (82.5%), 119 (76.3%), and 48 (88.9%) men compared to 30 (17.5%), 37 (23.7%), and 6 (11.1%) women in Guinean, Sudano‐Guinean, and Sudanian zones, respectively. Women were principally engaged with P. obscura fish trading activities, while men were engaged with fishing. Most of the respondents were between 30 and 39 years old in the Guinean zone, while in the Sudano‐Guinean and Sudanian zones, fishers interviewed were mostly older, between 40 and 59 years old. The majority of respondents in all three climate zones were either illiterate (no formal education) or had a low level of education (primary education, Table 1).Local names for P. obscuraFourteen ethnic groups involved in Ivorian fishery belonging to several socio‐linguistics groups were surveyed. For P. obscura fish known as ‘Poisson dormant’ (meaning sleeping fish) in Ivory Coast, various names were recorded according to the socio‐linguistic group and the related ethnic groups. A total of seven local names were recorded (Table 2). The most popular name is ‘Sounôgô‐djêguê’ (used in 35.7% of fishers’ ethnic groups) used by the ethnic groups originating from the northern part of Ivory Coast (Dioula, Sénoufo, and Tagbana) and some Malian ethnic groups, notably Bambara and Keke involved in Ivorian fishery. Another popular name of P. obscura fish is ‘Édjoué‐bilé’ (used in 21.4% of interviewed fishers’ ethnic groups) used by almost the majority of Akan group ethnics. ‘Pino’ is also one of the popular names of the snakehead fish used in Bozo, Bambara, and Songhaï ethnics groups (21.4% of ethnic groups). The fish is called ‘Ablo’, ‘Blinguidé’, ‘Poupougboon’, and ‘Guossa’ in Baoule, Samogor, Guere, and Koroboro ethnic groups, respectively.2TABLEFishers’ knowledge regarding local names of the snakehead fish P. obscura according to the socio‐linguistic and ethnic groupsSocio‐linguistic groupEthnic groupLocal namesNumber of respondentsAkanAbronÉdjoué‐bile1AgniÉdjoué‐bile75AppoloÉdjoué‐bile4BaouleAblo65GoreGuerePoupougboon57MandeeSénoufoSounôgô‐djêguê14TagbanaSounôgô‐djêguê1MalinkéDioulaSounôgô‐djêguê8SamogoBlinguidé57Foreign ethnic group (from Mali)BozoPino63BambaraSounôgô‐djêguê/Pino17KekeSounôgô‐djêguê3KoroboroGuossa7SonghaïPino9Total5147381Habitats of P. obscuraMajor freshwater ecosystems were listed by the local fishers as favoured habitats of P. obscura. Wetland (38%) and rivers (26%) were the most often mentioned, in general. Guinean and Sudano‐Guinean zones’ fishers mostly mentioned wetland as a favourite habitat of the species, whereas fishers in the Sudanian zone mentioned rivers as the dominant habitat (Figure 3). The proportion of each habitat type of P. obscura mentioned in the interviews differed significantly (p < 0.05) between fishers from the three climate zones (Table 3).3FIGUREPerception of fishers about the types of habitats where P. obscura fish is caught or found in the climate zones of Côte d'Ivoire.3TABLEResult of Z‐test comparing proportions of perceptions of fishers about each type of habitat of the snakehead fish among the three climate zones.Habitatχ2dfp‐ValueWetland38.12<0.001Lake17.12<0.001River138.02<0.001Stream12.020.002Use of P. obscuraMost respondents (N = 377; 99%) consume snakehead fish. The majority (87% or 327) of those consuming P. obscura do so because of the good taste of its flesh, whereas 11% (41 respondents) consume it for its high nutritional value, 1.3% (five respondents) for cultural reasons, and the remaining respondents (1.1%) did not know why they consume it (Figure 4). In addition to consumption, 1.6% of respondents, belonging to Bouale and Guere ethnics groups, responded that P. obscura fish is used in traditional medicine to treat deafness. In addition, one respondent within Songhai ethnic group said that this fish is used in magic for luck attraction.4FIGUREReasons for the consumption of P. obscura by the 377 fishers who consume this fish.Market priceThe majority of the 381 respondents mentioned that P. obscura is a valuable fish mostly sold for up to 3€ per kilogramme. However, the price per kilogramme varied significantly according to the localities and the climate zone. In the Guinean and Sudanian climates zones, the price of P. obscura is cheapest (varies from 1.5 to 3€), while the price of P. obscura per kilogramme in the Sudano‐Guinean climate zone is considered expensive, principally varying between 3.1 and 4.5€. Table 4 summarizes the fishers’ perceptions about the market price per kilogramme of P. obscura in Côte d'Ivoire.4TABLEFishers’ perception (N = 381) about the market price of the snakehead fish of P. obscura.Climate zoneMarket price (€ per kilogramme)Percentage of respondentsGuinean zoneLess than <1.549Between 1.5 and 348More than 4.51I have never sold2Total100Sudano‐Guinean zone<1.536Between 1.5 and 39Between 3.1 and 4.552More than 4.53Total100Sudanian zoneBetween 1.5 and 3100Total100Respondents’ willingness for introducing