Provenance studies of basaltic tools from the Polish Lowlands in the light of geochemical and mineralogical studies

Wojciech Bartz; Piotr Chachlikowski; Anna Kukuła; Magdalena Matusiak‐Małek; Hubert Mazurek

doi:10.1111/arcm.12876

Provenance studies of basaltic tools from the Polish Lowlands in the light of geochemical and mineralogical studies

Bartz, Wojciech; Chachlikowski, Piotr; Kukuła, Anna; Matusiak‐Małek, Magdalena; Mazurek, Hubert 2023-04-24 00:00:00 INTRODUCTIONThe prehistoric communities of the Polish Lowlands inhabited the areas of the last Pleistocene continental glaciation. This population obtained the raw material for stone articles/tools mainly through the intensive exploitation of the local resources of Fennoscandian erratic rocks (e.g., Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2018, 2022; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001a, 2001c). The usage of raw materials of foreign provenance, that is, ‘imports’, was of marginal importance. Moreover, the use of exogenous rocks by the local population was heterogeneous in terms of the assortment of raw materials used, area of origin of the raw material, as well intensity and chronology of the reception of the ‘imports’ (Chachlikowski, 1996, 1997, 2013, 2018; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Krystek et al., 2011; Szydłowski, 2017). The ‘imported’ material in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (i.e., from the mid‐sixth to the second millennium BCE) did not include all the lithological varieties available in natural deposits outside the Lowlands but was limited to materials used for the production of a relatively narrow range of products, usually those forms that were culturally characteristic. Among those, products with blades are the most common (such as axes, adzes and shoe‐last tools). Even within this particular category of products—except the products of the early Neolithic stone industry and, to a lesser degree, middle Neolithic colonists of the Polish Lowland that represented cultures that spread from the Danubian region—the share (and contribution) of imported raw materials was only incidental. According to the findings of A. Prinke and J. Skoczylas, eratics raw materials were used for the production of almost 95% of all tools with a blade (Prinke & Skoczylas, 1980a, 1980c; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979). The dominance of eratics in the stone industry in the Polish Lowlands in prehistory would be even greater if we consider the raw materials used to make all types of tools, that is, querns and grinders, polishing plates, hammerstones, polishers and others (e.g., Chachlikowski, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2018; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001a, 2001c). The exogenous raw materials used by the local population comprised amphibolite rocks, slate of different varieties, serpentine, and basalt of Sudetic and Volynian provenance (Chachlikowski, 1996, 1997; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Fołtyn et al., 2000; Krystek et al., 2011; Majerowicz et al., 1981; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c, 1985, 1986; Skoczylas et al., 2000; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Szydłowski, 2017; Wojciechowski, 1988; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008).The problem of the usage of imported raw basaltic materials (also other rock materials of non‐lowlands provenance) by the societies of Neolithic and Early Bronze Age cultures in the Polish Lowlands and the provenance of these materials are among the most important research problems in the studies of stone resources management in this region (Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Fołtyn et al., 2000; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c, 1986; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Szydłowski, 2017; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). The identification of the non‐lowland origin of materials used by early agricultural communities and the determination of the provenance of the exogenous materials are of great importance for the documentation of multiple manifestations of the activity of Lowlands inhabitants. The studies on the phenomenon of adoption and usage of the exogenous raw materials by these populations, the periodic increase of the reception of the materials, and the chronology and direction of the inflow have significantly broadened knowledge about the economic and cultural aspects of their activity. These studies also provide knowledge about interregional contacts undertaken by this community or its participation in a long‐term exchange of material goods and even highlight issues related to cultural traditions and genetic connections of the early