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Minero‐petrographic characterization of fine ware from Cales (South Italy)

Minero‐petrographic characterization of fine ware from Cales (South Italy) INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDThe ancient city of Cales (modern Calvi Risorta) is located in the northern sector of the Campania region of Italy. The city in the sixth and fifth century BCE was situated in the former Etruscan part of Northern Campania and was inhabited by one of the oldest italic populations, the Aurunci or Ausoni (Pappalardo, 1997). Thanks to its geographical position, Cales had an important strategic function for the Roman control of a large area that included the Ager Falernus, the Campus Stellatis, and the Ager Campanus (Figure 1a) (Pedroni, 1993; Ruffo, 2010). The latter was the Capuan territory, also known as the Campania Felix thanks to the fertile soil of the Volturnum river that runs through the plain.1FIGURESketch map (a) of the Campania region with older rivers adapted from Grifa et al. (2013) and geological (b) map of the northern Campania sector modified after Vitale & Ciarcia (2018) with the positioning of the archaeological site of Cales and clay samples used for comparison (ALV, Alvignano; CVR, Calvi Risorta; MS, Montesarchio; GP, Gran Potenza).In 334 BCE Cales became a Latin colony. With the coming of the new colonist in 184 BCE the city became, together with the near Teanum Sidicinum, one of the most important cities in the Inner Campania. Finally, after the Social War in 90 BCE Cales became a municipium (Ruffo, 2010).The territory of Cales, also known as Ager Calenus, is considered one of the most important production centers of fine ware, oriented toward the export of tableware. The city was especially known for the production and distribution of black glazed ware, a type of pottery that was commonly found throughout the central and western Mediterranean from the mid‐third century BCE to the middle of the first century BCE (Pedroni & Soricelli, 1996). The beginning of the production of black glazed pottery in Cales is probably connected, at least chronologically, with the arrival of the Latin colonists.The black glazed production was gradually replaced in specific areas of the Roman Empire, including Cales, by the so‐called Terra sigillata, a class of fine red pottery with glossy slipped surfaces (Soricelli, 2004). The production of these important ceramic classes in Cales took advantage of the presence of large outcrops of clay next to the city (De Bonis et al., 2013), which represented important sources of supply of raw materials until the 20th century. Thanks to Soprintendenza archeologia belle arti e paesaggio per le Province di Caserta e Benevento, the archaeological authority responsible for the site of Cales, it was possible to study ceramic finds from all relevant workshop areas and from recent excavations on the so‐called arx of Cales excavated in 2007.The fine pottery from Cales was widely studied from an archaeological point of view. These studies highlighted the important role of the city in the production of fine ware and other types of ceramic artifacts. Cales preserves conspicuous evidence of intense manufacturing activity covering a wide chronological span from the late fourth century BCE to the middle first century BCE, with vast exportation throughout the Romanized world.As far as black glazed pottery production is concerned, numerous ateliers were active in the town and, among the most well‐known, there were those of the Atilii, Gabiniie, and Paconii. Their workshops produced typical black glazed forms (Passaro & Carcaiso, 2006), such as umbilicate paterae, medallion cups, and characteristic gutti with pouring spouts (Pedroni et al., 2001).The city was also a benchmark for the manufacture of smooth black glazed pottery with several workshop structures identified both within the urban perimeter and in suburban areas. The importance of Calenian pottery production was solidified by the uncovering of a genuine artisanal district beyond the city walls, a few hundred meters westward along the Via Latina, as a result of clandestine excavations conducted in the 1980s.During this time, J.P. Morel also conducted a brief excavation in the same area, which revealed a series of kilns that had been in use for an extended period, producing various types of ceramics that were exported on a massive scale and rivaled those of the nearby manufacturing centers of Teanum Sidicinum and Capua.Among the Calenian productions, tiles, oil lamps, and Dressel 2–4e amphorae are also attested and represent forms that do not seem to find evidence in other production centers (Morel, 1989; Olcese, 2015).The investigated pottery samples come from an area characterized by the presence of public buildings, infrastructures, and artisanal facilities that attest to an early phase of life in the Republican period. The considerable amount of black glazed pottery, associated with kiln wastes represented by deformed and misfired objects, cups, and still stacked paterae, along with tuff blocks and bricks with evident traces of strong exposure to heat sources and several production wastes, confirm the occurrence of a production facility in the investigated area. Moreover, the presence of architectural elements, probably pertaining to a public building, along with evidence of craft activities with intense production rhythms, suggest the existence of a sacred building in the area with workshops annexed to it, according to a typology that would also seem to characterize the Calenian sanctuaries, in particular the Sanctuary of Ponte delle Monache.A few archaeometric data were available so far and provided a preliminary overview of the compositional features of fine ware from Cales. L. Pedroni (2001) in his last volume on Calenian black glazed pottery, gave a general description of the fabrics and glazed surfaces. He noted that the black glazed pottery from Cales is characterized by a high uniformity throughout the range of Calenian production from the beginning in the third to the first century BCE and thus presumed a consistent “Calenian fabric”. The homogeneity of these pottery was also suggested on a chemical and petrographic point of view, from analyses carried out on a few samples of production indicators by Langella and Morra (2001).A step ahead in the archaeometric knowledge about the Calenian fine ware was made by Guarino et al. (2011), who studied a selection of Terra sigillata including local and imported specimens. The study attested to the circulation of Terra sigillata coming from productive areas in Central and Northern Italy along with locally produced samples, which showed an affinity with local raw materials. This ceramic class is of great interfest as indicates important technological and cultural changes, along with the traceability of commercial paths in a crucial period just before the maximum expansion of Roman Empire. The production of Terra sigillata in the Campania region was influenced by new trends and technologies that spread out from the production centers in central Italy (e.g., Arezzo, Scoppieto) that likely converted their production from black glazed to Terra sigillata (Gómez‐Herrero et al., 2008), also thanks to the use of the innovative wood firing in muffle kilns (Cuomo di Caprio, 2007). As a matter of fact, Cales was probably the first regional center that re‐adapted the former facilities for the black glazed production to Terra sigillata and that took advantage of the availability of raw materials (Guarino et al., 2011).The goal of this research is to broaden knowledge on the production of fine ware from Cales via a thorough minero‐petrographic investigation of a significant number of pottery samples, dating from the third century BCE to the early imperial period, which includes black glazed pottery and a minor selection of Terra sigillata and fine common ware. The focus of this work benefits from the finding and comparison with important production indicators represented by wastes of black glazed pottery and spacers used during the production process. The latter represents significant materials for defining with certainty the compositional features of local potteries. A technological characterization in terms of EFTs (equivalent firing temperatures) was also carried out. Finally, through comparison with local clay raw materials, this research proposes possible sources of supply used in the production of fine pottery during the third century BCE to the early imperial period in Cales.BRIEF GEOLOGICAL REMARKSThe ancient city of Cales (modern Calvi Risorta) is located in the northern sector of the Volturno River plain (Figure 1b), just west of a mountain chain (Mts. Trebulani) formed by Mesozoic carbonate rocks (Lazio‐Campania‐Molise carbonate platform; Bonardi et al., 2009). Immediately east of the town, extensive clay deposits belonging to the syn‐orogenic succession of the Pietraroja Formation crop out. These deposits are intercalated with fine‐bedded argillitic marls and sandstones (Middle‐Upper Tortonian; Vitale & Ciarcia, 2018). Plastic clays of this succession have been exploited up to modern times for brick production.The ancient town of Cales was also close to the extinct Roccamonfina volcano located at ca. 15 km north‐west, which exposes the oldest post‐orogenic volcanic rocks of the Campania region (630–50 ka; De Rita & Giordano, 1996; Conticelli et al., 2009 and references therein). Furthermore, in the area, there are extensive pyroclastic flow deposits from the Phlegraean Fields (Figure 1b), represented by the eruption of Campanian Ignimbrite (39 ka, De Vivo et al., 2001; Fedele et al., 2008) and, subordinately, by the incoherent facies of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (15 ka, Deino et al., 2004). These have the typical composition of Phlegraean trachytes, which are mainly composed of alkali feldspar (sanidine), clinopyroxene (diopside/salite), plagioclase, biotite, and olivine only in the less evolved rocks. Accessory minerals are zircon, amphibole, and titanite, along with feldspathoid (nepheline) in the most evolved products (Melluso et al., 2012).THE CALENIAN FINE WARE AND THE INVESTIGATED MATERIALSThe investigated pottery samples come from two of the four sondages (Supporting Information Material Figure S1) located on the NE slope of the tuffaceous plateau, where the ancient city was located. The investigations have provided a complex and articulated stratigraphy that attests to an early phase of life in the Republican period, with the presence of imposing structures ascribed to public buildings, artisanal facilities and remains of infrastructure, particularly in the sondage number three on the SE slope of the plateau.The materials under study are characterized by 79 samples of different ceramics classes (Table 1). 57 samples are classified as black glazed pottery (Figure 2a) that include paterae, pissidi, cups, and bottle edges (Table 1). These samples are ascribable to a chronological span between the second and first centuries BCE, just a few samples are characterized by forms referable to the third century BCE (35.46, 133.49, 35.56; Table 1).1TABLEMacroscopic characteristics of the 79 fine pottery samples from Cales.Sample IDClassChronologyFormNoteWt. (g)Inner colorOuter colorInner colorOuter colorHardness133.1Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade11.52.5YR 6/32.5YR 6/3Light reddish brown‐Hard133.2Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.7510YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.3Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐12.27.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.4Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpyxis base‐10.67.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.5Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.722.5Y 5/22.5Y 5/2Grayish brown‐Very hard133.6Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐9.7510YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.7Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade8.617.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.8Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐7.927.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.9Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.695YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.10Black glazed potteryUndatedCupChromatic shade8.6610YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Hard133.11Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐5.087.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.12Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐7.135YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.13Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐8.102.5YR 6/32.5YR 6/3Light reddish brown‐Very hard133.14Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade7.845YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Very hard133.15Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.277.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.16Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECup base‐9.267.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.17Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐8.137.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.18Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.097.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Very hard133.19Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade6.797.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Very hard133.20Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCEpatera‐8.147.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.21Black glazed potteryHalf first cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade6.837.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.22Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade6.465YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.23Black glazed potteryHalf first cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade9.325YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.24Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpatera‐7.477.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.25Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade8.847.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.26Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade5.527.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.27Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐4.187.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard133.28Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐5.657.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard133.29Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐5.797.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard133.30Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐3.337.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard133.31Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐7.487.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.32Black glazed potterySecond half second cent. BCEpyxis‐9.817.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.33Black glazed potterysecond–first cent. BCEpyxis‐8.5110YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.34Black glazed potterysecond–first cent. BCEpyxis‐7.297.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.35Black glazed potterySecond half second cent. BCEpyxis‐5.507.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard35.37Black glazed potteryEnd second–begin first cent. BCECup‐7.877.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard35.38Black glazed potteryEnd second–begin first cent. BCECup‐5.467.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard35.39Black glazed potteryUndatedCup‐4.932.5Y 7/32.5Y 7/3Light reddish brown‐Hard35.40Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpatera‐7.357.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard35.41Black glazed potteryHalf second cent. BCEpatera‐6.357.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard35.42Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCEpatera‐6.347.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard35.43Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCEpatera‐7.397.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard35.44Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCEpatera/cup‐5.317.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard35.45Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpatera‐6.667.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard35.46Black glazed potteryThird–second cent. BCECup‐7.987.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard35.47Black glazed potteryFirst cent. BCEpatera‐6.6010YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard35.48Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCECup‐4.7410YR 7/410YR 7/4Very pale brown‐Hard133.49Black glazed potteryThird–second cent. BCE?Cup‐8.4210YR 6/410 YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard35.50Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECup‐10.57.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brownHard133.51Black glazed potteryUndatedBottle edge‐24.45YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.52Black glazed potteryUndatedParete‐7.777.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.53Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCESmall patera‐9.677.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard35.56Black glazed potteryThird–second cent. BCECup‐5.687.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard35.57Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECupWithout coating17.87.5YR 7/67.5YR 7/6Reddish yellow‐Hard35.58Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECupWithout coating12.47.5YR 7/67.5YR 7/6Reddish yellow‐Hard76.74Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECupChromatic shade7.7810YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.87Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECupWithout coating9.387.5 YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard35.75Terra sigillataEnd first cent. BCE/begin first CECup‐5.67.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard37.76Terra sigillataEnd first cent. BCE/begin first CECup‐6.357.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard27.77Terra sigillataUndatedBase open form‐5.795YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.113Fine common wareUndatedAnsa‐6.885Y 5/15Y 6/4GrayPale oliveVery hard133.114Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formRed paste8.857.5YR 6/67.5 YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.115Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formRed paste6.757.