P. obscura in aquacultureAll (100%) of the respondents mentioned that P. obscura is not yet produced in aquaculture in Côte d'Ivoire. According to them, P. obscura should be introduced into aquaculture. They justified their interest by the sweet taste and high nutritional value of the fish. Some even said ‘because of the sweet taste of P. obscura fish, I prefer to keep them for household consumption whenever I catch them, instead of selling them’.Threats faced by P. obscura populations within Ivorian aquatic ecosystemFrom the 381 respondents, 71% reported a significant decrease in P. obscura abundance in Côte d'Ivoire over the last decade, whereas 29% did not observe any change. Of the total percentage of the respondents who observed a decrease in P. obscura abundance, respondents of the Guinean zone principally pointed out deforestation around watersheds (17.8%), obnoxious fishing practices (chemical products used for fishing, 17.8%), habitat destruction/modification (11.9%), and overfishing (12.9%) as the practices that are causing these decreases. Respondents from the Sudano‐Guinean zone reported that pesticide use in farms close to watersheds (36.8%), overfishing (21.6%), and water reduction in watersheds due to lack of rainfall (20%) were the main causes of these decreases in the species’ abundance. Habitat destruction/modification (84.4%) was reported by respondents from the Sudanian zone as the main threat affecting the decline in snakehead fish's abundance (Figure 5 and Table 5). Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed among proportions of the threats cited by fishers within each climate zone (Table 5).5FIGUREChord diagram showing fishers’ perceptions regarding the threats faced by Parachanna obscura fish populations within Ivorian freshwaters according to the 271 fishers who reported a decrease in the species’ populations. ChPrUseF, obnoxious fishing practices (chemical products use for fishing); DeArWa, deforestation around watersheds; HaDes/Mo, habitat destruction/modification; IdoKn, I do not know; Overf, overfishing; PeUsFar, pesticides use in farms close to watersheds; UsSmFi, use of small‐mesh fishing nets; WaReDLR, water reduction in watersheds due to lack of rainfall; Guinean, Guinean climate zone; Sudanian, Sudanian climate zone; Sudano‐Guinean, Sudano‐Guinean zone.5TABLEThe result of the significance of Z‐tests comparing the proportions of threats faced by the snakehead population P. obscura in Ivorian freshwater ecosystems considering each climatic zone (N = 271)Climate zoneThreatPercentageχ2p‐ValueGuinean zone (N = 101)Deforestation around watersheds17.814.370.03Habitat destruction/modification11.9Chemical products use for fishing17.8Overfishing12.9Use of small‐mesh fishing nets7.9Water reduction in watersheds due to lack of rainfall8.9I do not know22.8Total100Sudano‐Guinean zone (N = 125)Deforestation around watersheds1.6350.7<0.001Habitat destruction/modification13.7Chemical products use for fishing4.0Overfishing21.6Water reduction in watersheds due to lack of rainfall20Pesticides use in farms close to watersheds36.8I do not know2.4Total100Sudanian zone (N = 45)God8.9113.63<0.001Habitat destruction/modification84.4Overfishing4.4I do not know2.2Total100Respondents’ fishing watershed, climate zone and ethnic group (Koroboro and Songhai ethnic groups only), education, and gender were significantly associated with fishers’ perception of decrease in P. obscura fish abundance (Table 6). Perception of decrease in P. obscura fish abundance was higher (positive coefficients) among fishers in Buyo and Kan lakes, while it was lower (negative coefficients) among those in Ayame and Faye lakes. Perception of decrease in the amount of the snakehead fish was stronger in Koroboro and Songhai ethnic groups’ fishers and lower in those of Senoufo ethnic group. This perception was also stronger in females and lower in fishers from the Sudano‐Guinean zone.6TABLEResults of binary logistic regression of geographic and socio‐demographic variables determining fishers’ perception about a decrease in amount of the snakehead fish P. obscuraExplanatory variableCategoryObserved decrease in Parachanna obscura fish quantityCoefSig (SE)Climate zoneGuinean (Ref. group)Sudanian−0.26 (1.72)Sudano‐Guinean−2.16* (1.08)WatershedBia river (Ref. group)–Lake Ayame−1.65* (0.68)Lake Buyo2.21* (0.80)Lake faye−3.59* (1.02)Lake Kan4.13* (1.53)BagoueNARiver NzoNAEthnic groupAgni (Ref. group)–Abron14.50 (2399.55)Appolo−17.51 (1199.57)Bambara0.96 (0.94)Baoule−2.30 (1.35)Bozo0.54 (1.02)Dioula−0.05 (0.92)Guere1.80 (1.00)Keke16.27 (1384.50)Koroboro3.65* (1.49)Samorgor0.17 (1.69)Senoufo−2.05* (0.99)Songhaī3.93*(1.48)Tagbana10.87 (2399.55)Age≥60 (Ref. group)–[20–29]0.12 (0.78)[30–39]0.02 (0.65)[40–49]0.28 (0.64)[50–59]−0.12 (0.71)Education levelUniversity (Ref. group)–No formal education−1.98 (1.48)Primary−2.07 (1.48)Junior high school−3.07*(1.47)Senior high school−2.23 (1.57)GenderMale (Ref. group)Female0.87* (0.46)Log likelihood−168.49Akaike Inf. Crit.394.99Note: Significant correlations (p < 0.05) are given in bold, with the level of significance indicated by asterisks, and standard errors (SE) are given in brackets.Abbreviations: Akaike Inf. Crit., Akaike information criterion; Ref., reference.