agricultural communities from north and south. A good example of similar petroarchaeological studies on the origin and use of imported raw materials in prehistory is the research on the sources of the acquisition and long‐distance distribution of jadeite in Europe in the Neolithic (Klassen, 2004; Pétrequin et al., 2012, 2017) or amphibolite rocks and slate of various varieties among early and middle Neolithic communities from the Danubian cultures in Central Europe (Chachlikowski, 1996; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Christensen et al., 2003, 2006; Christensen & Ramminger, 2004; Krystek et al., 2011; Majerowicz et al., 1981; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Přichystal, 2013; Schwarz‐Mackensen & Schneider, 1983, 1986, 1987; Szydłowski, 2017; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008) as well as obsidians in the Near East by late Pleistocene hunter–gatherers and early farmers (Cauvin et al., 1998; Renfrew et al., 1966, 1969).This article presents the results of petroarchaeological studies on the origin and usage of raw basaltic materials imported to the Kujawy region (Kuyavia) in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. Kujawy is a unique area on the archaeological map of the Polish Lowlands and its importance in prehistory is disproportionate to its small size. The specific features of the natural environment played an important role in the cultural development of the societies of Kujawy, specifically its unique hydrographic and soil conditions and mineral resources as compared with the rest of the Lowlands. This region is located at the confluence of two great rivers, the Oder and the Vistula, interconnected by a number of horizontal watercourses that enabled extensive external, often long‐distance contacts in several directions. The natural resources of the environment (mainly fertile black soils, salt and proximity to amber) also provided additional important advantage. These factors contributed to the concentration and stabilization of settlements and had an indirect impact on the emergence and development of the cultural and settlement centre of Kujawy. The increase of the importance of Kujawy became possible following the influx of agrarian and pastoral societies in the period just preceding the Neolithic (i.e., the mid‐sixth millennium BCE). Since then, the distinctiveness of the region had been emerging, underlying the specific cultural phenomenon of the Kujawy. This region intrinsically concentrates the most important phenomena of cultural development of the prehistoric societies of the Polish Lowlands, and in a broader context, that of the Intermarium (the land between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea). Nowadays, Kujawy is becoming an extremely important region for scientific research, not only with respect to the whole area of the Polish Lowlands or Central Europe but also of the borderland of the East and the West of Europe. This is determined by both the degree of archaeological recognition of this region and the explicative level of the cultural processes documented here in the past (e.g., Bednarczyk et al., 2008; Chachlikowski, 1997, 2013; Cofta‐Broniewska, 1989; Cofta‐Broniewska & Kośko, 1982, 2002; Czebreszuk, 1996; Czebreszuk et al., 2001; Czerniak, 1980, 1994; Domańska, 1995, 2013; Grygiel, 2004, 2008; Ignaczak et al., 2011; Kośko, 1979, 1981, 1996, 2000, 2009, 2014; Makarowicz, 1998, 2010; Przybył, 2009; Pyzel, 2010; Rybicka, 1995; Rzepecki, 2004; Szmyt, 1996, 2010; Szmyt et al., 2019).In this article, we study petrographic and geochemical features of Neolithic and Early Bronze Age basaltic artefacts from the Kujawy region in order to decipher the reception of the imported basaltic raw material in cultural–chronological and chorological aspects. The prehistorical material was compared with the raw material collected from natural basalt outcrops from possible source areas. The obtained results point to the Volynian origin of the used material. This research proves that the population of Kujawy in in the fourth to second millenniums BCE used, except common and locally available basalt rocks from the Fennoscandian erratics, basalts from distant deposits located in the Volyn region (western Ukraine). Therefore, the phenomenon of long‐distance translocations of exogenous rock raw materials to the Polish Lowlands, their acquisition and usage by early agrarian communities in the field of stone production has been documented.PREVIOUS STUDIES ON THE RECEPTION OF IMPORTED RAW BASALTIC MATERIAL IN THE POLISH LOWLANDS IN THE NEOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE AGEMid‐sixth to second millennium BCEThe first reports on the items produced of basalt of exogenous origin (i.e., not present among the lithological