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.116Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formRed paste6.282.5YR 6/62.5YR 6/6Light red‐Hard133.117Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formRed paste7.795YR 5/85YR 5/8Yellowish red‐Hard133.118Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formOverfired6.145Y 5/35Y 5/3Olive‐Very hard133.119Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formOverfired8.442.5Y 5/22.5Y 5/2Grayish brown‐Very hard133.120Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formLight paste5.0310YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Hard133.121Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formLight paste6.9110YR 6/410 YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Hard16.36Production indicator BGUndatedCup basis‐18.55Y 5/35Y 4/1OliveDark grayVery hard133.60SpacerUndatedRing spacer‐9.4010YR 6/310 YR 6/3Pole brown‐Very hard133.61SpacerUndatedRing spacer‐8.2210YR 6/310 YR 6/3Pole brown‐Very hard133.62SpacerUndatedRing spacer‐8.752.5YR 6/32.5YR 6/3Light reddish brown‐Very hard133.63SpacerUndatedRing spacer‐10.67.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard133.64SpacerUndatedCup spacer‐8.687.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard133.65SpacerUndatedCup spacer‐7.122.5YR 6/42.5YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.66SpacerUndatedCup spacer‐6.332.5YR 6/42.5YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.67SpacerUndatedCup spacer‐8.355Y 6/35Y 6/3Pole olive‐Very hard76.73Production indicator BGUndatedCup basis‐9.892.5Y 5/32.5Y 5/3Light olive brown‐Very hard2FIGURESelected samples of black glazed pottery (a); Terra sigillata (b); fine common ware (c); production indicator (d) object of this study.Interestingly, in the site of Cales the black glazed pottery in the late period (second and first centuries BCE) of production is characterized by the presence of several specimens that show a chromatic shading from black to red of the coating (Figure 2a; Table 1). These samples might be the results of mistakes during the firing process and may allegedly represent the first attempts for the development of technological innovation in terms of firing atmosphere, namely a shift from black glazed pottery (black coating) to Terra sigillata (red coating). The latter ceramic class was produced in several centers in the Roman Empire and is of great interest to archaeologists as it indicates an important technological and cultural change occurred in Roman ceramic technology (Grifa et al., 2019). This change was characterized by the implementation of muffle‐like furnaces where the flames and smoke are never in contact with pottery, thus improving the technological production of the red coated wares (Cuomo di Caprio, 2007; Picon, 1973). Several samples that show this chromatic transition were selected for the analyses along with three specimens of Terra sigillata (Figure 2b) that presented enough material for destructive analyses.A selection of nine fine common wares (Figure 2c) was also studied to provide a considerable contribution for defining local productions. Furthermore, 10 production indicators (Figure 2d) representing important materials to assess the compositional features of local potteries were analyzed. They include two kiln wastes (pottery deformed by excessive firing) and eight spacers.To identify the local products all pottery samples were also compared with clay raw materials from the surroundings of Cales and the main deposits from the northeast Campania region (data from De Bonis et al., 2013). The sediments are marine clays from the Apennine sector belonging to the Pietraroja Formation collected in the former clay quarries of Calvi Risorta (CVR) and Alvignano (ALV), along with deposits ascribed to blue‐grey clays of the Baronia Fm. from the quarries of Gran Potenza (GP) and Montesarchio (MS) in the Benevento province.METHODSThe minero‐petrographic characterization was carried out via a multi‐analytical approach. Macroscopic features included the color of the ceramic body of the specimens evaluated via a visual comparison (Munsell Soil Color Chart) and hardness (Williams, 1990).Petrographic features of ceramic pastes were investigated by means of polarized light microscopy (PLM) in thin section using an OPTIKA V‐600 POL microscope connected to a ZEISS Axiocam 105 color camera (ZEN 2.3 Lite software). The abundance, size range, and angularity of the inclusions were estimated by reference to comparator charts (Quinn, 2013; Terry & Chilingar, 1955).The thermal behavior of ceramics and the loss on ignition (LOI) were carried out by thermal analyses performed on powdered bulk placed inside an alumina crucible. The analyses were performed by means of Netzsch STA 449 F3 Jupiter (Department of Science and Technology–University of Sannio) thermal analyzer coupled with an FTIR BRUKER Tensor 27 for the Evolved Gas Analysis (EGA) by a transfer line heated at 200°C. The samples were heated from 40 to 1,050°C, with a heating rate of 10 °C/min in a nitrogen atmosphere (flow rate 60 ml/min). TG and DSC curves were acquired and processed with the NETZSCH Proteus 6.1 Software (Izzo et al., 2018).X‐Ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD) was used to determine the bulk mineralogical composition using a Bruker D2 Phaser second‐gen diffractometer (CuKα radiation, 30 kV, 10 mA, scanning interval 4–50° 2θ, equivalent step size 0.020° 2θ, equivalent counting time 66 s per step, Lynxeye 1D model detector), equipped with Diffract V6 5.0 data collector software (Bruker) for the first batch of 48 samples. The PANalytical X'Pert PRO 3040/60 PW diffractometer (CuKα radiation, operating at 40 kV, 40 mA, scanning interval 4–50° 2θ, using a step interval of 0.017° 2θ, with a step counting time of 66 s) was used for the second batch of 31 samples.In order to define the degree of sintering of the ceramic paste according to different firing temperatures of the ceramic bodies (Maniatis & Tite, 1981), microstructural observations of gold‐coated fragments in fresh fracture were performed on secondary electron (SE) images acquired via Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM; Zeiss Merlin VP Compact). This analysis was carried out on 12 representative samples, chosen according to their mineralogical and petrographic features.Microanalyses of mineral grains and neoformed phases in the ceramic paste were determined on backscattered electron (BSE) images obtained with the same instrument on polished and carbon‐coated thin sections. Quantitative microchemical analyses were performed with an energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometer (EDS) and Oxford Instruments Microanalysis Unit (X Max 50 EDS detector operating at 15 kV primary beam voltage, 115–125 μA filament current, and 60 μm spot size, acquisition time 10 s). This analysis was carried out on seven representative samples according to their petrographic features and mineralogical assemblage. Data were processed with an INCA Xstream pulse processor. The utilized mineral standards are reported in Guarino et al. (2021) and Franciosi et al. (2019). Precision and accuracy of EDS analyses are reported by Rispoli et al. (2019).Bulk chemical composition of the samples was performed via X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF; AXIOS PANalytical Instrument) for measuring the concentration of 10 major oxides (wt.% of SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, and P2O5) and 10 trace elements (Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Cr, Ni, Sc, V, in parts per million [ppm]). Analytical uncertainties were in the order of 1–2% for the major elements and 5–10% for trace elements (Cucciniello et al., 2022).Multivariate statistical analyses were carried out using R (R Development Core Team, 2014) software on chemical data standardized via log10 transformation, omitting some elements (CaO, MnO, P2O5, Ba) that are more susceptible to post‐burial contamination (e.g., Grifa et al., 2013, 2015; Maggetti, 2001). Hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) was applied to the data set reduced by PCA (principal component analysis) to cluster samples in a dendrogram using an agglomerative clustering algorithm (Euclidean distance and average linkage method).RESULTSMinero‐petrographic and microstructural featuresBlack glazed potteryThe 57 samples of black glazed pottery are characterized by a variable color of the ceramic body from pinkish (7.5YR 7/4; Table 1) to brownish (7.5YR 6/4; Table 1) with a hardness ranging from hard to very hard (Table 1). The presence of a black coating was detected in most sections of black glazed samples (Figure 3a).3FIGUREThin sections images of some representative fragments. (a‐f) Black glazed pottery; (g‐i) Terra sigillata; (l‐n) fine common ware; (o‐q) production indicator. NX, crossed polars; NII, parallel polars.From a petrographic point of view, the black glazed samples are extremely homogeneous. They show an amount of inclusions that range from 10 to 15% with a bimodal distribution and size generally less than 200 μm. Inclusions are mainly represented by tiny quartz crystals (Figure 3b), feldspars (Figure 3c‐d), and minor brown and white mica. Lithic fragments of both sedimentary (carbonate fragments, sometimes >200 μm) and volcanic nature (evident fragments of trachyte >200 μm; Figure 3e) were also detected, along with carbonate microfossil fragments represented by planktonic foraminifers (Figure 3d ‐f). Calcite microcrystals scattered in the clay matrix (b‐fabric; birefringent fabric according to Kemp, 1985) were detected in all samples analyzed.The black glazed pottery mostly shows no optical activity of the clay matrix, with only two samples (35.44, 35.50) showing a weak birefringence. Microstructural features observed at the FESEM are variable. An intermediate degree of sintering between the absence of vitrification and an initial vitrification stage (NV/IV) was detected in 35.50 (Figure 4a). An extensive vitrification stage (V) was observed in samples 133.8, 133.24, 133.35 (Figure 4b), and 35.38 (Figure 4c). The slip that coats the artifacts is thin (15–20 μm) and not completely vitrified (Figure 4c).4FIGUREFESEM images of freshly fractured samples: (a) 35.50. No vitrified‐initial vitrification (NV‐IV). (b) 133.35. Extensive vitrification (V). (c) 35.38. Extensive vitrification (V). (d) 27.77. Initial vitrification (IV). (e) 133.117. Initial vitrification‐extensive vitrification (IV‐V). (f) 133.119. Continuous vitrification with fine bloating pores (0.4–2 μm; CV [FB]). (g) 133.62. Extensive vitrification (V). (h) 16.36. Continuous vitrification with coarse bloating pores (10–50 μm; CV [CB]).The results of mineralogical analysis (XRPD) performed on 57 samples of black glazed pottery confirm that quartz is the most abundant phase in all the samples analyzed, along with frequent feldspar, calcite, and mica recognized in several samples. Hematite occurs in a few specimens (Table 2). Neoformed Ca‐silicates also characterize the samples and are represented by melilites and pyroxenes detected in variable amounts (Table 2). Neoformed melilite is generally detected at rims of pores (Figure 5a,b) that were filled with calcite before firing. Microchemical analyses showed that melilites have an intermediate composition between gehlenite and åkermanite (Gh. % 41.5–71.2, Na‐mel. % 0.67–14.3, Ak. % 19.4–66.9), and are included in the compositional field of “ceramic” melilites (Figure 5g, Supporting Information Material Table S1).2TABLEMineralogical (XRPD) and microstructural analysis (FESEM) with the EFTs (equivalent firing temperatures) of pottery samples. Legend: xxxx = very abundant; xxx = abundant; xx = frequent; x = scarce.Sample IDClassMineralogical assemblageVitrification stageEFTs (°C)QuartzFeldsparPyroxeneCalciteHematiteMeliliteMica/IlliteFESEM133.1Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐‐x‐900–950133.2Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.3Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.4Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.5Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.6Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxxx‐900–1000133.7Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxxxx850–900133.8Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐xTr.V900–950133.9Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xxTr.xx850–900133.10Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxxxx850–900133.11Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐xx850–900133.12Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxTr.xx850–900133.13Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.14Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxxx‐900–1000133.15Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.16Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxTr.x‐900–1000133.17Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐xx850–900133.18Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxxx‐900–1000133.19Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxTr.xTr.900–1000133.20Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐Tr.‐900–1000133.21Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.22Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xxxTr.‐<850133.23Black glazed potteryxxxxx‐xxxxx850–900133.24Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐V900–1000133.25Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐Tr.x850–900133.26Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxxx‐900–1000133.27Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.28Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.29Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxTr.‐‐900–950133.30Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.31Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xx‐x‐950–1050133.32Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.33Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.34Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐‐x<850133.35Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐V950–105035.37Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xx‐xx850–90035.38Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xx‐xxV850–90035.39Black glazed potteryxxxxxxx‐‐xTr.850–90035.40Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐xx850–90035.41Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐xTr.950–1,05035.42Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐xTr.950–105035.43Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐xx850–90035.44Black glazed potteryxxxxx‐‐‐xXx750–85035.45Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐xTr.950–105035.46Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–105035.47Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–105035.48Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐‐xx850–900133.49Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxTr.xTr.950–100035.50Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐tr.‐‐xNV‐IV750–850133.51Black glazed potteryxxxxx‐xxTr.xx850–900133.52Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐xx850–900133.53Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxTr.xx850–90035.56Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxTr.xx850–90035.57Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxTr.xx850–90035.58Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐xx850–90076.74Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐‐x‐900–1000133.87Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐‐‐x850–90035.75Terra sigillataxxxxxx‐xxxxXx750–85035.76Terra sigillataxxxxx‐xxxxXx750–85027.77Terra sigillataxxxxxxxxxxxTr.xIV800–850133.113Fine common warexxxxxxxxxx‐xx‐950–1000133.114Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxTr.Xxx850–900133.115Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxTr.XxxV850–900133.116Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxTr.xx850–900133.117Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxTr.xXxV800–900133.118Fine common warexxxxxxxxxx‐xx‐950–1000133.119Fine common warexxxxxxxxxx‐‐x‐CV (FB)950–1050133.120Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxxxx850–900133.121Fine common warexxxxxx‐xTr.xx850–90016.36Production indicator BGxxxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐CV (CB)>1050133.60Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.61Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.62Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐V950–1050133.63Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.64Spacerxxxxxxxxxxx‐V950–1050133.65Spacerxxxxxxxxxxxx‐‐‐950–1050133.66Spacerxxxxxxxxxxxxx‐‐‐950–1050133.67Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐‐‐‐950–105076.73Production indicator BGxxxxxxxxxx‐‐Tr.