*p < 0.05.DISCUSSIONEffective and sustainable research for wildlife conservation depends upon having long‐term information that can keep pace with the unprecedented global changes we are seeing today. Traditionally, population sizes, ecology, and threats to species and their habitats have been obtained through empirical studies. However, the knowledge of local and indigenous communities worldwide has been acknowledged as an extremely rich and underused resource of information on how the environment, biodiversity, and local conditions are changing over time (Baird & Flaherty, 2005; Sobral et al., 2017; Turner et al., 2022). Results showed that seven local names are used in fishing communities to refer to P. obscura. Fishers principally cited wetland and rivers as the main habitat of the fish. Respondents also considered P. obscura to be a valuable fish species for their livelihoods with a market price ranging from <1.5 to 4.5€ depending on the zones. Most respondents expressed a willingness to support aquaculture of the species. Substantial decreases in the abundance of individuals of this fish populations were observed by the respondents, caused by many anthropogenic pressures such as deforestation around watersheds, obnoxious fishing practices, habitat destruction/modification, overfishing, and pesticide use in farms close to watersheds.Worldwide, species are known by their local or vernacular names, which are usually given by indigenous people in their languages (Singh, 2008). Local names are the result of a human's long‐standing interaction with their surrounding environment. Most often, the local names are given based on some salient characteristics, which can be appearance, shape, size, habitat, smell, taste, colour, utility, or other characters of the species (Singh, 2008). They are essential for improving the exchange of information between academic and non‐academic fields. Several local names of P. obscura fish were relieved by fishers of the various ethnic groups surveyed, meaning that these fish play an important cultural role in these communities. Indeed, according to the theory of ethno‐taxonomic diversity, the species identified by several traditional names are likely to be culturally important (Gaoué et al., 2017). Ethnic groups where the same local name is used for P. obscura belong to the same socio‐linguistic group or live in most cases in a close area. Thus, the similarity of local name facilitates communication about species between communities.Parachanna obscura is a demersal, potamodromous fish species that inhabits marginal vegetation and floodplains (Lalèyè, 2020). It lives in the creeks of swamps, ponds, streams, rivers, lakes, marshes, and floodplains. Parachanna obscura prefers calm and muddy areas and marginal vegetation stands in flowing water (Kpogue et al., 2012; Teugels et al., 1992). The different P. obscura habitats enumerated by the fishers in this study agree with the above habitat types, confirming the reliability of the local peoples’ knowledge on the ecology of this species. The highest proportion of respondents said that wetlands represent the favourite habitats of this fish. That emphasizes the preference of the species for the muddy and vegetated area and calm water (Kpogue et al., 2012b). The clear identification of the African snakehead fish habitat types by local fishers shows the importance for incorporating local knowledge in the study of ecology of fish, especially from developing countries where there is often a lack of data and resources. For example, the study by Begossi et al. (2016) in Brazil showed that fishers were able to provide information on the biology and ecology of species such as Rhinobatos percellens, Sphoeroides dorsalis, Mycteroperca acutirostris, and Dasyatis guttata, for which there was scarce or no information on diet and habitat. In addition, Le Fur et al. (2011) showed that fishers in West Africa were able to identify the migration periods of mature adults to spawning grounds and the recruitment periods of juveniles of many fish species.Parachanna obscura is a favourite fish for food and constitutes an extremely important part of the staple food for African people because of the taste, few bones, remarkable growth, and high economic value (Bryen & Lee, 2007). The present study showed that the majority of the respondents consume P. obscura, mostly for the good taste of its flesh and high nutritional value. The study also revealed that P. obscura is valuable, with a considerable market price, more or less similar to