varieties of this rock in the local resources of the Fennoscandian erratics) used by the Neolithic inhabitants of the Polish Lowlands were published in the 1970s and 1980s (Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; cf. Fołtyn et al., 2000). Those studies also attempted to determine the source areas for the raw material. In the 1990s and at the beginning of the 21st century, studies on the identification of the ‘imported’ raw basaltic material as well as on establishing their provenance (or even certain deposits) were continued for items used by the local Neolithic and early Bronze Age populations from Kujawy (Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). It was shown that the Neolithic stone tools from Wielkopolska and Kujawy (Central Poland) were made of basaltic material from deposits in the western Sudetes (south‐west Poland) and the Horyń River basin in Volyn (western Ukraine). The basaltic material of probable Sudetic origin used for the production of the artefacts has the composition of olivine basalt, ankaratrite or basanitoid, while the material from the deposits occurring in Volyn has the composition of olivine‐free plagioclase basalt. The western Ukrainian origin of the raw material with the characteristics of metabasalt and plagioclase pyroxene basalt is not clear but may be evidenced by the presence of pseudomorphoses after olivine (Chachlikowski, 1996; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979). The above results were based only on microscopic observations of thin sections (in transmitted, polarized light). This method, though necessary, is not sufficient for any detailed characterization of rock samples required to link the raw material with specific areas of their natural deposits. Such a task is particularly difficult for extrusive igneous rocks because they are characterized by an aphanitic texture. To obtain reliable and unambiguous results on the origin of the basalt material, more detailed petrological studies, using several complementary research methods, are necessary.Geoarchaeological settingThe artefacts (Table 1) were collected in central Poland, about 200 km north‐west of Warsaw (Figure 1). This area is entirely covered by young Quaternary glacial deposits, underlain by relatively thick, Neogene sedimentary rocks (sand, silt, interbedded with lignite; Jeziorski, 1995; Kozydra & Brzeziński, 2013; Sydow et al., 2012, 2017). The Quaternary rocks have a total thickness from a few to about 100 m (in the vicinity of Dąbrowa Biskupia) (Figure 1). They are represented by moraine tills with numerous erratics, fluvial gravel and sand, glacial lacustrine clay and mud, as well as glacial gravels and boulders (op. cit.). The youngest sediments were deposited during the Weichselian Glaciation (Jeziorski, 1995; Kozydra & Brzeziński, 2013; Sydow et al., 2012, 2017). Among the indicator erratics present in Quaternary sediments in Poland, both crystalline and sedimentary rocks occur (Czubla et al., 2006). The crystalline rocks are dominated by varieties of the felsic igneous rocks (granitoids and ‘porphyry’), while mafic volcanic rocks (basaltoids) are less common or locally absent (Czubla et al., 2019; Sokołowski & Czubla, 2016; Woźniak & Czubla, 2015).1TABLEGeneral characteristics of the studied stone monuments from the Kujawy region (Polish Lowlands).Sample numberCity/village, community, archaeological site IDType of productCultural–chronological qualificationField research, literatureCommentsA7Dąbrowa Biskupia, community. Dabrowa BiskupiaAxeLate Neolithic (FBC?)Chachlikowski with the team; Chachlikowski (1996)Figure 2bA8Pruchnowo, community. Radziejów Kujawski, 25AxeLate Neolithic (FBC/GAC?)A. Kośko with the team; Chachlikowski (1996)Figure 2aA9Rybiny, community. Topólka, 17Destructive formEarly Bronze age (TC)Makarowicz (1998, 2000, 2010)A10Siniarzewo, community. Zakrzewo, 1Piece of an axeLate Neolithic (FBC?)Kośko (2000)A13Dąbrowa Biskupia, community. Dabrowa BiskupiaPiece of an axeLate Neolithic (FBC?)P. Chachlikowski with the team; Chachlikowski (1996)A14Goszczewo, community. Aleksandrów Kujawski, 14DebitageEarly Bronze age (TC)Chachlikowski (1996); Czebreszuk (1987, 1996); Makarowicz (1998)Abbreviations: FBC, Funnel Beaker Culture; GAC, Globular Amphora Culture; TC, Trzciniec Culture.1FIGURELocalization of artefacts (grey square and inset) and reference samples (white squares).2FIGUREPhotographs and scaled drawings of artefacts A8 (a) and A7 (b). Scale bar = 3 cm.The rare occurrence of basaltoids among erratics encourages us to look for alternative provenance of the raw material. Mafic volcanic rocks, generally considered as basalts, are known from numerous areas in Central Europe. They vary in age from Neoproterozoic, through Palaeozoic to Cenozoic. As the studied archaeological