‐>10505FIGURE(a‐f) Backscattered electron images showing neoformed phases (abbreviations according to Whitney & Evans (2010): cal = calcite; mll = melilite; cpx = clinopyroxene). (g) Ternary diagram showing the composition of melilites. Reference analyses are from Dondi et al. (1998), Melluso et al. (2010), and De Bonis et al. (2014); De Bonis, D'Angelo, et al. (2017). (h) Ternary diagram of fassaite‐diopside‐Ca‐tschermakite‐esseneite (Cosca & Peacor, 1987).Terra sigillataThe three Terra sigillata samples are characterized by a reddish‐yellow color of the clay paste (7.5YR 6/6; Table 1) with a hard ceramic body (Table 1). A distinct red coating, both internal and external, was also observed in all thin sections (Figure 3g).The petrographic features are similar to those of black glazed pottery. As evidenced for this latter ceramic class, Terra sigillata samples are characterized by an amount of inclusions from 10 to 15% with a bimodal distribution and size generally less than 200 μm. They are composed of tiny quartz crystals, abundant feldspar (Figure 3h), and brown and white mica (Figure 3h). Sedimentary lithics also occur and are characterized by carbonate fragments and microfossils represented by planktonic foraminifers. B‐fabric due to microcrystalline calcite was also recognized in the clay matrix (Figure 3i).Microstructural observations via FESEM show an initial vitrification stage (IV) with no definite smooth surfaced areas in 27.77 sample (Figure 4d).XRPD of Terra sigillata indicate a mineralogy featured by a high amount of quartz, minor feldspar, calcite, hematite, frequent mica/illite, and neoformed Ca‐silicate represented by melilite in all the sample analyzed; in sample 27.77 the neoformed pyroxene was also identified along with lower amounts of mica/illite (Table 2).Fine common waresThe nine samples of fine common ware are characterized by an extremely heterogeneous color of the ceramic body, varying from reddish (7.5 YR 6/6; Table 1), light brown (10YR 6/4; Table 1), to olive (5Y 5/3; Table 1). Generally, the samples do not show a chromatic shade from the core to the rim, except for the sample 133.113 that shows a slight chromatic shade from grey (5Y 5/1, Table 1) to olive (5Y 6/4; Table 1). The macroscopic analysis also revealed a hard to very hard ceramic body (Table 1).The amount (5–10%) and size (ca. 50 μm) of inclusions are considerably lower with respect to those of black glazed and Terra sigillata, and show a serial distribution. They are made of tiny crystals of quartz; feldspar; carbonate fragments, also represented by planktonic foraminifers; and sporadic mica. Microcrystalline calcite scattered in the clay matrix also occurs (Figure 3l‐n).The optical activity of the ceramic matrix varies among the samples, with 133.117 exhibiting a weak activity due to a degree of sintering between initial and extensive vitrification (IV‐V; Figure 4e). In contrast, sample 133.119 is optically inactive and shows a microstructure characterized by continuous vitrification and fine bloating pores (CV [FB]; 0.2–4 μm; Figure 4f). Extensive vitrification (V) was observed in sample 133.115.X‐ray powder diffraction (XRPD) indicates a high amount of quartz and minor feldspar in all samples, whereas neoformed iron oxides, specifically Fe3+ oxide (hematite), were detected in all common ware samples except for 133.119 (Table 2). Scarce to frequent neoformed Ca‐silicates represented by melilite were identified in all samples, whereas abundant pyroxene was only recognized in samples 133.118 and 133.119 (Table 2). Calcite is frequent in all fine common wares. Illite/mica was identified in low amounts or in traces in almost all samples, except for 133.118 and 133.119 (Table 2).Neoformed crystals of Ca‐silicates represented by both melilite and pyroxene are visible in FESEM backscattered images (Figure 5c). Microchemical analyses of melilites showed an intermediate composition between gehlenite and åkermanite (Gh. % 13.6–56.1, Na‐mel. % 0.42–4.96, Ak. % 40.2–85.1), included in the compositional field of “ceramic” melilites (Figure 5g; Supporting Information Material Table S1). The neoformed pyroxenes were classified through the plot of fassaite composition in the ternary diagram CaMgSi2O6 (Di, diopside molecule), CaAl2SiO6 (CaTs, Ca‐Tschermak's molecule), and CaFe3+AlSiO6 (Ess, esseneite molecule) (Cosca & Peacor, 1987; Rathossi & Pontikes, 2010). The neoformed pyroxenes are included in the compositional field between the fassaite (or “ferrian aluminian diopside” according to the International Mineralogical Association's Commission on New Mineral Names; Morimoto, 1988) and esseneite (Di. 32.6–50.1 wt.%, CaTs. 7.50–20.0 wt.%, Ess. 40.0–50.2 wt.%; Figure 5h).Production indicatorsThe 10 samples of production indicators are made of two samples of wastes of black glazed pottery and eight samples of spacers. They are mostly characterized by a highly variable color of ceramic body that varies from pink (7.5YR 7/4; Table 1), brownish (2.5YR 6/4; Table 1), to olive (5Y 6/3; Table 1). Generally, the samples do not show chromatic shades of the ceramic body, except for specimen 16.36 which shows a color shade from olive (5Y 5/3) in the core to dark grey (5Y 4/1) toward the rims (Table 1). The ceramic body of most samples analyzed is very hard, except for 133.64 that is hard (Table 1).The amount of inclusions ranges from 10 to 15% with a bimodal distribution of grains (Figure 3o‐q). As already evidenced for the black glazed pottery and Terra sigillata, inclusions are generally lower than 200 μm and are composed of tiny quartz crystals, feldspar, volcanic lithics represented by trachyte fragments (>200 μm; Figure 3p), carbonate rock fragments, and planktonic foraminifers. Microcrystalline calcite scattered in the clay matrix also occurs.The matrix is optically inactive and characterized by a variable degree of sintering of the clay paste, which varies from extensive (V) in the spacers 133.62 (Figure 4g) and 133.64, to continuous vitrification with coarse bloating pores in the specimen 16.36 (CV [CB], 10–50 μm; Figure 4h) represented by a waste of black glazed pottery.XRPD results indicate a mineralogy characterized by a high amount of quartz and minor feldspar for all samples (Table 2). Neoformed pyroxene and calcite vary from abundant to frequent in all samples analyzed, except for the spacer 133.67 and the waste of black glazed pottery 76.73, where no calcite was detected. In almost all samples neoformed melilite was identified, along with a scarce amount of hematite in 133.64 (Table 2).Backscattered FESEM images show that neoformed Ca‐silicates are generally detected at rims of pores (Figure 5d) in spacers, whereas they are visible as well‐formed crystals (i.e., pyroxene; Figure 5e,f) in the vitrified matrix of black glazed wastes. FESEM‐EDS microanalyses showed that melilites have an intermediate composition between gehlenite and åkermanite (Gh. % 30.6–69.8, Na‐mel. % 0.80–5.13, Ak. % 25.1–68.2), and are included in the compositional field of “ceramic” melilites (Figure 5g, Supporting Information Material Table S1). Neoformed pyroxenes are included in the compositional field between the fassaite and esseneite (Di. 34.1–58.2 wt.%, CaTs. 7.50–25.2 wt.%, Ess. 26.8–50.7 wt.%, Figure 5h).Chemical analysesAll the samples show a high‐CaO concentration (7.05–15.8 wt.%; Table 3). The analyses of major oxides and trace elements show that the 79 ceramic samples are characterized by very homogeneous chemical composition (Table 3), with limited compositional variability in terms of both major (SiO2 53.6–61.3 wt.%; TiO2 0.67–0.80 wt.%; Al2O3 13.7–16.6 wt.%; Fe2O3 6.33–6.98 wt.%; MnO 0.09–0.12 wt.%; MgO 3.44–4.80 wt.%; Na2O 0.19–1.33 wt.%; K2O 2.43–3.19 wt.%, P2O5 0.17–0.88 wt.%) and trace elements. The latter, in fact, also show a good compositional homogeneity (Rb 133–198 ppm, Sr 258–422 ppm, Y 22–32 ppm, Zr 132–183 ppm, Nb 10–20 ppm, Ba 325–652 ppm, Cr 125–200 ppm, Ni 64–90 ppm, Sc 14–28 ppm, V 87–158 ppm), as reported in Table 3. Only one sample of spacer (133.66) shows a higher concentration of Rb (443 ppm).3TABLEMajor (wt.%) and trace (ppm) elements of the fine pottery from Cales.Sample IDClassSiO2TiO2Al2O3Fe2O3MnOMgOCaONa2OK2OP2O5TOTRbSrYZrNbBaCrNiScV133.1Black glazed pottery57.20.7214.66.440.113.7913.90.332.640.2210015435031173163901456520135133.2Black glazed pottery56.30.7314.96.490.114.1414.10.322.700.2710013632325132113741678017115133.3Black glazed pottery56.00.7114.36.370.114.0415.20.312.630.2710014936527147133921356816110133.4Black glazed pottery57.30.7214.76.480.113.6113.60.412.720.3210015335232179184131376720122133.5Black glazed pottery57.50.7314.96.530.113.6613.30.362.710.2410015135031174183821516721129133.6Black glazed pottery56.60.7114.76.440.113.6114.40.402.750.3210015936031175164221406522118133.7Black glazed pottery56.40.6713.86.410.123.4415.70.352.710.4010014335331175154941316623107133.8Black glazed pottery57.30.7214.96.540.114.0013.10.292.750.3410016033431171164011356825120133.9Black glazed pottery54.40.7515.16.640.114.3815.40.192.760.2810016636630165174051436721107133.10Black glazed pottery55.90.7014.26.420.123.5415.10.413.090.4110017136631174175051356725110133.11Black glazed pottery56.70.7315.06.530.113.7613.80.362.730.2910015734831172173871406521117133.12Black glazed pottery58.30.7415.46.660.113.6911.50.332.870.3810018331632180194551336619123133.13Black glazed pottery56.80.7315.16.570.113.8013.50.372.700.3410016236332175174131426421117133.14Black glazed pottery57.20.7715.56.780.114.4711.60.332.870.3210016433730155163911456918129133.15Black glazed pottery55.80.7315.26.660.113.7514.30.382.730.3310016034831167184331416719117133.16Black glazed pottery56.60.7114.66.470.123.7714.40.362.680.2910014936129163163981346822115133.17Black glazed pottery56.80.7114.56.460.113.8214.10.352.790.3310016136032179184491396620111133.18Black glazed pottery57.20.7114.76.520.123.6113.70.382.760.2910015735030172164201346622108133.19Black glazed pottery56.50.7315.16.680.113.8613.40.272.880.3610017234331169194661486725124133.20Black glazed pottery56.10.7415.26.680.114.4913.40.282.660.3210014732031168174091357023116133.21Black glazed pottery55.50.7214.76.530.114.0415.10.312.670.2810015236730165163731426821121133.22Black glazed pottery55.90.7014.36.340.123.9015.50.272.740.2410016233731169164671256519113133.23Black glazed pottery57.20.7215.06.580.123.6113.80.192.430.3910015533932182194581296719114133.24Black glazed pottery57.60.7314.86.490.113.6313.10.432.790.3110013730525134113911367021113133.25Black glazed pottery55.50.7114.66.540.124.3514.80.232.730.4510016132232177175411326723115133.26Black glazed pottery56.10.7414.96.610.113.9114.20.312.750.3210016039629162164311406922107133.27Black glazed pottery57.30.7214.76.490.123.7113.50.392.760.3310015033329157154241336723115133.28Black glazed pottery57.10.7114.66.460.123.8513.80.342.730.3010016538130169154091366519108133.29Black glazed pottery57.10.7215.16.630.114.0113.00.312.760.2610017036031171174541346722123133.30Black glazed pottery56.50.7014.46.370.123.6014.80.402.750.3010016036232183164381436522108133.31Black glazed pottery55.70.6914.36.420.123.7515.70.332.710.271001583493117117424132682299133.32Black glazed pottery56.80.7114.66.460.114.3813.70.332.590.3310015833630170174231356723107133.33Black glazed pottery56.30.7114.66.560.113.9314.50.362.640.3510015235831171163821506621119133.34Black glazed pottery58.20.7415.46.790.103.8411.40.252.930.3410016430232176184151406720131133.35Black glazed pottery57.20.7415.26.660.113.9312.70.392.820.311001613493116815405149722011935.37Black glazed pottery57.20.7214.86.660.123.6813.20.402.860.361001503462915514447147692011435.38Black glazed pottery57.70.7515.46.770.123.5612.10.232.910.491001722973116116486143722613335.39Black glazed pottery58.50.7215.36.660.113.8111.10.792.660.251001943493117117425161732013135.40Black glazed pottery55.90.7515.26.700.104.5313.40.242.720.401001633243216617410145682111235.41Black glazed pottery58.50.7715.76.820.114.3310.20.302.770.481001583113015617479151712211535.42Black glazed pottery57.00.7515.46.780.104.0712.30.312.810.351001603323116517401145692112635.43Black glazed pottery61.30.7816.06.920.103.937.050.313.000.601001682583117817474142682011635.44Black glazed pottery59.80.7615.76.760.104.288.440.353.120.651001863553016517652132681912535.45Black glazed pottery55.70.7615.36.720.114.6813.20.352.830.321001643563015415383154681812235.46Black glazed pottery57.20.7315.06.670.114.2412.30.312.710.731001463403116516570139681710335.47Black glazed pottery56.60.7114.46.440.123.7514.80.322.650.321001573523016716391138682111435.48Black glazed pottery57.20.7916.36.980.114.2910.20.423.020.6810017535732172205931507224127133.49Black glazed pottery56.40.7916.06.960.104.4611.30.752.970.291001623272916014371167761513835.50Black glazed pottery58.50.8016.66.980.114.487.960.753.170.6310017530031172155251597422146133.51Black glazed pottery55.10.7314.66.520.114.2714.70.792.820.3110016734128174144541586921128133.52Black glazed pottery55.70.7415.46.440.104.1513.40.752.960.3810017335730159155341557417126133.53Black glazed pottery55.20.7515.26.700.114.3513.80.772.810.281001553373116615383153712212135.56Black glazed pottery57.30.7215.36.590.113.9412.10.812.840.261001753602816212464142722212735.57Black glazed pottery55.80.7615.56.660.114.1912.90.762.900.371001704223016515434153702312235.58Black glazed pottery56.10.7414.96.520.114.2313.40.732.870.431001643462917014472147681812876.74Black glazed pottery57.20.7916.26.900.104.3710.70.812.760.2010014833430165163801517619139133.87Black glazed pottery57.20.7214.46.520.123.8912.90.822.910.4210016233630178154871386819121Average56.80.7315.06.600.113.9813.10.422.790.3610016134430167164401436921119Std.dev1.140.030.560.160.010.311.840.190.130.110.0011.025.01.529.971.6958.059.323.082.269.5235.75Terra sigillata56.60.7315.06.510.113.9112.90.812.990.42100161314291651359014470259535.76Terra sigillata54.50.7214.36.420.114.2015.80.802.880.33100158340281561448813970279727.77Terra sigillata55.50.7414.66.440.094.2214.10.892.550.881001423602815513525147652087Average55.50.7314.66.450.104.1114.30.842.800.541001543382815913534143682493Std.dev1.080.010.320.050.010.171.420.050.230.300.009.9822.830.515.640.6151.763.743.153.805.26133.113Fine common ware55.10.7715.06.490.114.5114.20.882.800.2110017935628149143621627228144133.114Fine common ware54.80.7515.06.420.104.2514.70.822.830.2910017134629163144231406620138133.115Fine common ware55.30.7615.16.630.114.8013.20.693.010.2910016132129150144261497321138133.116Fine common ware54.40.7414.76.360.104.3515.30.832.850.2810016736329159144261396817131133.117Fine common ware55.30.7415.06.350.104.3014.30.772.810.3510017234930170154621426516139133.118Fine common ware55.60.7514.96.530.114.7513.50.822.830.2810015336227148143561527624150133.119Fine common ware53.70.7614.76.550.114.7915.30.792.850.4510019439527150133981537019158133.120Fine common ware57.40.7815.86.750.114.0411.00.773.020.3410016732829159154081527623156133.121Fine common ware55.70.7514.96.410.104.2513.80.872.880.3610017133330172154611466726126Average55.20.7615.06.500.114.4513.90.812.880.3210017135029158144141487022142Std.dev1.000.010.340.130.010.281.330.060.080.070.0011.422.31.029.160.5937.67.444.083.9710.816.36Production indicator BG56.90.7214.36.330.103.6714.70.302.660.2910013334027146143251677622137133.60Spacer55.10.7214.76.400.114.4014.70.872.710.2410015836728170143971517015120133.61Spacer55.40.7314.76.480.114.6014.30.832.660.2810014135827160143841506921126133.62Spacer55.90.7114.66.400.114.4113.61.042.990.2610019835026162124111436715124133.63Spacer54.70.7314.86.490.114.5414.80.852.740.2710015137329166154041517114125133.64Spacer55.60.7415.26.580.114.2113.60.812.860.2810015935430177164131446724109133.65Spacer55.50.7214.56.410.104.4214.11.012.950.2210015435627158143671838223123133.66Spacer54.50.7314.16.420.114.7314.61.333.190.1710044334822151103682009020146133.67Spacer56.00.7515.16.480.104.6712.61.023.090.181001933562715815348159701813476.73Production indicator BG56.40.7715.26.680.104.3212.70.772.810.2010014434328159163761597120148Average55.60.7314.76.470.114.4014.00.892.860.2410018735427161143791617319129Std.dev0.740.020.370.100.010.300.830.260.180.040.0092.210.22.248.751.8428.618.27.373.4611.8ALV1Northern Campania55.20.7013.86.320.123.0917.80.442.480.13100124356271361228513141370ALV2Northern Campania55.00.7414.56.480.093.8316.20.422.570.13100126366291431426713344340CVR1Northern Campania53.40.7515.16.500.115.2515.60.512.690.12100153379301441427014753280CVR2Northern Campania54.90.6813.35.890.114.3517.60.612.500.13100116431261401227312937330GP1Sannio55.80.7815.06.090.074.2914.30.792.730.15100163453261531426114444350GP2Sannio55.30.6613.05.510.094.1317.90.772.520.14100120408261361128711428360MS1Sannio54.80.7113.85.750.073.6917.70.862.500.15100120434271331324612229320MS2Sannio55.70.7714.96.130.073.8914.60.882.960.14100161452231431325012638250IS1Ischia56.40.7915.96.650.143.5513.00.642.800.151001803713927931374885328115IS2Ischia58.60.8116.26.430.133.1510.60.693.190.161001702733526028354693922113IS3Ischia56.00.8216.06.930.123.2513.30.522.980.151001572753323125270914424128IS4Ischia59.70.6715.05.280.113.3110.10.435.330.10100280208383193721076301987IS5Ischia55.70.8215.66.900.143.3612.61.583.120.16100263372333083131982402364IS6Ischia60.00.7715.86.130.142.949.700.863.470.151001602342726327369744118105DA6Ischia58.80.6616.06.310.192.8210.41.093.590.14100223256444056729460361499DA5Ischia58.50.5813.45.220.122.9415.40.872.850.131001513622820320346863912110DA2Ischia56.90.7615.86.170.103.3413.50.472.810.1610016427032210282901064921171DA1Ischia58.20.6514.85.250.133.1313.80.903.060.141001773083223630316814514103Chemical binary diagrams (Figure 6) were provided to better represent the compositional features of the samples analyzed. The black glazed pottery shows a narrow chemical variability (Figure 6a‐d). SiO2 ranges from 54.4 wt.% in sample 133.9 to 58.5 wt.% in samples 35.41, 35.50, and 35.39. Only two samples represented by 35.43 and 35.44 show slightly higher values of SiO2 (61.3 and 59.8 wt.%, respectively). The latter two samples are also characterized by the lowest CaO concentration of the entire ceramic class (7.05 and 8.44 wt.%, respectively). The behavior of the trace elements shows the homogeneous characteristics of this ceramic class as evidenced in Figure 6c and d.6FIGUREXRF binary diagrams with major oxides (wt.%) and trace elements (ppm), compared with high‐CaO clay raw material from the Campania region.The three samples of Terra sigillata follow the behavior of the black glazed pottery described above. The SiO2 values range from 54.5 to 56.6 wt.%, and the CaO varies from 12.9 to 15.8 wt.% (Figure 6a‐b). As already highlighted for the black glazed pottery, the Terra sigillata samples are characterized by a narrow variability of the trace element concentration, as shown by Zr (155–165 ppm) and Nb (13–14 ppm) in Figure 6c‐d.The nine samples of fine common ware are characterized by the SiO2 values that range from 54.4 to 57.4 wt.% and a CaO concentration that varies from 11.0 to 15.3 wt.