the price of other common species such as Oreochromis niloticus, Oreochromis aureus, Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus, Heterotis niloticus, Heterobranchus longifilis, and Clarias gariepinus sold on the Ivorian fish markets between 2.2 and 4.5€ per kilogramme (FAO, 2021). Therefore, it is a source of income for Ivorian fishers who are involved in its fishing or trading. Parachanna obscura occupies a prominent place in the diet of African local people, but its natural production cannot meet local demands (Anonymous, 2010; O'Bryen & Lee, 2007). Therefore, its introduction to aquaculture is needed to satisfy the national demand. According to the result of this study, P. obscura is not yet produced in Ivorian aquaculture. However, respondents clearly expressed their willingness to engage with production in Ivorian aquaculture. Some fishers clearly express a preference for eating the fish rather than selling it, which they justified by the good taste of the fish. Thus, policymakers and researchers should start exploring possibilities and conditions to realize P. obscura aquaculture. The introduction of P. obscura in aquaculture will be useful to fulfil the country's national demand for fishery products. It will also reduce human pressures on its wild populations.Regarding the other uses of the fish, some fishers reported that the fish is used in traditional medicine for treating deafness, and some used it in magic for luck attraction. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 80% of the world's population depend mainly on medicines of animal and plant origin (Alves & Rosa, 2005). A wide range of natural pharmacopoeia consisting of wild plants and animals is available to traditional human populations. Wildlife and plant ingredients are not only used in traditional medicines, but are also increasingly valued as raw materials in the preparation of modern medicines and herbal preparations (Kang, 2003). Thus, attention has to be paid by governments for conserving natural populations of P. obscura in order to sustain its use in traditional medicine.From the result of the present study, fishers observed a significant reduction in the abundance of P. obscura (according to their catches). Overfishing was mentioned by fishers from all the climate zones as one of the major causes of the decline in wild populations of the species. Earlier, it was noted that some populations of this fish have declined in western Africa, possibly due to overfishing (Lalèyè, 2020). In addition to overfishing, climate change, especially lack of rainfall, and human actions such as deforestation around watersheds, habitat destruction/modification, obnoxious fishing practices, the use of small‐mesh fishing nets, and pesticide use in farms close to watersheds are the other main causes mentioned by fishers for the decline in P. obscura fish populations in this study. Poor harvesting methods using poison, fire, and dynamite, together with the use of poor quality or illegal nets, have been reported affecting this fish species in Africa (Union Africaine, 2013). The greatest number of threats were principally perceived by fishers in the Guinean and Sudano‐Guinean climate zones. Indeed, most of the economic activities are carried out in Guinean and Sudano‐Guinean regions of the country, which depend mainly on agriculture, including traditional export crops such as cocoa and coffee, and other export crops such as palm oil, rubber, and pineapple. The cultivation of such crop is greatly associated with deforestation of large land surface and intensive use of pesticides. Loss of forest cover destroys several fish species’ shelters and draw changes in water temperature (Brummett et al., 2009; Fugère et al., 2018). Additionally, deforestation alters surface runoff and increases river sediment loads, which may lead to aquatic habitat change (Brummett et al., 2009). The watersheds in which the fishers of these regions fish are among the main continental fishing grounds of Cote D'Ivoire (Kassoum, 1996); therefore, they are subject to intensive threats as reported by respondents. The preference of this species for wetlands and floodplains, which are often surrounded by vegetation areas, explains why deforestation around watersheds and use of pesticide have led to a decline in populations of this species, according to respondents. Parachanna obscura breeds preferably during and immediately after floods (Teugels, 2003). Thus, lack of rainfall is likely a cause disturbing the reproduction cycle of the fish, leading to a decline in their abundance. This explains why fishers have mentioned the lack of rainfall as one of the main causes of its decline. The factors threatening P. obscura fish according to our results are among the factors threatening West Africa's freshwater ecosystems and organisms in general. Indeed, climate change, water pollution, habitat loss