% (Figure 6a‐b). Once again trace elements follow the behavior of major elements as shown in Figure 6c‐d.Finally, the production indicators (8 spacers and 2 black glazed wastes) represent important comparison materials as their finding provided useful information about the composition of local products. They have been included in the chemical binary diagrams and the results show that their composition is perfectly in line with that of the other ceramic classes under study.DISCUSSIONProvenance and procurement of raw materialsThe analyses of 79 samples of black glazed pottery, Terra sigillata, fine common wares, and production indicators (i.e., wastes of black glazed pottery and spacers) from Cales revealed a very homogeneous composition. This strongly suggests that all ceramic classes were made by employing the same raw material for their manufacturing.To attest to the local origin of these ceramics in terms of both production and potential clay raw material used, the samples were compared to some high‐CaO Campanian clay raw materials (data from De Bonis et al., 2013) and local ceramics using chemical binary diagrams (Figure 6).All the 79 ceramic samples of this study show a greater chemical affinity with the Mio‐Pliocene basin clay sediments of the Apennine chain sector (Vitale & Ciarcia, 2018), among which the local clay samples represented by CVR (located at about 3 km from the archaeological site of Cales) that belongs to the Pietraroja formation also fall. This clay is also rich in microfossils represented by planktonic foraminifers (e.g., Selli, 1957), which were also detected in the investigated pottery. Furthermore, all pottery samples show a great chemical affinity with Calenian coeval (third century BCE to first century BCE) production indicators analyzed in Langella and Morra (2001) represented by BG spacers (cfr. Samples CAL1, CAL2, CAL3, CAL4). On the other hand, the recently published paper by Verde et al. (2023) highlighted that the local production of coarse ware, found in the same archaeological context, was made with different raw materials represented by alluvial clays from the surrounding area of the Volturno river floodplain. The difference between Calenian fine and coarse wares is clear from a petrographic point of view due to the lack of planktonic foraminifers in the coarse ware. The latter ware is also characterized by a great abundance of volcanic inclusions (clinopyroxene, juvenile and lithic fragments). Instead, the sporadic presence of volcanic inclusions in the fine pottery cannot be related to the marine clay used as a raw material. A deliberate addition of a small proportion of volcanic material can be hypothesized to correct (i.e., reduce) the plasticity. The Calenian black glazed pottery of this study was probably a mass‐scale production that required optimized and standardized working procedures, as already evidenced for some black glazed productions, including the Calena Tarda from Cales (see Pedroni, 2001 and references therein) and the large production of Campana A black glazed ware from Neapolis (De Bonis et al., 2016; Morel, 1981).To highlight the differences with the well‐known black glazed productions from the Bay of Naples area, a chemical comparison has been performed. The widespread Campana A ware is characterized by a peculiar and well distinct composition with respect to Calenian and other regional productions of black glazed ware (De Bonis et al., 2016). On the other hand, the Calenian production of this study is totally different from the black glazed pottery produced in Cumae collected in the Forum (fourth–third century BCE; Greco et al., 2014) and the Sanctuary of Cumae (fourth century BCE; Munzi et al., 2014) (Supporting Information Material Figure S2), which made use of high‐CaO clays from the nearby Island of Ischia as indicated by several studies (e.g., De Bonis et al., 2016 and Guarino et al., 2016 and reference therein). The differences between the two productions (Cales and Cumae) were highlighted by the multivariate statistical treatment of the chemical data obtained by X‐ray fluorescence (Figure 7). The PCA showed that 95% of the cumulative variance of the sample population was explained by the first nine components (Nb, Ni, Sc, Na2O, K2O, Rb, MgO, Sr, Y); the analysis was limited to these elements/oxides only. The statistical treatment included the 79 samples object of this study, black glazed pottery from the Forum (Greco et al., 2014) and Sanctuary of Cumae (Munzi et al., 2014), and the clay raw materials (De Bonis et al., 2013) for comparison. The resulting HCA dendrogram indicates the existence of two distinct groups (Figure 7) that were made with different raw materials. One consists of the 79 samples under study (black glazed pottery, Terra sigillata, fine common ware, production indicators), which show a high level of chemical affinity with the local clay raw material. The second group is made of black glazed wares Cumae that show a high chemical homogeneity with the Ischia clays.7FIGUREHierarchical cluster dendrogram and principal component analysis compared with Cumae samples and clay raw material from Ischia.The Terra sigillata samples included in the analyzed dataset (35.75, 35.76, 27.77) were also compared with the composition of reference groups of Terra sigillata from Campania and central Italy (Grifa et al., 2019; Schneider & Zabehlicky‐Scheffenegger, 2016; Soricelli et al., 1994; Verde et al., 2022). The entire dataset was plotted in a ternary diagram Zr‐Nb*10‐Cr (Figure 8) confirming the affinity between the samples 35.75, 35.76, 27.77 and Calenian Terra sigillata from Guarino et al. (2011) with the local clay raw material (CVR).8FIGURETernary diagram Nb*10‐Zr‐Cr. Ceramic productions from other regional and extra‐regional contexts were also plotted for comparison.Calenian pyrotechnologyThin section analyses showed that almost all the samples of black glazed pottery have an optically inactive clay matrix. In some cases, a diffuse birefringence was visible in the matrix, but this is due to the presence of microcrystalline calcite widespread throughout the matrix (b‐fabric, Figure 3a‐f). This feature frequently occurs in ceramic materials due to the late recarbonation of unreacted free lime (Fabbri et al., 2014). Observing the decarbonation temperature detected during the “reheating” of the ceramics via thermal analyses, it was possible to infer that it is reformed calcite. The peaks in the DTG and DSC curves between 500 and 800 °C (Table 4), in fact, occur at lower temperatures (<750°C) than those observed for primary calcite (Germinario et al., 2022); this feature is characteristic of reformed, fine calcite, visible in small‐size crystals in the thin sections. This calcite may react with the fired clay during the thermal analyses (actually, they cause a sort of refiring of samples), to form thermal phases of Ca‐silicates that could justify the exo‐endothermic peaks sequence observed above 840 °C (Shoval & Paz, 2013) (Table 4).4TABLEResults of thermogravimetric‐differential scanning calorimetric analyses, showing enthalpy changes and weight‐loss observed in the ceramic samples. Legend: a – endothermic; b – exothermic; Δw – mass loss; DSC: differential scanning calorimetry; DTG: derivative thermogravimetric curve; LOI: loss on ignition.SampleClass40–300 °C300–500 °C500–800 °C800–1050 °CLOIΔw (%)DTGDSCaΔw (%)DTGDSCaΔw (%)DTGDSCaΔw (%)DTGDSCa.bΔw (%)133.3Black glazed pottery1.63106.5101.20.67‐‐4.9728.17290.05‐8607.25133.6Black glazed pottery1.25111.3103.90.56‐‐4.2723.17280.03‐8786.04133.14Black glazed pottery1.47107.4102.10.54‐‐1.94682.66830.11‐‐4.06133.16Black glazed pottery1.13112.1100.10.47‐‐3.54720.17250.06‐‐5.2133.19Black glazed pottery2.20114.1108.90.92‐‐3.64701.47040.15‐8486.91133.20Black glazed pottery2.10110.41110.63‐‐3.37725.67270.03‐855.96.13133.23Black glazed pottery3.40114.1113.50.89‐‐4.69723.17210.05‐841.5b‐873a9.03133.25Black glazed pottery2.52108.8105.10.86‐‐5.3726.77290.06‐8648.74133.27Black glazed pottery1.47109.3101.10.63‐‐3.04704.17070.10‐‐5.2435.37Black glazed pottery1.26110.6101.10.55403.8405.13.52700.36980.05‐8865.3835.44Black glazed pottery2.67122.21070.71‐‐0.31‐‐0.17‐858.5b‐891.7a3.8635.48Black glazed pottery1.57106.396.10.43‐‐0.17‐‐0.02‐‐2.1935.57Black glazed pottery1.71112.71020.70‐‐3.15711.97100.08‐8595.6435.75Terra sigillata2.18114.51080.73‐‐3.25721.57250.13‐‐6.2935.76Terra sigillata1.80113.9107.90.65‐‐4.9732.37360.11‐‐7.4627.77Terra sigillata1.4411194.20.51‐‐2.90725.37300.08‐‐4.9316.36Production indicator BG1.0980.582.90.41403.4401.91.82678.36850.09‐‐3.41133.60Spacer0.81112.6880.38‐‐3.54734.17400.07‐‐4.80133.61Spacer0.65112.185.80.32‐‐2.77728.57330.04‐‐3.78133.64Spacer1.0111092.90.47‐‐3.31727.77310.07‐‐4.86133.65Spacer0.69106.4810.32‐‐2.36719.97260.05‐‐3.4276.73Production indicator BG0.68137.590.20.36‐‐0.10‐‐0.05‐‐1.19Neoformed Ca‐silicates are considered important thermal indicators for the estimation of the equivalent firing temperatures (EFTs; e.g., Maggetti et al., 2011; De Bonis, D'Angelo, et al., 2017) achieved inside the ancient kilns. It has been demonstrated that when firing temperatures increase, calcite in the clay matrix reacts with Si‐ and Al‐rich phases to form Ca‐silicates, starting at approximately 800/850 °C (e.g., Cultrone et al., 2001; De Bonis et al., 2014). Based on these data, it was possible to infer EFTs from the mineralogical transformations detected compared with the morpho‐structural observation obtained at the FESEM.Based on EFTs estimation, the 57 finds of black glazed pottery can be divided into three thermal groups. The first group consists of four samples (133.22, 133.34, 35.44, 35.50) characterized by the presence of phyllosilicates represented by mica/illite and the absence of neoformed melilite and pyroxene (Table 2). The cross‐check of mineralogical data with the morpho‐structural observation via FESEM showed that sample 35.50 (Figure 4a) does not exhibit a well‐defined vitrification structure, thus suggesting an EFT from 750 to 850 °C.The second group consists of 21 samples (133.7, 133.9, 133.10, 133.11, 133.12, 133.17, 133.23, 133.25, 35.37, 35.38, 35.39, 35.40, 35.43, 35.48, 133.51, 133.52, 133.53, 35.56, 35.57, 35.58, 133.87) characterized by the presence of mica/illite, melilite, and pyroxene from scarce to frequent (Table 2). Due to the presence of an extensive vitrification stage in sample 35.38 (Figure 4c), the estimated EFT range from 850 to 950 °C.The third group consists of 32 samples of black glazed pottery (133.1, 133.2, 133.3, 133.4, 133.5, 133.6, 133.8, 133.13, 133.14, 133.15, 133.16, 133.18, 133.19, 133.20, 133.21, 133.24, 133.26, 133.27, 133.28, 133.29, 133.30, 133.31, 133.32, 133.33, 133.35, 35.41, 35.42, 35.45, 35.46, 35.47, 133.49, 133.64, 76.74) characterized by the absence of mica/illite and the presence of scarce to abundant melilite and pyroxene (Table 2). FESEM observations highlight the presence of extensive vitrification in 133.35 (Figure 4b) samples, thus suggesting EFTs between 900 and 1050 °C.The three Terra sigillata samples showed an optical activity of the clay matrix that varies from inactive in 27.77 sample to slightly active in samples 35.75 and 35.76 (Figure 3g‐i). As already evidenced for the black glazed pottery, a diffuse birefringence is visible in the matrix of sample 27.77 due to the presence of re‐carbonated microcrystalline calcite (Fabbri et al., 2014). This hypothesis is again supported by thermal analysis (Table 4) due to the low decarbonation temperature (<750 °C) characteristic of reformed and fine calcite.XRPD results of the three samples of Terra sigillata show a mineralogy characterized by a high amount of quartz, minor feldspar, calcite, hematite, and frequent mica/illite in the 35.75 and 35.76 that accounts for EFTs of 750–850°C. Sample 27.77 shows lower amounts of mica/illite and the presence of pyroxene, along with a morphostructural feature characterized by initial vitrification (Figure 4d) indicating EFTs from 800 to 850 °C (Table 2). The EFT (750–850°C) evaluated for these samples well reflect the technological features of the Calenian Terra sigillata described in Guarino et al. (2011). This feature was also highlighted by Grifa et al. (2019) for the Terra sigillata Produzione A from the Bay of Naples and is in contrast to the technological features of Terra sigillata produced with the renowned Arretino modo that made use of muffle kilns (Cuomo di Caprio, 2007), for which specimens exhibit EFTs above 900 °C (Mirti et al., 1999).The nine samples of fine common ware are characterized by a variable optical activity and sintering degree. The samples 133.114, 133.115, 133.116, 133.117, 133.120, and 133.121 showed an optical activity of the clay matrix that varies from weakly active to inactive. The mineralogical assemblage is characterized by a scarce to frequent amount of mica/illite and neoformed Ca‐silicates that, along with extensive vitrification identified in 133.115 and 133.117 samples (Figure 4e), indicate EFTs that varies from 800 to 900 °C. On the other hand, three specimens (133.113, 133.118, 133.119) show higher EFTs (950–1050 °C) due to the absence of phyllosilicates and the presence of neoformed Ca‐silicates (Table 2), along with continuous vitrification with fine bloating pores (CV [FB]; 0.2–4 μm) in 133.119 (Figure 4f).The ten samples of production indicators represented by spacers (133.60, 133.61, 133.62, 133.63, 133.64, 133.65, 133.66, 133.67) and wastes of black glazed pottery (16.36, 76.73) show a totally inactive ceramic matrix. XRPD results of spacers show a mineralogy characterized by neoformed Ca‐silicates and the total absence of phyllosilicate, along with an extensive vitrification stage (V) identified in 133.62 (Figure 4g) and 133.64. On the basis of the data obtained it is possible to estimate an EFT of 900–1050 °C for all the samples analyzed (Table 2). The similar mineralogical assemblage was identified in the wastes of black glazed pottery where the presence of continuous vitrification with coarse bloating pores (CV [CB], 10–50 μm) identified in 16.36 sample, suggests an EFT >1,050 °C (Figure 4h).For all ceramic classes of this study absence or scarce amount of Fe3+ oxides (e.g., hematite) was detected. This would suggest that firing was performed in a prevailing reducing atmosphere, but it is more likely that the formation of Ca‐silicates hindered the hematite development (e.g., De Bonis, Cultrone, et al., 2017; Molera et al., 1998). Therefore, it is plausible that a prevailing oxidizing atmosphere characterized the firing. As reported in several studies (e.g., Maritan, 2020), a short reducing phase would have been performed in the late stage of the firing of black glazed pottery for blackening the coating, whereas full oxidation was adopted for Terra sigillata.CONCLUSIONSThe proposed multi‐analytical approach allowed us to confirm the local production of fine pottery at Cales and expand the previous knowledge about black glazed pottery, a class of fine pottery widely distributed in the central and western Mediterranean. Although several works have been carried out on black glazed pottery, for the first time we performed an accurate characterization on a large selection of Calenian black glazed artifacts, including other fine wares and important production indicators from the same archaeological context. This allowed us to define a robust reference group for the Calenian black glaze pottery.The set of techniques used for the archaeometric characterization showed the extreme homogeneity of these ceramic classes, including black glazed pottery, Terra sigillata, fine common wares, and important production indicators. The latter are represented by spacers and welded pieces of black glazed pottery and, thanks to their historical importance linked to production, provided a great contribution to the definition of local production of fine ceramics.The petrographic analysis showed an extreme compositional homogeneity of all the finds belonging to the different ceramic classes along with the same mineralogical assemblage. The only difference was highlighted in the fine common ceramics and Terra sigillata samples, where the presence of trachyte was not recognized. The use of volcanic fragments in spacers and black glazed pottery may have been intended to provide a technological correction to these artifacts.From a technological point of view, the samples of black glazed pottery exhibit an extreme variability of the EFTs. Three groups were identified based on their mineralogical assemblage and degree of sintering. The two main groups (consisting of 21 and 32 samples, respectively) show an EFT ranging from 850 to 1050 °C, just a few samples (133.22, 133.34, 35.44, 35.50) are characterized by EFTs lower than 850 °C.The three samples of Terra sigillata show an EFT from 750 to 850 °C along with not well sintered slips. These features contrast with the technology of Terra sigillata produced with the renowned Arretino modo that made use of muffle kilns (Cuomo di Caprio, 2007), for which the samples exhibit a well sintered slip and EFTs above 900 °C (Mirti et al., 1999). The fine common ware mostly shows EFTs ranging from 800 to 1000 °C. As far as the production indicators are concerned, the EFT ranges from 950 to 1050 °C for the spacers, whereas it turns out to be above 1050 °C for the waste of black glazed pottery, compatible with the fact that they are welded together. For all the samples the presence of hematite suggests a prevailing oxidizing atmosphere. A short reducing phase may have been performed in the late stage of the firing of black glazed pottery for blackening the coating. This important aspect will be further investigated in order to be able to discriminate the atmosphere condition inside the kiln and the Fe oxidation state through an accurate study of the coatings via specific state‐of‐the‐art instruments, such as synchrotron beamlines as X‐ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy (XANES) that are successfully used in glazed and slip ceramic studies for tracing technological developments of specific workshops through the correlation of surface appearance and manufacture technology.Chemical analyses indicate that all samples are characterized by high concentrations of CaO, which is compatible with the use of a local clay raw material from the Apennine chain sector. In order to more accurately distinguish between different types of clay raw materials used in ceramic production, the perspective of this study is to analyze the isotopic composition of strontium (Sr), neodymium (Nd), and lead (Pb). Previous research has shown that the isotopic signature of ceramics can provide valuable information about the sources of their raw materials (e.g., De Bonis et al., 2018; Kibaroğlu et al., 2019; Maritan et al., 2021; Renson et al., 2013).ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis work was supported by grants from the DiSTAR (Vincenzo Morra and Alberto De Bonis) of the University of Naples Federico II. The authors would like to thank Ciro Cucciniello for the high‐quality XRF analyses, Sergio Bravi for his technical ability in thin section preparation, and Roberto de Gennaro for his invaluable assistance during FESEM and FESEM‐EDS analysis. Last, the authors wish to warmly thank the editor of the journal and two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and comments that definitely improved the manuscript. Open Access Funding provided by Universita degli Studi di Napoli Federico II within the CRUI‐CARE Agreement.DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENTThe authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper and in supplementary information files.REFERENCESBonardi, G., Ciarcia, S., Di Nocera, S., Matano, F., Sgrosso, I., & Torre, M. (2009). Carta delle principali Unità Cinematiche dell'Appennino meridionale. Nota illustrativa. Italian Journal of Geosciences, 128, 47–60. scale 1:250,000, 1 sheetConticelli, S., Marchionni, S., Rosa, D., Giordano, G., Boari, E., & Avanzinelli, R. (2009). Shoshonite and sub‐alkaline magmas from an ultrapotassic volcano: Sr–Nd–Pb isotope data on the Roccamonfina volcanic rocks, Roman Magmatic Province, southern Italy. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 157, 41–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-008-0319-8Cosca, M. A., & Peacor, D. R. (1987). 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Minero‐petrographic characterization of fine ware from Cales (South Italy)

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Abstract

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDThe ancient city of Cales (modern Calvi Risorta) is located in the northern sector of the Campania region of Italy. The city in the sixth and fifth century BCE was situated in the former Etruscan part of Northern Campania and was inhabited by one of the oldest italic populations, the Aurunci or Ausoni (Pappalardo, 1997). Thanks to its geographical position, Cales had an important strategic function for the Roman control of a large area that included the Ager Falernus, the Campus Stellatis, and the Ager Campanus (Figure 1a) (Pedroni, 1993; Ruffo, 2010). The latter was the Capuan territory, also known as the Campania Felix thanks to the fertile soil of the Volturnum river that runs through the plain.1FIGURESketch map (a) of the Campania region with older rivers adapted from Grifa et al. (2013) and geological (b) map of the northern Campania sector modified after Vitale & Ciarcia (2018) with the positioning of the archaeological site of Cales and clay samples used for comparison (ALV, Alvignano; CVR, Calvi Risorta; MS, Montesarchio; GP, Gran Potenza).In 334 BCE Cales became a Latin colony. With the coming of the new colonist in 184 BCE the city became, together with the near Teanum Sidicinum, one of the most important cities in the Inner Campania. Finally, after the Social War in 90 BCE Cales became a municipium (Ruffo, 2010).The territory of Cales, also known as Ager Calenus, is considered one of the most important production centers of fine ware, oriented toward the export of tableware. The city was especially known for the production and distribution of black glazed ware, a type of pottery that was commonly found throughout the central and western Mediterranean from the mid‐third century BCE to the middle of the first century BCE (Pedroni & Soricelli, 1996). The beginning of the production of black glazed pottery in Cales is probably connected, at least chronologically, with the arrival of the Latin colonists.The black glazed production was gradually replaced in specific areas of the Roman Empire, including Cales, by the so‐called Terra sigillata, a class of fine red pottery with glossy slipped surfaces (Soricelli, 2004). The production of these important ceramic classes in Cales took advantage of the presence of large outcrops of clay next to the city (De Bonis et al., 2013), which represented important sources of supply of raw materials until the 20th century. Thanks to Soprintendenza archeologia belle arti e paesaggio per le Province di Caserta e Benevento, the archaeological authority responsible for the site of Cales, it was possible to study ceramic finds from all relevant workshop areas and from recent excavations on the so‐called arx of Cales excavated in 2007.The fine pottery from Cales was widely studied from an archaeological point of view. These studies highlighted the important role of the city in the production of fine ware and other types of ceramic artifacts. Cales preserves conspicuous evidence of intense manufacturing activity covering a wide chronological span from the late fourth century BCE to the middle first century BCE, with vast exportation throughout the Romanized world.As far as black glazed pottery production is concerned, numerous ateliers were active in the town and, among the most well‐known, there were those of the Atilii, Gabiniie, and Paconii. Their workshops produced typical black glazed forms (Passaro & Carcaiso, 2006), such as umbilicate paterae, medallion cups, and characteristic gutti with pouring spouts (Pedroni et al., 2001).The city was also a benchmark for the manufacture of smooth black glazed pottery with several workshop structures identified both within the urban perimeter and in suburban areas. The importance of Calenian pottery production was solidified by the uncovering of a genuine artisanal district beyond the city walls, a few hundred meters westward along the Via Latina, as a result of clandestine excavations conducted in the 1980s.During this time, J.P. Morel also conducted a brief excavation in the same area, which revealed a series of kilns that had been in use for an extended period, producing various types of ceramics that were exported on a massive scale and rivaled those of the nearby manufacturing centers of Teanum Sidicinum and Capua.Among the Calenian productions, tiles, oil lamps, and Dressel 2–4e amphorae are also attested and represent forms that do not seem to find evidence in other production centers (Morel, 1989; Olcese, 2015).The investigated pottery samples come from an area characterized by the presence of public buildings, infrastructures, and artisanal facilities that attest to an early phase of life in the Republican period. The considerable amount of black glazed pottery, associated with kiln wastes represented by deformed and misfired objects, cups, and still stacked paterae, along with tuff blocks and bricks with evident traces of strong exposure to heat sources and several production wastes, confirm the occurrence of a production facility in the investigated area. Moreover, the presence of architectural elements, probably pertaining to a public building, along with evidence of craft activities with intense production rhythms, suggest the existence of a sacred building in the area with workshops annexed to it, according to a typology that would also seem to characterize the Calenian sanctuaries, in particular the Sanctuary of Ponte delle Monache.A few archaeometric data were available so far and provided a preliminary overview of the compositional features of fine ware from Cales. L. Pedroni (2001) in his last volume on Calenian black glazed pottery, gave a general description of the fabrics and glazed surfaces. He noted that the black glazed pottery from Cales is characterized by a high uniformity throughout the range of Calenian production from the beginning in the third to the first century BCE and thus presumed a consistent “Calenian fabric”. The homogeneity of these pottery was also suggested on a chemical and petrographic point of view, from analyses carried out on a few samples of production indicators by Langella and Morra (2001).A step ahead in the archaeometric knowledge about the Calenian fine ware was made by Guarino et al. (2011), who studied a selection of Terra sigillata including local and imported specimens. The study attested to the circulation of Terra sigillata coming from productive areas in Central and Northern Italy along with locally produced samples, which showed an affinity with local raw materials. This ceramic class is of great interfest as indicates important technological and cultural changes, along with the traceability of commercial paths in a crucial period just before the maximum expansion of Roman Empire. The production of Terra sigillata in the Campania region was influenced by new trends and technologies that spread out from the production centers in central Italy (e.g., Arezzo, Scoppieto) that likely converted their production from black glazed to Terra sigillata (Gómez‐Herrero et al., 2008), also thanks to the use of the innovative wood firing in muffle kilns (Cuomo di Caprio, 2007). As a matter of fact, Cales was probably the first regional center that re‐adapted the former facilities for the black glazed production to Terra sigillata and that took advantage of the availability of raw materials (Guarino et al., 2011).The goal of this research is to broaden knowledge on the production of fine ware from Cales via a thorough minero‐petrographic investigation of a significant number of pottery samples, dating from the third century BCE to the early imperial period, which includes black glazed pottery and a minor selection of Terra sigillata and fine common ware. The focus of this work benefits from the finding and comparison with important production indicators represented by wastes of black glazed pottery and spacers used during the production process. The latter represents significant materials for defining with certainty the compositional features of local potteries. A technological characterization in terms of EFTs (equivalent firing temperatures) was also carried out. Finally, through comparison with local clay raw materials, this research proposes possible sources of supply used in the production of fine pottery during the third century BCE to the early imperial period in Cales.BRIEF GEOLOGICAL REMARKSThe ancient city of Cales (modern Calvi Risorta) is located in the northern sector of the Volturno River plain (Figure 1b), just west of a mountain chain (Mts. Trebulani) formed by Mesozoic carbonate rocks (Lazio‐Campania‐Molise carbonate platform; Bonardi et al., 2009). Immediately east of the town, extensive clay deposits belonging to the syn‐orogenic succession of the Pietraroja Formation crop out. These deposits are intercalated with fine‐bedded argillitic marls and sandstones (Middle‐Upper Tortonian; Vitale & Ciarcia, 2018). Plastic clays of this succession have been exploited up to modern times for brick production.The ancient town of Cales was also close to the extinct Roccamonfina volcano located at ca. 15 km north‐west, which exposes the oldest post‐orogenic volcanic rocks of the Campania region (630–50 ka; De Rita & Giordano, 1996; Conticelli et al., 2009 and references therein). Furthermore, in the area, there are extensive pyroclastic flow deposits from the Phlegraean Fields (Figure 1b), represented by the eruption of Campanian Ignimbrite (39 ka, De Vivo et al., 2001; Fedele et al., 2008) and, subordinately, by the incoherent facies of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (15 ka, Deino et al., 2004). These have the typical composition of Phlegraean trachytes, which are mainly composed of alkali feldspar (sanidine), clinopyroxene (diopside/salite), plagioclase, biotite, and olivine only in the less evolved rocks. Accessory minerals are zircon, amphibole, and titanite, along with feldspathoid (nepheline) in the most evolved products (Melluso et al., 2012).THE CALENIAN FINE WARE AND THE INVESTIGATED MATERIALSThe investigated pottery samples come from two of the four sondages (Supporting Information Material Figure S1) located on the NE slope of the tuffaceous plateau, where the ancient city was located. The investigations have provided a complex and articulated stratigraphy that attests to an early phase of life in the Republican period, with the presence of imposing structures ascribed to public buildings, artisanal facilities and remains of infrastructure, particularly in the sondage number three on the SE slope of the plateau.The materials under study are characterized by 79 samples of different ceramics classes (Table 1). 57 samples are classified as black glazed pottery (Figure 2a) that include paterae, pissidi, cups, and bottle edges (Table 1). These samples are ascribable to a chronological span between the second and first centuries BCE, just a few samples are characterized by forms referable to the third century BCE (35.46, 133.49, 35.56; Table 1).1TABLEMacroscopic characteristics of the 79 fine pottery samples from Cales.Sample IDClassChronologyFormNoteWt. (g)Inner colorOuter colorInner colorOuter colorHardness133.1Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade11.52.5YR 6/32.5YR 6/3Light reddish brown‐Hard133.2Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.7510YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.3Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐12.27.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.4Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpyxis base‐10.67.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.5Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.722.5Y 5/22.5Y 5/2Grayish brown‐Very hard133.6Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐9.7510YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.7Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade8.617.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.8Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐7.927.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.9Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.695YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.10Black glazed potteryUndatedCupChromatic shade8.6610YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Hard133.11Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐5.087.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.12Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐7.135YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.13Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐8.102.5YR 6/32.5YR 6/3Light reddish brown‐Very hard133.14Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade7.845YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Very hard133.15Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.277.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.16Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECup base‐9.267.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.17Black glazed potteryUndatedpatera‐8.137.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.18Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade9.097.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Very hard133.19Black glazed potteryUndatedpateraChromatic shade6.797.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Very hard133.20Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCEpatera‐8.147.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.21Black glazed potteryHalf first cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade6.837.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.22Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade6.465YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.23Black glazed potteryHalf first cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade9.325YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.24Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpatera‐7.477.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.25Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade8.847.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.26Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpateraChromatic shade5.527.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.27Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐4.187.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard133.28Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐5.657.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard133.29Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐5.797.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard133.30Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐3.337.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard133.31Black glazed potterySecond half second–first cent. BCEpyxis‐7.487.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.32Black glazed potterySecond half second cent. BCEpyxis‐9.817.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard133.33Black glazed potterysecond–first cent. BCEpyxis‐8.5110YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.34Black glazed potterysecond–first cent. BCEpyxis‐7.297.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.35Black glazed potterySecond half second cent. BCEpyxis‐5.507.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard35.37Black glazed potteryEnd second–begin first cent. BCECup‐7.877.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard35.38Black glazed potteryEnd second–begin first cent. BCECup‐5.467.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard35.39Black glazed potteryUndatedCup‐4.932.5Y 7/32.5Y 7/3Light reddish brown‐Hard35.40Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpatera‐7.357.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard35.41Black glazed potteryHalf second cent. BCEpatera‐6.357.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard35.42Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCEpatera‐6.347.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard35.43Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCEpatera‐7.397.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard35.44Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCEpatera/cup‐5.317.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard35.45Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCEpatera‐6.667.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Very hard35.46Black glazed potteryThird–second cent. BCECup‐7.987.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard35.47Black glazed potteryFirst cent. BCEpatera‐6.6010YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard35.48Black glazed potterySecond cent. BCECup‐4.7410YR 7/410YR 7/4Very pale brown‐Hard133.49Black glazed potteryThird–second cent. BCE?Cup‐8.4210YR 6/410 YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard35.50Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECup‐10.57.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brownHard133.51Black glazed potteryUndatedBottle edge‐24.45YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.52Black glazed potteryUndatedParete‐7.777.5YR 6/47.5YR 6/4Light brown‐Hard133.53Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCESmall patera‐9.677.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard35.56Black glazed potteryThird–second cent. BCECup‐5.687.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard35.57Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECupWithout coating17.87.5YR 7/67.5YR 7/6Reddish yellow‐Hard35.58Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECupWithout coating12.47.5YR 7/67.5YR 7/6Reddish yellow‐Hard76.74Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECupChromatic shade7.7810YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.87Black glazed potterySecond–first cent. BCECupWithout coating9.387.5 YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard35.75Terra sigillataEnd first cent. BCE/begin first CECup‐5.67.