due to deforestation, overfishing, mining, and agriculture represent the greatest threats to freshwater fishes in Africa and specifically in West Africa (Smith et al., 2009). In addition, the study by Amoucthi et al. (2021), based on local fishers’ ecological knowledge, showed that Cote d'Ivoire's freshwater ecosystems are impacted by climate change, mining activities, water withdrawal for human needs, overfishing, industrial waste discharge, and many other pressures. Thus, our study clearly demonstrated the importance of local ecological knowledge of fishers in identifying threats to fish populations, and thus the need to integrate local knowledge into biomonitoring and conservation of aquatic biodiversity. The study by Veneroni and Fernandes (2021) in Europe also showed how fishers help to accurately identify significant declines in the abundance of sole (Solea solea), common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), and mantis shrimp (Squilla mantis).The results showed that perceptions of decrease in P. obscura fish abundance were significantly associated with socio‐demographical variables such as respondents’ fishing watershed, climate zone, and ethnic group. According to many other studies, socio‐demographic backgrounds of respondents are factors likely to influence individuals’ local ecological knowledge (Avakoudjo et al., 2019; Sobral et al., 2017). For example, Sobral et al. (2017) showed that age influenced the knowledge of local communities on climate indicators and population structure of Caryocar coriaceum. Our results did not show any influence of age on fishers’ knowledge. We found that fishers’ perception of decrease in the amount of the snakehead fish was stronger in Koroboro and Songhai ethnic groups’ fishers. These people are non‐indigenous with fisheries as the main source of income, therefore continuously in contact with their fishing aquatic ecosystem. Thus, they are most likely to observe any change.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSThis study provided important insights about the knowledge of local fishers involved in Ivorian fishery on P. obscura. The local names of P. obscura recorded in this study will be helpful for researchers in carrying out studies on the species in the respective indigenous communities and will facilitate communication and the exchange of information about the species. Nevertheless, an extension of the study within the other communities or regions of Africa where the species is found will be necessary for a broad database on its local names. The result of the study showed that the fish is very appreciated by the local communities because of its taste and nutritional value. The species is a valuable source of income for local fishers. Its introduction to Ivorian aquaculture will be necessary to satisfy the national demand of fishery products. However, this study captured only the perspective and opinion of fishers and did not include those of consumers; hence, further investigations will be needed to fill this gap. This study also highlighted that the decline in P. obscura fish abundance is perceived to be caused from anthropogenic pressures. Thus, rules and regulations should be established by local authorities and water resources managers for mitigating the threat caused by humans. For instance, the prohibition of deforestation of vegetation surrounding watersheds for preventing the destruction of the species habitat is of major importance. Campaigns with local populations that increase the awareness about the negative impacts of poor and obnoxious fishing practices on populations of the species as well as on the entire aquatic organisms are needed. Additionally, assessments of the distribution of the fish are needed for the monitoring of the species populations and also for establishing an efficient conservation policy. Overall, the present study demonstrates the major importance of local ecological knowledge on the sustainable use of natural resources, which has to be taken into account before exploitation is expanded. Local fishers’ knowledge must therefore be taken into account in further studies on ecology and biology of fish and in the planning of conservation policy.AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONSAmien Isaac Amoutchi: Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, project administration, resources, software, validation, visualization, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing; Kamelan Marius: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, & writing – review & editing; Alpha Kargbo: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, & writing – review & editing; Doh Arioste Delchinor Gneho: Data curation, investigation, methodology, project administration, validation, & writing – review & editing; Paul Kouamelan: Conceptualization, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, supervision, validation, & writing – review & editing; Thomas Mehner: Conceptualization, formal analysis, funding acquisition, methodology, project administration, resources, supervision, validation, visualization, & writing – review & editingACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis study was funded by the scholarship programme of WASCAL, sponsored by German Federal Ministry for Education and Research. We are grateful to fishers’ associations and the local officers of Côte d'Ivoire Ministry of Water and Animal Resources for their support during fieldwork. We are grateful to Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB) for additional financial support.Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENTThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.ETHICS STATEMENTThe survey was carried out with the agreement of local representatives of the Ivorian Ministry of Water and Animal Resources and with the permission of the local authorities in the sampling localities. The consent and agreement of each informant was obtained prior to their participation in the study.DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENTThe data generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.PEER REVIEWThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/aff2.106REFERENCESAlves, R.R.N. & Rosa, I.L. (2005) Why study the use of animal products in traditional medicines? Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 1, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746‐4269‐1‐5Amoutchi, A.I., Mehner, T., Ugbor, O.N., Kargbo, A. & Kouamelan, E.P. (2021) Fishermen’ s perceptions and experiences toward the impact of climate change and anthropogenic activities on freshwater fish biodiversity in Côte d'Ivoire. Discover Sustainability, 2, 56.Anonymous. (2010) Aquafish collaborative research support program implementation. Plan 2009–2011. 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International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 11(4), 1742.APPENDIXSURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ON ‘LOCAL FISHERS’ KNOWLEDGE ON THE ECOLOGY, ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE, AND THREATS FACED BY POPULATIONS OF AFRICAN SNAKEHEAD FISH, PARACHANNA OBSCURA, WITHIN CÔTE D'IVOIRE FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS’Questionnaire number: ................................................Socio‐demographic background of fishersLocality ................................................Watershed ................................................Climate zone................................................Ethnic group ................................................Gender: (1) male […]; (2) female […]Age: (1) 20–29 […]; (2) 30–39 […]; (3) 40–49 […]; (4) 50–59 [....]; (5) 60 and over […]Education level; (1) illiterate […]; (2) primary […]; (3) junior high school […]; (4) senior high school […]; (5) university[…]Preliminary assessment formDo you know the snakehead fish (Parachanna obscura), also known as ‘poisson dormant’ in the French language? Yes […]; 2) no […]Have you ever fish and/or sold this fish before? (1) Yes […]; (2) no […]Is this fish among your fishing targeting species or marketing species?How many years have you been fishing or selling this species?Main investigationHow do you call Parachanna obscura in your ethnic?......In which habitat types do you catch this fish? (1) River […]; (2) streams […]; (3) ponds […]; (4) wetlands […]; (5) lakes; (6) floodplains, (7) other......Do you eat snakehead fish? (1) Yes […]; (2) no […].Why do you eat this fish? (1) For its high nutritional quality […]; (2) for cultural reasons […]; (3) for its taste […]; (4) other(list) ......For which other purposes do you use this fish for? (1) Traditional medicine […] What disease(s) please.........; (3) traditional ritual […] More information please......; (4) Other (please specify) ......How much the kilogram of snakehead fish is sold in your region? (1) Less than 1000 FCFA (1.5€) […]; (2) 1000–2000 FCFA [1.5 to 3€]; (3) 2100–3000 FCFA [3.1 and 4.5€]; (4) more than 3000 FCFA [more than 4.5€].Is this fish farmed in your region? (1) Yes […]; (2) no […].Have you noticed a reduction in the populations of this fish in recent years? (1) Yes […]; (2) no[…]If yes, what do you think could explain this decrease? (1) Overexploitation (overfishing) […]; (2) deforestation around watersheds […]; (3) the increase in temperature in recent years […]; (4) decrease in water level due to lack of rain […]; other(s) (please, specify) ......Would you like this fish to be produced in aquaculture? (1) Yes […]; (2) no […]If yes, why? ......Any other comments?

Journal

Aquaculture Fish and Fisheries – Wiley

Published: Jun 1, 2023

Keywords: climate change; habitat modification; habitats; local names; overfishing; Parachanna obscura

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