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard37.76Terra sigillataEnd first cent. BCE/begin first CECup‐6.357.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard27.77Terra sigillataUndatedBase open form‐5.795YR 6/65YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.113Fine common wareUndatedAnsa‐6.885Y 5/15Y 6/4GrayPale oliveVery hard133.114Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formRed paste8.857.5YR 6/67.5 YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.115Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formRed paste6.757.5YR 6/67.5YR 6/6Reddish yellow‐Hard133.116Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formRed paste6.282.5YR 6/62.5YR 6/6Light red‐Hard133.117Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formRed paste7.795YR 5/85YR 5/8Yellowish red‐Hard133.118Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formOverfired6.145Y 5/35Y 5/3Olive‐Very hard133.119Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formOverfired8.442.5Y 5/22.5Y 5/2Grayish brown‐Very hard133.120Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formLight paste5.0310YR 6/410YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Hard133.121Fine common wareUndatedBase closed formLight paste6.9110YR 6/410 YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Hard16.36Production indicator BGUndatedCup basis‐18.55Y 5/35Y 4/1OliveDark grayVery hard133.60SpacerUndatedRing spacer‐9.4010YR 6/310 YR 6/3Pole brown‐Very hard133.61SpacerUndatedRing spacer‐8.2210YR 6/310 YR 6/3Pole brown‐Very hard133.62SpacerUndatedRing spacer‐8.752.5YR 6/32.5YR 6/3Light reddish brown‐Very hard133.63SpacerUndatedRing spacer‐10.67.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Very hard133.64SpacerUndatedCup spacer‐8.687.5YR 7/47.5YR 7/4Pink‐Hard133.65SpacerUndatedCup spacer‐7.122.5YR 6/42.5YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.66SpacerUndatedCup spacer‐6.332.5YR 6/42.5YR 6/4Light yellowish brown‐Very hard133.67SpacerUndatedCup spacer‐8.355Y 6/35Y 6/3Pole olive‐Very hard76.73Production indicator BGUndatedCup basis‐9.892.5Y 5/32.5Y 5/3Light olive brown‐Very hard2FIGURESelected samples of black glazed pottery (a); Terra sigillata (b); fine common ware (c); production indicator (d) object of this study.Interestingly, in the site of Cales the black glazed pottery in the late period (second and first centuries BCE) of production is characterized by the presence of several specimens that show a chromatic shading from black to red of the coating (Figure 2a; Table 1). These samples might be the results of mistakes during the firing process and may allegedly represent the first attempts for the development of technological innovation in terms of firing atmosphere, namely a shift from black glazed pottery (black coating) to Terra sigillata (red coating). The latter ceramic class was produced in several centers in the Roman Empire and is of great interest to archaeologists as it indicates an important technological and cultural change occurred in Roman ceramic technology (Grifa et al., 2019). This change was characterized by the implementation of muffle‐like furnaces where the flames and smoke are never in contact with pottery, thus improving the technological production of the red coated wares (Cuomo di Caprio, 2007; Picon, 1973). Several samples that show this chromatic transition were selected for the analyses along with three specimens of Terra sigillata (Figure 2b) that presented enough material for destructive analyses.A selection of nine fine common wares (Figure 2c) was also studied to provide a considerable contribution for defining local productions. Furthermore, 10 production indicators (Figure 2d) representing important materials to assess the compositional features of local potteries were analyzed. They include two kiln wastes (pottery deformed by excessive firing) and eight spacers.To identify the local products all pottery samples were also compared with clay raw materials from the surroundings of Cales and the main deposits from the northeast Campania region (data from De Bonis et al., 2013). The sediments are marine clays from the Apennine sector belonging to the Pietraroja Formation collected in the former clay quarries of Calvi Risorta (CVR) and Alvignano (ALV), along with deposits ascribed to blue‐grey clays of the Baronia Fm. from the quarries of Gran Potenza (GP) and Montesarchio (MS) in the Benevento province.METHODSThe minero‐petrographic characterization was carried out via a multi‐analytical approach. Macroscopic features included the color of the ceramic body of the specimens evaluated via a visual comparison (Munsell Soil Color Chart) and hardness (Williams, 1990).Petrographic features of ceramic pastes were investigated by means of polarized light microscopy (PLM) in thin section using an OPTIKA V‐600 POL microscope connected to a ZEISS Axiocam 105 color camera (ZEN 2.3 Lite software). The abundance, size range, and angularity of the inclusions were estimated by reference to comparator charts (Quinn, 2013; Terry & Chilingar, 1955).The thermal behavior of ceramics and the loss on ignition (LOI) were carried out by thermal analyses performed on powdered bulk placed inside an alumina crucible. The analyses were performed by means of Netzsch STA 449 F3 Jupiter (Department of Science and Technology–University of Sannio) thermal analyzer coupled with an FTIR BRUKER Tensor 27 for the Evolved Gas Analysis (EGA) by a transfer line heated at 200°C. The samples were heated from 40 to 1,050°C, with a heating rate of 10 °C/min in a nitrogen atmosphere (flow rate 60 ml/min). TG and DSC curves were acquired and processed with the NETZSCH Proteus 6.1 Software (Izzo et al., 2018).X‐Ray Powder Diffraction (XRPD) was used to determine the bulk mineralogical composition using a Bruker D2 Phaser second‐gen diffractometer (CuKα radiation, 30 kV, 10 mA, scanning interval 4–50° 2θ, equivalent step size 0.020° 2θ, equivalent counting time 66 s per step, Lynxeye 1D model detector), equipped with Diffract V6 5.0 data collector software (Bruker) for the first batch of 48 samples. The PANalytical X'Pert PRO 3040/60 PW diffractometer (CuKα radiation, operating at 40 kV, 40 mA, scanning interval 4–50° 2θ, using a step interval of 0.017° 2θ, with a step counting time of 66 s) was used for the second batch of 31 samples.In order to define the degree of sintering of the ceramic paste according to different firing temperatures of the ceramic bodies (Maniatis & Tite, 1981), microstructural observations of gold‐coated fragments in fresh fracture were performed on secondary electron (SE) images acquired via Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM; Zeiss Merlin VP Compact). This analysis was carried out on 12 representative samples, chosen according to their mineralogical and petrographic features.Microanalyses of mineral grains and neoformed phases in the ceramic paste were determined on backscattered electron (BSE) images obtained with the same instrument on polished and carbon‐coated thin sections. Quantitative microchemical analyses were performed with an energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometer (EDS) and Oxford Instruments Microanalysis Unit (X Max 50 EDS detector operating at 15 kV primary beam voltage, 115–125 μA filament current, and 60 μm spot size, acquisition time 10 s). This analysis was carried out on seven representative samples according to their petrographic features and mineralogical assemblage. Data were processed with an INCA Xstream pulse processor. The utilized mineral standards are reported in Guarino et al. (2021) and Franciosi et al. (2019). Precision and accuracy of EDS analyses are reported by Rispoli et al. (2019).Bulk chemical composition of the samples was performed via X‐ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF; AXIOS PANalytical Instrument) for measuring the concentration of 10 major oxides (wt.% of SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, and P2O5) and 10 trace elements (Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Cr, Ni, Sc, V, in parts per million [ppm]). Analytical uncertainties were in the order of 1–2% for the major elements and 5–10% for trace elements (Cucciniello et al., 2022).Multivariate statistical analyses were carried out using R (R Development Core Team, 2014) software on chemical data standardized via log10 transformation, omitting some elements (CaO, MnO, P2O5, Ba) that are more susceptible to post‐burial contamination (e.g., Grifa et al., 2013, 2015; Maggetti, 2001). Hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) was applied to the data set reduced by PCA (principal component analysis) to cluster samples in a dendrogram using an agglomerative clustering algorithm (Euclidean distance and average linkage method).RESULTSMinero‐petrographic and microstructural featuresBlack glazed potteryThe 57 samples of black glazed pottery are characterized by a variable color of the ceramic body from pinkish (7.5YR 7/4; Table 1) to brownish (7.5YR 6/4; Table 1) with a hardness ranging from hard to very hard (Table 1). The presence of a black coating was detected in most sections of black glazed samples (Figure 3a).3FIGUREThin sections images of some representative fragments. (a‐f) Black glazed pottery; (g‐i) Terra sigillata; (l‐n) fine common ware; (o‐q) production indicator. NX, crossed polars; NII, parallel polars.From a petrographic point of view, the black glazed samples are extremely homogeneous. They show an amount of inclusions that range from 10 to 15% with a bimodal distribution and size generally less than 200 μm. Inclusions are mainly represented by tiny quartz crystals (Figure 3b), feldspars (Figure 3c‐d), and minor brown and white mica. Lithic fragments of both sedimentary (carbonate fragments, sometimes >200 μm) and volcanic nature (evident fragments of trachyte >200 μm; Figure 3e) were also detected, along with carbonate microfossil fragments represented by planktonic foraminifers (Figure 3d ‐f). Calcite microcrystals scattered in the clay matrix (b‐fabric; birefringent fabric according to Kemp, 1985) were detected in all samples analyzed.The black glazed pottery mostly shows no optical activity of the clay matrix, with only two samples (35.44, 35.50) showing a weak birefringence. Microstructural features observed at the FESEM are variable. An intermediate degree of sintering between the absence of vitrification and an initial vitrification stage (NV/IV) was detected in 35.50 (Figure 4a). An extensive vitrification stage (V) was observed in samples 133.8, 133.24, 133.35 (Figure 4b), and 35.38 (Figure 4c). The slip that coats the artifacts is thin (15–20 μm) and not completely vitrified (Figure 4c).4FIGUREFESEM images of freshly fractured samples: (a) 35.50. No vitrified‐initial vitrification (NV‐IV). (b) 133.35. Extensive vitrification (V). (c) 35.38. Extensive vitrification (V). (d) 27.77. Initial vitrification (IV). (e) 133.117. Initial vitrification‐extensive vitrification (IV‐V). (f) 133.119. Continuous vitrification with fine bloating pores (0.4–2 μm; CV [FB]). (g) 133.62. Extensive vitrification (V). (h) 16.36. Continuous vitrification with coarse bloating pores (10–50 μm; CV [CB]).The results of mineralogical analysis (XRPD) performed on 57 samples of black glazed pottery confirm that quartz is the most abundant phase in all the samples analyzed, along with frequent feldspar, calcite, and mica recognized in several samples. Hematite occurs in a few specimens (Table 2). Neoformed Ca‐silicates also characterize the samples and are represented by melilites and pyroxenes detected in variable amounts (Table 2). Neoformed melilite is generally detected at rims of pores (Figure 5a,b) that were filled with calcite before firing. Microchemical analyses showed that melilites have an intermediate composition between gehlenite and åkermanite (Gh. % 41.5–71.2, Na‐mel. % 0.67–14.3, Ak. % 19.4–66.9), and are included in the compositional field of “ceramic” melilites (Figure 5g, Supporting Information Material Table S1).2TABLEMineralogical (XRPD) and microstructural analysis (FESEM) with the EFTs (equivalent firing temperatures) of pottery samples. Legend: xxxx = very abundant; xxx = abundant; xx = frequent; x = scarce.Sample IDClassMineralogical assemblageVitrification stageEFTs (°C)QuartzFeldsparPyroxeneCalciteHematiteMeliliteMica/IlliteFESEM133.1Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐‐x‐900–950133.2Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.3Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.4Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.5Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.6Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxxx‐900–1000133.7Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxxxx850–900133.8Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐xTr.V900–950133.9Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xxTr.xx850–900133.10Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxxxx850–900133.11Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐xx850–900133.12Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxTr.xx850–900133.13Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.14Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxxx‐900–1000133.15Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.16Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxTr.x‐900–1000133.17Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐xx850–900133.18Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxxx‐900–1000133.19Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxTr.xTr.900–1000133.20Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐Tr.‐900–1000133.21Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.22Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xxxTr.‐<850133.23Black glazed potteryxxxxx‐xxxxx850–900133.24Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐V900–1000133.25Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐Tr.x850–900133.26Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxxx‐900–1000133.27Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐900–1000133.28Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.29Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxTr.‐‐900–950133.30Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.31Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xx‐x‐950–1050133.32Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.33Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.34Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐‐x<850133.35Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐V950–105035.37Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xx‐xx850–90035.38Black glazed potteryxxxxxxtr.xx‐xxV850–90035.39Black glazed potteryxxxxxxx‐‐xTr.850–90035.40Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐xx850–90035.41Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐xTr.950–1,05035.42Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐xTr.950–105035.43Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐xx850–90035.44Black glazed potteryxxxxx‐‐‐xXx750–85035.45Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐xTr.950–105035.46Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–105035.47Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–105035.48Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐‐xx850–900133.49Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxTr.xTr.950–100035.50Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐tr.‐‐xNV‐IV750–850133.51Black glazed potteryxxxxx‐xxTr.xx850–900133.52Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐xx850–900133.53Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxxTr.xx850–90035.56Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xxTr.xx850–90035.57Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxxTr.xx850–90035.58Black glazed potteryxxxxxx‐xx‐xx850–90076.74Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxxx‐‐x‐900–1000133.87Black glazed potteryxxxxxxxx‐‐‐x850–90035.75Terra sigillataxxxxxx‐xxxxXx750–85035.76Terra sigillataxxxxx‐xxxxXx750–85027.77Terra sigillataxxxxxxxxxxxTr.xIV800–850133.113Fine common warexxxxxxxxxx‐xx‐950–1000133.114Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxTr.Xxx850–900133.115Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxTr.XxxV850–900133.116Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxTr.xx850–900133.117Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxTr.xXxV800–900133.118Fine common warexxxxxxxxxx‐xx‐950–1000133.119Fine common warexxxxxxxxxx‐‐x‐CV (FB)950–1050133.120Fine common warexxxxxx‐xxxxx850–900133.121Fine common warexxxxxx‐xTr.xx850–90016.36Production indicator BGxxxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐CV (CB)>1050133.60Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.61Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.62Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐V950–1050133.63Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐x‐950–1050133.64Spacerxxxxxxxxxxx‐V950–1050133.65Spacerxxxxxxxxxxxx‐‐‐950–1050133.66Spacerxxxxxxxxxxxxx‐‐‐950–1050133.67Spacerxxxxxxxxxx‐‐‐‐950–105076.73Production indicator BGxxxxxxxxxx‐‐Tr.‐>10505FIGURE(a‐f) Backscattered electron images showing neoformed phases (abbreviations according to Whitney & Evans (2010): cal = calcite; mll = melilite; cpx = clinopyroxene). (g) Ternary diagram showing the composition of melilites. Reference analyses are from Dondi et al. (1998), Melluso et al. (2010), and De Bonis et al. (2014); De Bonis, D'Angelo, et al. (2017). (h) Ternary diagram of fassaite‐diopside‐Ca‐tschermakite‐esseneite (Cosca & Peacor, 1987).Terra sigillataThe three Terra sigillata samples are characterized by a reddish‐yellow color of the clay paste (7.5YR 6/6; Table 1) with a hard ceramic body (Table 1). A distinct red coating, both internal and external, was also observed in all thin sections (Figure 3g).The petrographic features are similar to those of black glazed pottery. As evidenced for this latter ceramic class, Terra sigillata samples are characterized by an amount of inclusions from 10 to 15% with a bimodal distribution and size generally less than 200 μm. They are composed of tiny quartz crystals, abundant feldspar (Figure 3h), and brown and white mica (Figure 3h). Sedimentary lithics also occur and are characterized by carbonate fragments and microfossils represented by planktonic foraminifers. B‐fabric due to microcrystalline calcite was also recognized in the clay matrix (Figure 3i).Microstructural observations via FESEM show an initial vitrification stage (IV) with no definite smooth surfaced areas in 27.77 sample (Figure 4d).XRPD of Terra sigillata indicate a mineralogy featured by a high amount of quartz, minor feldspar, calcite, hematite, frequent mica/illite, and neoformed Ca‐silicate represented by melilite in all the sample analyzed; in sample 27.77 the neoformed pyroxene was also identified along with lower amounts of mica/illite (Table 2).Fine common waresThe nine samples of fine common ware are characterized by an extremely heterogeneous color of the ceramic body, varying from reddish (7.5 YR 6/6; Table 1), light brown (10YR 6/4; Table 1), to olive (5Y 5/3; Table 1). Generally, the samples do not show a chromatic shade from the core to the rim, except for the sample 133.113 that shows a slight chromatic shade from grey (5Y 5/1, Table 1) to olive (5Y 6/4; Table 1). The macroscopic analysis also revealed a hard to very hard ceramic body (Table 1).The amount (5–10%) and size (ca. 50 μm) of inclusions are considerably lower with respect to those of black glazed and Terra sigillata, and show a serial distribution. They are made of tiny crystals of quartz; feldspar; carbonate fragments, also represented by planktonic foraminifers; and sporadic mica. Microcrystalline calcite scattered in the clay matrix also occurs (Figure 3l‐n).The optical activity of the ceramic matrix varies among the samples, with 133.117 exhibiting a weak activity due to a degree of sintering between initial and extensive vitrification (IV‐V; Figure 4e). In contrast, sample 133.119 is optically inactive and shows a microstructure characterized by continuous vitrification and fine bloating pores (CV [FB]; 0.2–4 μm; Figure 4f). Extensive vitrification (V) was observed in sample 133.115.X‐ray powder diffraction (XRPD) indicates a high amount of quartz and minor feldspar in all samples, whereas neoformed iron oxides, specifically Fe3+ oxide (hematite), were detected in all common ware samples except for 133.119 (Table 2). Scarce to frequent neoformed Ca‐silicates represented by melilite were identified in all samples, whereas abundant pyroxene was only recognized in samples 133.118 and 133.119 (Table 2). Calcite is frequent in all fine common wares. Illite/mica was identified in low amounts or in traces in almost all samples, except for 133.118 and 133.119 (Table 2).Neoformed crystals of Ca‐silicates represented by both melilite and pyroxene are visible in FESEM backscattered images (Figure 5c). Microchemical analyses of melilites showed an intermediate composition between gehlenite and åkermanite (Gh. % 13.6–56.1, Na‐mel. % 0.42–4.96, Ak. % 40.2–85.1), included in the compositional field of “ceramic” melilites (Figure 5g; Supporting Information Material Table S1). The neoformed pyroxenes were classified through the plot of fassaite composition in the ternary diagram CaMgSi2O6 (Di, diopside molecule), CaAl2SiO6 (CaTs, Ca‐Tschermak's molecule), and CaFe3+AlSiO6 (Ess, esseneite molecule) (Cosca & Peacor, 1987; Rathossi & Pontikes, 2010). The neoformed pyroxenes are included in the compositional field between the fassaite (or “ferrian aluminian diopside” according to the International Mineralogical Association's Commission on New Mineral Names; Morimoto, 1988) and esseneite (Di. 32.6–50.1 wt.%, CaTs. 7.50–20.0 wt.%, Ess. 40.0–50.2 wt.%; Figure 5h).Production indicatorsThe 10 samples of production indicators are made of two samples of wastes of black glazed pottery and eight samples of spacers. They are mostly characterized by a highly variable color of ceramic body that varies from pink (7.5YR 7/4; Table 1), brownish (2.5YR 6/4; Table 1), to olive (5Y 6/3; Table 1). Generally, the samples do not show chromatic shades of the ceramic body, except for specimen 16.36 which shows a color shade from olive (5Y 5/3) in the core to dark grey (5Y 4/1) toward the rims (Table 1). The ceramic body of most samples analyzed is very hard, except for 133.64 that is hard (Table 1).The amount of inclusions ranges from 10 to 15% with a bimodal distribution of grains (Figure 3o‐q). As already evidenced for the black glazed pottery and Terra sigillata, inclusions are generally lower than 200 μm and are composed of tiny quartz crystals, feldspar, volcanic lithics represented by trachyte fragments (>200 μm; Figure 3p), carbonate rock fragments, and planktonic foraminifers. Microcrystalline calcite scattered in the clay matrix also occurs.The matrix is optically inactive and characterized by a variable degree of sintering of the clay paste, which varies from extensive (V) in the spacers 133.62 (Figure 4g) and 133.64, to continuous vitrification with coarse bloating pores in the specimen 16.36 (CV [CB], 10–50 μm; Figure 4h) represented by a waste of black glazed pottery.XRPD results indicate a mineralogy characterized by a high amount of quartz and minor feldspar for all samples (Table 2). Neoformed pyroxene and calcite vary from abundant to frequent in all samples analyzed, except for the spacer 133.67 and the waste of black glazed pottery 76.73, where no calcite was detected. In almost all samples neoformed melilite was identified, along with a scarce amount of hematite in 133.64 (Table 2).Backscattered FESEM images show that neoformed Ca‐silicates are generally detected at rims of pores (Figure 5d) in spacers, whereas they are visible as well‐formed crystals (i.e., pyroxene; Figure 5e,f) in the vitrified matrix of black glazed wastes. FESEM‐EDS microanalyses showed that melilites have an intermediate composition between gehlenite and åkermanite (Gh. % 30.6–69.8, Na‐mel. % 0.80–5.13, Ak. % 25.1–68.2), and are included in the compositional field of “ceramic” melilites (Figure 5g, Supporting Information Material Table S1). Neoformed pyroxenes are included in the compositional field between the fassaite and esseneite (Di. 34.1–58.2 wt.%, CaTs. 7.50–25.2 wt.%, Ess. 26.8–50.7 wt.%, Figure 5h).Chemical analysesAll the samples show a high‐CaO concentration (7.05–15.8 wt.%; Table 3). The analyses of major oxides and trace elements show that the 79 ceramic samples are characterized by very homogeneous chemical composition (Table 3), with limited compositional variability in terms of both major (SiO2 53.6–61.3 wt.%; TiO2 0.67–0.80 wt.%; Al2O3 13.7–16.6 wt.%; Fe2O3 6.33–6.98 wt.%; MnO 0.09–0.12 wt.%; MgO 3.44–4.80 wt.%; Na2O 0.19–1.33 wt.%; K2O 2.43–3.19 wt.%, P2O5 0.17–0.88 wt.%) and trace elements. The latter, in fact, also show a good compositional homogeneity (Rb 133–198 ppm, Sr 258–422 ppm, Y 22–32 ppm, Zr 132–183 ppm, Nb 10–20 ppm, Ba 325–652 ppm, Cr 125–200 ppm, Ni 64–90 ppm, Sc 14–28 ppm, V 87–158 ppm), as reported in Table 3. Only one sample of spacer (133.66) shows a higher concentration of Rb (443 ppm).3TABLEMajor (wt.%) and trace (ppm) elements of the fine pottery from Cales.Sample IDClassSiO2TiO2Al2O3Fe2O3MnOMgOCaONa2OK2OP2O5TOTRbSrYZrNbBaCrNiScV133.1Black glazed pottery57.20.7214.66.440.113.7913.90.332.640.2210015435031173163901456520135133.2Black glazed pottery56.30.7314.96.490.114.1414.10.322.700.2710013632325132113741678017115133.3Black glazed pottery56.00.7114.36.370.114.0415.20.312.630.2710014936527147133921356816110133.4Black glazed pottery57.30.7214.76.480.113.6113.60.412.720.3210015335232179184131376720122133.5Black glazed pottery57.50.7314.96.530.113.6613.30.362.710.2410015135031174183821516721129133.6Black glazed pottery56.60.7114.76.440.113.6114.40.402.750.3210015936031175164221406522118133.7Black glazed pottery56.40.6713.86.410.123.4415.70.352.710.4010014335331175154941316623107133.8Black glazed pottery57.30.7214.96.540.114.0013.10.292.750.3410016033431171164011356825120133.9Black glazed pottery54.40.7515.16.640.114.3815.40.192.760.2810016636630165174051436721107133.10Black glazed pottery55.90.7014.26.420.123.5415.10.413.090.4110017136631174175051356725110133.11Black glazed pottery56.70.7315.06.530.113.7613.80.362.730.2910015734831172173871406521117133.12Black glazed pottery58.30.7415.46.660.113.6911.50.332.870.3810018331632180194551336619123133.13Black glazed pottery56.80.7315.16.570.113.8013.50.372.700.3410016236332175174131426421117133.14Black glazed pottery57.20.7715.56.780.114.4711.60.332.870.3210016433730155163911456918129133.15Black glazed pottery55.80.7315.26.660.113.7514.30.382.730.3310016034831167184331416719117133.16Black glazed pottery56.60.7114.66.470.123.7714.40.362.680.2910014936129163163981346822115133.17Black glazed pottery56.80.7114.56.460.113.8214.10.352.790.3310016136032179184491396620111133.18Black glazed pottery57.20.7114.76.520.123.6113.70.382.760.2910015735030172164201346622108133.19Black glazed pottery56.50.7315.16.680.113.8613.40.272.880.3610017234331169194661486725124133.20Black glazed pottery56.10.7415.26.680.114.4913.40.282.660.3210014732031168174091357023116133.21Black glazed pottery55.50.7214.76.530.114.0415.10.312.670.2810015236730165163731426821121133.22Black glazed pottery55.90.7014.36.340.123.9015.50.272.740.2410016233731169164671256519113133.23Black glazed pottery57.20.7215.06.580.123.6113.80.192.430.3910015533932182194581296719114133.24Black glazed pottery57.60.7314.86.490.113.6313.10.432.790.3110013730525134113911367021113133.25Black glazed pottery55.50.7114.66.540.124.3514.80.232.730.4510016132232177175411326723115133.26Black glazed pottery56.10.7414.96.610.113.9114.20.312.750.3210016039629162164311406922107133.27Black glazed pottery57.30.7214.76.490.123.7113.50.392.760.3310015033329157154241336723115133.28Black glazed pottery57.10.7114.66.460.123.8513.80.342.730.3010016538130169154091366519108133.29Black glazed pottery57.10.7215.16.630.114.0113.00.312.760.2610017036031171174541346722123133.30Black glazed pottery56.50.7014.46.370.123.6014.80.402.750.3010016036232183164381436522108133.31Black glazed pottery55.70.6914.36.420.123.7515.70.332.710.271001583493117117424132682299133.32Black glazed pottery56.80.7114.66.460.114.3813.70.332.590.3310015833630170174231356723107133.33Black glazed pottery56.30.7114.66.560.113.9314.50.362.640.3510015235831171163821506621119133.34Black glazed pottery58.20.7415.46.790.103.8411.40.252.930.3410016430232176184151406720131133.35Black glazed pottery57.20.7415.26.660.113.9312.70.392.820.311001613493116815405149722011935.37Black glazed pottery57.20.7214.86.660.123.6813.20.402.860.361001503462915514447147692011435.38Black glazed pottery57.70.7515.46.770.123.5612.10.232.910.491001722973116116486143722613335.39Black glazed pottery58.50.7215.36.660.113.8111.10.792.660.251001943493117117425161732013135.40Black glazed pottery55.90.7515.26.700.104.5313.40.242.720.401001633243216617410145682111235.41Black glazed pottery58.50.7715.76.820.114.3310.20.302.770.481001583113015617479151712211535.42Black glazed pottery57.00.7515.46.780.104.0712.30.312.810.351001603323116517401145692112635.43Black glazed pottery61.30.7816.06.920.103.937.050.313.000.601001682583117817474142682011635.44Black glazed pottery59.80.7615.76.760.104.288.440.353.120.651001863553016517652132681912535.45Black glazed pottery55.70.7615.36.720.114.6813.20.352.830.321001643563015415383154681812235.46Black glazed pottery57.20.7315.06.670.114.2412.30.312.710.731001463403116516570139681710335.47Black glazed pottery56.60.7114.46.440.123.7514.80.322.650.321001573523016716391138682111435.48Black glazed pottery57.20.7916.36.980.114.2910.20.423.020.6810017535732172205931507224127133.49Black glazed pottery56.40.7916.06.960.104.4611.30.752.970.291001623272916014371167761513835.50Black glazed pottery58.50.8016.66.980.114.487.960.753.170.6310017530031172155251597422146133.51Black glazed pottery55.10.7314.66.520.114.2714.70.792.820.3110016734128174144541586921128133.52Black glazed pottery55.70.7415.46.440.104.1513.40.752.960.3810017335730159155341557417126133.53Black glazed pottery55.20.7515.26.700.114.3513.80.772.810.281001553373116615383153712212135.56Black glazed pottery57.30.7215.36.590.113.9412.10.812.840.261001753602816212464142722212735.57Black glazed pottery55.80.7615.56.660.114.1912.90.762.900.371001704223016515434153702312235.58Black glazed pottery56.10.7414.96.520.114.2313.40.732.870.431001643462917014472147681812876.74Black glazed pottery57.20.7916.26.900.104.3710.70.812.760.2010014833430165163801517619139133.87Black glazed pottery57.20.7214.46.520.123.8912.90.822.910.4210016233630178154871386819121Average56.80.7315.06.600.113.9813.10.422.790.3610016134430167164401436921119Std.dev1.140.030.560.160.010.311.840.190.130.110.0011.025.01.529.971.6958.059.323.082.269.5235.75Terra sigillata56.60.7315.06.510.113.9112.90.812.990.42100161314291651359014470259535.76Terra sigillata54.50.7214.36.420.114.2015.80.802.880.33100158340281561448813970279727.77Terra sigillata55.50.7414.66.440.094.2214.10.892.550.881001423602815513525147652087Average55.50.7314.66.450.104.1114.30.842.800.541001543382815913534143682493Std.dev1.080.010.320.050.010.171.420.050.230.300.009.9822.830.515.640.6151.763.743.153.805.26133.113Fine common ware55.10.7715.06.490.114.5114.20.882.800.2110017935628149143621627228144133.114Fine common ware54.80.7515.06.420.104.2514.70.822.830.2910017134629163144231406620138133.115Fine common ware55.30.7615.16.630.114.8013.20.693.010.2910016132129150144261497321138133.116Fine common ware54.40.7414.76.360.104.3515.30.832.850.2810016736329159144261396817131133.117Fine common ware55.30.7415.06.350.104.3014.30.772.810.3510017234930170154621426516139133.118Fine common ware55.60.7514.96.530.114.7513.50.822.830.2810015336227148143561527624150133.119Fine common ware53.70.7614.76.550.114.7915.30.792.850.4510019439527150133981537019158133.120Fine common ware57.40.7815.86.750.114.0411.00.773.020.3410016732829159154081527623156133.121Fine common ware55.70.7514.96.410.104.2513.80.872.880.3610017133330172154611466726126Average55.20.7615.06.500.114.4513.90.812.880.3210017135029158144141487022142Std.dev1.000.010.340.130.010.281.330.060.080.070.0011.422.31.029.160.5937.67.444.083.9710.816.36Production indicator BG56.90.7214.36.330.103.6714.70.302.660.2910013334027146143251677622137133.60Spacer55.10.7214.76.400.114.4014.70.872.710.2410015836728170143971517015120133.61Spacer55.40.7314.76.480.114.6014.30.832.660.2810014135827160143841506921126133.62Spacer55.90.7114.66.400.114.4113.61.042.990.2610019835026162124111436715124133.63Spacer54.70.7314.86.490.114.5414.80.852.740.2710015137329166154041517114125133.64Spacer55.60.7415.26.580.114.2113.60.812.860.2810015935430177164131446724109133.65Spacer55.50.7214.56.410.104.4214.11.012.950.2210015435627158143671838223123133.66Spacer54.50.7314.16.420.114.7314.61.333.190.1710044334822151103682009020146133.67Spacer56.00.7515.16.480.104.6712.61.023.090.181001933562715815348159701813476.73Production indicator BG56.40.7715.26.680.104.3212.70.772.810.2010014434328159163761597120148Average55.60.7314.76.470.114.4014.00.892.860.2410018735427161143791617319129Std.dev0.740.020.370.100.010.300.830.260.180.040.0092.210.22.248.751.8428.618.27.373.4611.8ALV1Northern Campania55.20.7013.86.320.123.0917.80.442.480.13100124356271361228513141370ALV2Northern Campania55.00.7414.56.480.093.8316.20.422.570.13100126366291431426713344340CVR1Northern Campania53.40.7515.16.500.115.2515.60.512.690.12100153379301441427014753280CVR2Northern Campania54.90.6813.35.890.114.3517.60.612.500.13100116431261401227312937330GP1Sannio55.80.7815.06.090.074.2914.30.792.730.15100163453261531426114444350GP2Sannio55.30.6613.05.510.094.1317.90.772.520.14100120408261361128711428360MS1Sannio54.80.7113.85.750.073.6917.70.862.500.15100120434271331324612229320MS2Sannio55.70.7714.96.130.073.8914.60.882.960.14100161452231431325012638250IS1Ischia56.40.7915.96.650.143.5513.00.642.800.151001803713927931374885328115IS2Ischia58.60.8116.26.430.133.1510.60.693.190.161001702733526028354693922113IS3Ischia56.00.8216.06.930.123.2513.30.522.980.151001572753323125270914424128IS4Ischia59.70.6715.05.280.113.3110.10.435.330.10100280208383193721076301987IS5Ischia55.70.8215.66.900.143.3612.61.583.120.16100263372333083131982402364IS6Ischia60.00.7715.86.130.142.949.700.863.470.151001602342726327369744118105DA6Ischia58.80.6616.06.310.192.8210.41.093.590.14100223256444056729460361499DA5Ischia58.50.5813.45.220.122.9415.40.872.850.131001513622820320346863912110DA2Ischia56.90.7615.86.170.103.3413.50.472.810.1610016427032210282901064921171DA1Ischia58.20.6514.85.250.133.1313.80.903.060.141001773083223630316814514103Chemical binary diagrams (Figure 6) were provided to better represent the compositional features of the samples analyzed. The black glazed pottery shows a narrow chemical variability (Figure 6a‐d). SiO2 ranges from 54.4 wt.% in sample 133.9 to 58.5 wt.% in samples 35.41, 35.50, and 35.39. Only two samples represented by 35.43 and 35.44 show slightly higher values of SiO2 (61.3 and 59.8 wt.%, respectively). The latter two samples are also characterized by the lowest CaO concentration of the entire ceramic class (7.05 and 8.44 wt.%, respectively). The behavior of the trace elements shows the homogeneous characteristics of this ceramic class as evidenced in Figure 6c and d.6FIGUREXRF binary diagrams with major oxides (wt.%) and trace elements (ppm), compared with high‐CaO clay raw material from the Campania region.The three samples of Terra sigillata follow the behavior of the black glazed pottery described above. The SiO2 values range from 54.5 to 56.6 wt.%, and the CaO varies from 12.9 to 15.8 wt.% (Figure 6a‐b). As already highlighted for the black glazed pottery, the Terra sigillata samples are characterized by a narrow variability of the trace element concentration, as shown by Zr (155–165 ppm) and Nb (13–14 ppm) in Figure 6c‐d.The nine samples of fine common ware are characterized by the SiO2 values that range from 54.4 to 57.4 wt.% and a CaO concentration that varies from 11.0 to 15.3 wt.% (Figure 6a‐b). Once again trace elements follow the behavior of major elements as shown in Figure 6c‐d.Finally, the production indicators (8 spacers and 2 black glazed wastes) represent important comparison materials as their finding provided useful information about the composition of local products. They have been included in the chemical binary diagrams and the results show that their composition is perfectly in line with that of the other ceramic classes under study.DISCUSSIONProvenance and procurement of raw materialsThe analyses of 79 samples of black glazed pottery, Terra sigillata, fine common wares, and production indicators (i.e., wastes of black glazed pottery and spacers) from Cales revealed a very homogeneous composition. This strongly suggests that all ceramic classes were made by employing the same raw material for their manufacturing.To attest to the local origin of these ceramics in terms of both production and potential clay raw material used, the samples were compared to some high‐CaO Campanian clay raw materials (data from De Bonis et al., 2013) and local ceramics using chemical binary diagrams (Figure 6).All the 79 ceramic samples of this study show a greater chemical affinity with the Mio‐Pliocene basin clay sediments of the Apennine chain sector (Vitale & Ciarcia, 2018), among which the local clay samples represented by CVR (located at about 3 km from the archaeological site of Cales) that belongs to the Pietraroja formation also fall. This clay is also rich in microfossils represented by planktonic foraminifers (e.g., Selli, 1957), which were also detected in the investigated pottery. Furthermore, all pottery samples show a great chemical affinity with Calenian coeval (third century BCE to first century BCE) production indicators analyzed in Langella and Morra (2001) represented by BG spacers (cfr. Samples CAL1, CAL2, CAL3, CAL4). On the other hand, the recently published paper by Verde et al. (2023) highlighted that the local production of coarse ware, found in the same archaeological context, was made with different raw materials represented by alluvial clays from the surrounding area of the Volturno river floodplain. The difference between Calenian fine and coarse wares is clear from a petrographic point of view due to the lack of planktonic foraminifers in the coarse ware. The latter ware is also characterized by a great abundance of volcanic inclusions (clinopyroxene, juvenile and lithic fragments). Instead, the sporadic presence of volcanic inclusions in the fine pottery cannot be related to the marine clay used as a raw material. A deliberate addition of a small proportion of volcanic material can be hypothesized to correct (i.e., reduce) the plasticity. The Calenian black glazed pottery of this study was probably a mass‐scale production that required optimized and standardized working procedures, as already evidenced for some black glazed productions, including the Calena Tarda from Cales (see Pedroni, 2001 and references therein) and the large production of Campana A black glazed ware from Neapolis (De Bonis et al., 2016; Morel, 1981).To highlight the differences with the well‐known black glazed productions from the Bay of Naples area, a chemical comparison has been performed. The widespread Campana A ware is characterized by a peculiar and well distinct composition with respect to Calenian and other regional productions of black glazed ware (De Bonis et al., 2016). On the other hand, the Calenian production of this study is totally different from the black glazed pottery produced in Cumae collected in the Forum (fourth–third century BCE; Greco et al., 2014) and the Sanctuary of Cumae (fourth century BCE; Munzi et al., 2014) (Supporting Information Material Figure S2), which made use of high‐CaO clays from the nearby Island of Ischia as indicated by several studies (e.g., De Bonis et al., 2016 and Guarino et al., 2016 and reference therein). The differences between the two productions (Cales and Cumae) were highlighted by the multivariate statistical treatment of the chemical data obtained by X‐ray fluorescence (Figure 7). The PCA showed that 95% of the cumulative variance of the sample population was explained by the first nine components (Nb, Ni, Sc, Na2O, K2O, Rb, MgO, Sr, Y); the analysis was limited to these elements/oxides only. The statistical treatment included the 79 samples object of this study, black glazed pottery from the Forum (Greco et al., 2014) and Sanctuary of Cumae (Munzi et al., 2014), and the clay raw materials (De Bonis et al., 2013) for comparison. The resulting HCA dendrogram indicates the existence of two distinct groups (Figure 7) that were made with different raw materials. One consists of the 79 samples under study (black glazed pottery, Terra sigillata, fine common ware, production indicators), which show a high level of chemical affinity with the local clay raw material. The second group is made of black glazed wares Cumae that show a high chemical homogeneity with the Ischia clays.7FIGUREHierarchical cluster dendrogram and principal component analysis compared with Cumae samples and clay raw material from Ischia.The Terra sigillata samples included in the analyzed dataset (35.75, 35.76, 27.77) were also compared with the composition of reference groups of Terra sigillata from Campania and central Italy (Grifa et al., 2019; Schneider & Zabehlicky‐Scheffenegger, 2016; Soricelli et al., 1994; Verde et al., 2022). The entire dataset was plotted in a ternary diagram Zr‐Nb*10‐Cr (Figure 8) confirming the affinity between the samples 35.75, 35.76, 27.77 and Calenian Terra sigillata from Guarino et al. (2011) with the local clay raw material (CVR).8FIGURETernary diagram Nb*10‐Zr‐Cr. Ceramic productions from other regional and extra‐regional contexts were also plotted for comparison.Calenian pyrotechnologyThin section analyses showed that almost all the samples of black glazed pottery have an optically inactive clay matrix. In some cases, a diffuse birefringence was visible in the matrix, but this is due to the presence of microcrystalline calcite widespread throughout the matrix (b‐fabric, Figure 3a‐f). This feature frequently occurs in ceramic materials due to the late recarbonation of unreacted free lime (Fabbri et al., 2014). Observing the decarbonation temperature detected during the “reheating” of the ceramics via thermal analyses, it was possible to infer that it is reformed calcite. The peaks in the DTG and DSC curves between 500 and 800 °C (Table 4), in fact, occur at lower temperatures (<750°C) than those observed for primary calcite (Germinario et al., 2022); this feature is characteristic of reformed, fine calcite, visible in small‐size crystals in the thin sections. This calcite may react with the fired clay during the thermal analyses (actually, they cause a sort of refiring of samples), to form thermal phases of Ca‐silicates that could justify the exo‐endothermic peaks sequence observed above 840 °C (Shoval & Paz, 2013) (Table 4).4TABLEResults of thermogravimetric‐differential scanning calorimetric analyses, showing enthalpy changes and weight‐loss observed in the ceramic samples. Legend: a – endothermic; b – exothermic; Δw – mass loss; DSC: differential scanning calorimetry; DTG: derivative thermogravimetric curve; LOI: loss on ignition.SampleClass40–300 °C300–500 °C500–800 °C800–1050 °CLOIΔw (%)DTGDSCaΔw (%)DTGDSCaΔw (%)DTGDSCaΔw (%)DTGDSCa.bΔw (%)133.3Black glazed pottery1.63106.5101.20.67‐‐4.9728.17290.05‐8607.25133.6Black glazed pottery1.25111.3103.90.56‐‐4.2723.17280.03‐8786.04133.14Black glazed pottery1.47107.4102.10.54‐‐1.94682.66830.11‐‐4.06133.16Black glazed pottery1.13112.1100.10.47‐‐3.54720.17250.06‐‐5.2133.19Black glazed pottery2.20114.1108.90.92‐‐3.64701.47040.15‐8486.91133.20Black glazed pottery2.10110.41110.63‐‐3.37725.67270.03‐855.96.13133.23Black glazed pottery3.40114.1113.50.89‐‐4.69723.17210.05‐841.5b‐873a9.03133.25Black glazed pottery2.52108.8105.10.86‐‐5.3726.77290.06‐8648.74133.27Black glazed pottery1.47109.3101.10.63‐‐3.04704.17070.10‐‐5.2435.37Black glazed pottery1.26110.6101.10.55403.8405.13.52700.36980.05‐8865.3835.44Black glazed pottery2.67122.21070.71‐‐0.31‐‐0.17‐858.5b‐891.7a3.8635.48Black glazed pottery1.57106.396.10.43‐‐0.17‐‐0.02‐‐2.1935.57Black glazed pottery1.71112.71020.70‐‐3.15711.97100.08‐8595.6435.75Terra sigillata2.18114.51080.73‐‐3.25721.57250.13‐‐6.2935.76Terra sigillata1.80113.9107.90.65‐‐4.9732.37360.11‐‐7.4627.77Terra sigillata1.4411194.20.51‐‐2.90725.37300.08‐‐4.9316.36Production indicator BG1.0980.582.90.41403.4401.91.82678.36850.09‐‐3.41133.60Spacer0.81112.6880.38‐‐3.54734.17400.07‐‐4.80133.61Spacer0.65112.185.80.32‐‐2.77728.57330.04‐‐3.78133.64Spacer1.0111092.90.47‐‐3.31727.77310.07‐‐4.86133.65Spacer0.69106.4810.32‐‐2.36719.97260.05‐‐3.4276.73Production indicator BG0.68137.590.20.36‐‐0.10‐‐0.05‐‐1.19Neoformed Ca‐silicates are considered important thermal indicators for the estimation of the equivalent firing temperatures (EFTs; e.g., Maggetti et al., 2011; De Bonis, D'Angelo, et al., 2017) achieved inside the ancient kilns. It has been demonstrated that when firing temperatures increase, calcite in the clay matrix reacts with Si‐ and Al‐rich phases to form Ca‐silicates, starting at approximately 800/850 °C (e.g., Cultrone et al., 2001; De Bonis et al., 2014). Based on these data, it was possible to infer EFTs from the mineralogical transformations detected compared with the morpho‐structural observation obtained at the FESEM.Based on EFTs estimation, the 57 finds of black glazed pottery can be divided into three thermal groups. The first group consists of four samples (133.22, 133.34, 35.44, 35.50) characterized by the presence of phyllosilicates represented by mica/illite and the absence of neoformed melilite and pyroxene (Table 2). The cross‐check of mineralogical data with the morpho‐structural observation via FESEM showed that sample 35.50 (Figure 4a) does not exhibit a well‐defined vitrification structure, thus suggesting an EFT from 750 to 850 °C.The second group consists of 21 samples (133.7, 133.9, 133.10, 133.11, 133.12, 133.17, 133.23, 133.25, 35.37, 35.38, 35.39, 35.40, 35.43, 35.48, 133.51, 133.52, 133.53, 35.56, 35.57, 35.58, 133.87) characterized by the presence of mica/illite, melilite, and pyroxene from scarce to frequent (Table 2). Due to the presence of an extensive vitrification stage in sample 35.38 (Figure 4c), the estimated EFT range from 850 to 950 °C.The third group consists of 32 samples of black glazed pottery (133.1, 133.2, 133.3, 133.4, 133.5, 133.6, 133.8, 133.13, 133.14, 133.15, 133.16, 133.18, 133.19, 133.20, 133.21, 133.24, 133.26, 133.27, 133.28, 133.29, 133.30, 133.31, 133.32, 133.33, 133.35, 35.41, 35.42, 35.45, 35.46, 35.47, 133.49, 133.64, 76.74) characterized by the absence of mica/illite and the presence of scarce to abundant melilite and pyroxene (Table 2). FESEM observations highlight the presence of extensive vitrification in 133.35 (Figure 4b) samples, thus suggesting EFTs between 900 and 1050 °C.The three Terra sigillata samples showed an optical activity of the clay matrix that varies from inactive in 27.77 sample to slightly active in samples 35.75 and 35.76 (Figure 3g‐i). As already evidenced for the black glazed pottery, a diffuse birefringence is visible in the matrix of sample 27.77 due to the presence of re‐carbonated microcrystalline calcite (Fabbri et al., 2014). This hypothesis is again supported by thermal analysis (Table 4) due to the low decarbonation temperature (<750 °C) characteristic of reformed and fine calcite.XRPD results of the three samples of Terra sigillata show a mineralogy characterized by a high amount of quartz, minor feldspar, calcite, hematite, and frequent mica/illite in the 35.75 and 35.76 that accounts for EFTs of 750–850°C. Sample 27.77 shows lower amounts of mica/illite and the presence of pyroxene, along with a morphostructural feature characterized by initial vitrification (Figure 4d) indicating EFTs from 800 to 850 °C (Table 2). The EFT (750–850°C) evaluated for these samples well reflect the technological features of the Calenian Terra sigillata described in Guarino et al. (2011). This feature was also highlighted by Grifa et al. (2019) for the Terra sigillata Produzione A from the Bay of Naples and is in contrast to the technological features of Terra sigillata produced with the renowned Arretino modo that made use of muffle kilns (Cuomo di Caprio, 2007), for which specimens exhibit EFTs above 900 °C (Mirti et al., 1999).The nine samples of fine common ware are characterized by a variable optical activity and sintering degree. The samples 133.114, 133.115, 133.116, 133.117, 133.120, and 133.121 showed an optical activity of the clay matrix that varies from weakly active to inactive. The mineralogical assemblage is characterized by a scarce to frequent amount of mica/illite and neoformed Ca‐silicates that, along with extensive vitrification identified in 133.115 and 133.117 samples (Figure 4e), indicate EFTs that varies from 800 to 900 °C. On the other hand, three specimens (133.113, 133.118, 133.119) show higher EFTs (950–1050 °C) due to the absence of phyllosilicates and the presence of neoformed Ca‐silicates (Table 2), along with continuous vitrification with fine bloating pores (CV [FB]; 0.2–4 μm) in 133.119 (Figure 4f).The ten samples of production indicators represented by spacers (133.60, 133.61, 133.62, 133.63, 133.64, 133.65, 133.66, 133.67) and wastes of black glazed pottery (16.36, 76.73) show a totally inactive ceramic matrix. XRPD results of spacers show a mineralogy characterized by neoformed Ca‐silicates and the total absence of phyllosilicate, along with an extensive vitrification stage (V) identified in 133.62 (Figure 4g) and 133.64. On the basis of the data obtained it is possible to estimate an EFT of 900–1050 °C for all the samples analyzed (Table 2). The similar mineralogical assemblage was identified in the wastes of black glazed pottery where the presence of continuous vitrification with coarse bloating pores (CV [CB], 10–50 μm) identified in 16.36 sample, suggests an EFT >1,050 °C (Figure 4h).For all ceramic classes of this study absence or scarce amount of Fe3+ oxides (e.g., hematite) was detected. This would suggest that firing was performed in a prevailing reducing atmosphere, but it is more likely that the formation of Ca‐silicates hindered the hematite development (e.g., De Bonis, Cultrone, et al., 2017; Molera et al., 1998). Therefore, it is plausible that a prevailing oxidizing atmosphere characterized the firing. As reported in several studies (e.g., Maritan, 2020), a short reducing phase would have been performed in the late stage of the firing of black glazed pottery for blackening the coating, whereas full oxidation was adopted for Terra sigillata.CONCLUSIONSThe proposed multi‐analytical approach allowed us to confirm the local production of fine pottery at Cales and expand the previous knowledge about black glazed pottery, a class of fine pottery widely distributed in the central and western Mediterranean. Although several works have been carried out on black glazed pottery, for the first time we performed an accurate characterization on a large selection of Calenian black glazed artifacts, including other fine wares and important production indicators from the same archaeological context. This allowed us to define a robust reference group for the Calenian black glaze pottery.The set of techniques used for the archaeometric characterization showed the extreme homogeneity of these ceramic classes, including black glazed pottery, Terra sigillata, fine common wares, and important production indicators. The latter are represented by spacers and welded pieces of black glazed pottery and, thanks to their historical importance linked to production, provided a great contribution to the definition of local production of fine ceramics.The petrographic analysis showed an extreme compositional homogeneity of all the finds belonging to the different ceramic classes along with the same mineralogical assemblage. The only difference was highlighted in the fine common ceramics and Terra sigillata samples, where the presence of trachyte was not recognized. The use of volcanic fragments in spacers and black glazed pottery may have been intended to provide a technological correction to these artifacts.From a technological point of view, the samples of black glazed pottery exhibit an extreme variability of the EFTs. Three groups were identified based on their mineralogical assemblage and degree of sintering. The two main groups (consisting of 21 and 32 samples, respectively) show an EFT ranging from 850 to 1050 °C, just a few samples (133.22, 133.34, 35.44, 35.50) are characterized by EFTs lower than 850 °C.The three samples of Terra sigillata show an EFT from 750 to 850 °C along with not well sintered slips. These features contrast with the technology of Terra sigillata produced with the renowned Arretino modo that made use of muffle kilns (Cuomo di Caprio, 2007), for which the samples exhibit a well sintered slip and EFTs above 900 °C (Mirti et al., 1999). The fine common ware mostly shows EFTs ranging from 800 to 1000 °C. As far as the production indicators are concerned, the EFT ranges from 950 to 1050 °C for the spacers, whereas it turns out to be above 1050 °C for the waste of black glazed pottery, compatible with the fact that they are welded together. For all the samples the presence of hematite suggests a prevailing oxidizing atmosphere. A short reducing phase may have been performed in the late stage of the firing of black glazed pottery for blackening the coating. This important aspect will be further investigated in order to be able to discriminate the atmosphere condition inside the kiln and the Fe oxidation state through an accurate study of the coatings via specific state‐of‐the‐art instruments, such as synchrotron beamlines as X‐ray Absorption Near Edge Spectroscopy (XANES) that are successfully used in glazed and slip ceramic studies for tracing technological developments of specific workshops through the correlation of surface appearance and manufacture technology.Chemical analyses indicate that all samples are characterized by high concentrations of CaO, which is compatible with the use of a local clay raw material from the Apennine chain sector. In order to more accurately distinguish between different types of clay raw materials used in ceramic production, the perspective of this study is to analyze the isotopic composition of strontium (Sr), neodymium (Nd), and lead (Pb). Previous research has shown that the isotopic signature of ceramics can provide valuable information about the sources of their raw materials (e.g., De Bonis et al., 2018; Kibaroğlu et al., 2019; Maritan et al., 2021; Renson et al., 2013).ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis work was supported by grants from the DiSTAR (Vincenzo Morra and Alberto De Bonis) of the University of Naples Federico II. The authors would like to thank Ciro Cucciniello for the high‐quality XRF analyses, Sergio Bravi for his technical ability in thin section preparation, and Roberto de Gennaro for his invaluable assistance during FESEM and FESEM‐EDS analysis. Last, the authors wish to warmly thank the editor of the journal and two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and comments that definitely improved the manuscript. 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Journal

Archaeometry – Wiley

Published: Dec 1, 2023

Keywords: Cales; characterization; fine pottery; local production; multi‐analytical approach

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