material is relatively fresh, below we list only those areas where unaltered mafic volcanic rocks were described. The most widespread suite of basaltic rocks extends from the French Massif Central, through the Rhenish Massif and Black Forest‐Vosges (Germany) to the Bohemian Massif (Czechia and Poland) and forms the Central European Volcanic Province (CEVP) (Wimmenauer, 1974). Volcanic activity in this area is related to late Mesozoic–Cenozoic large‐scale rifting of Variscan basement in the foreground of Alpine orogeny (Dèzes et al., 2004; Wilson & Downes, 2006). Rocks forming in the CEVP occur as volcanic plugs, flows and dikes. The easternmost part of the CEVP comprises south‐west Poland (mostly Lower Silesia) (Figure 1), where the volcanic activity took place in the Eocene–Oligocene (34.0–26.0 Ma), Miocene (22.0–18.0 Ma) and Pliocene–Pleistocene (5.5–1.0 Ma) (Pécskay & Birkenmajer, 2013). In this area, it was related to the northern part of Eger Rift (western Bohemian Massif) and a set of north‐west–south‐east trending fault systems.Other peaks of volcanism in Central and Northern Europe were related to the initiation of rifting of the Pangea paleocontinent in the Late Carboniferous and to later stages of this process in the Mesozoic (Obst et al., 2004; Tappe, 2004). Products of the older episode of this activity are known from the North Sea basin, Oslo Graben and North German Depression, but the largest outcrops occur in southern Sweden (Scania region). The Carboniferous (possibly 294 ± 4 Ma) rocks form the north‐east trending swarm of mostly doleritic dykes (Obst et al., 2004, passim). The younger Jurassic (191–178 Ma) and possibly also Jurassic–Cretaceous (145 Ma) and Late Cretaceous (110 Ma; Bergelin et al., 2011; Tappe et al., 2016, passim) episode of basaltic volcanism in Scania formed north‐west–south‐east trending dykes and scarce plugs and lava flows (Figure 1).The last vast concentration of basaltoids in Central Europe extends from eastern Poland to western Ukraine and Belorussia. Those rocks form the Neoproterozoic (Ediacarian, about 570 Ma) Volyn Large Igneous Province (LIP) related to the breakup of the Rodinia paleocontinent (Shumlyanskyy, 2016; Shumlyanskyy et al., 2016). As in other LIPs in the world (e.g., Siberian and Indian trapps), the Volyn basalts form a thick (maximum of 400–600 m) continuous complex extending over an area of 80,000 km2 (Shumlyanskyy, 2016, passim); however, outcrops of the basaltoids are limited to western Ukraine (Figure 1)—in the remaining areas the rocks are known from drillings.Specification of the stone materialThe present study includes two sets of rock material selected for petrographic research. The first group represents six stone artefacts, that is, prehistoric stone products made of basaltic material (Table 1). Carefully selected (based on macroscopic observations) basaltic products meeting the criteria for a hypothetical import were selected. With regard to Kujawy, the verification of the hypothetical ‘imported’ material (based on the results of various and multifaceted petrological tests in laboratory conditions) is justified primarily for products made of basalt, the selection of which is included in this publication (Table 1). The suggestion of the foreign origin of some basalt products in Kujawy is supported by prehistoric premises, such as migrations of a population from the Upland areas (situated to the south of the Lowlands) and the participation of local communities in interregional contacts and long‐distance exchange (e.g., Bednarczyk et al., 2008; Cofta‐Broniewska, 1989; Cofta‐Broniewska & Kośko, 1982, 2002; Czebreszuk et al., 2001; Czerniak, 1980, 1994; Domańska, 1995, 2013; Grygiel, 2004, 2008; Ignaczak et al., 2011; Kośko, 1979, 1981, 1996, 2009, 2014; Makarowicz, 1998, 2010; Przybył, 2009; Pyzel, 2010; Rzepecki, 2004; Szmyt, 1996, 2010; Szmyt et al., 2019). Moreover, basalt is characterized by high‐quality technical and functional properties that made it a highly attractive and desirable raw material for the production of stone products in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (cf., e.g., Chachlikowski, 1996, 1997, 2013, 2018; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c, 1985; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979). Furthermore, basalt raw material can be relatively confidently identified with the areas of its natural occurrence due to the specific petrological features characteristic for rocks from specific primary deposits (cf. earlier suggestions: Chachlikowski, 1996; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). Therefore, basaltic artefacts are an efficient tool with which to study the phenomenon of taking over and using rock ‘import’ in the Polish Lowlands in prehistory. Methodological assumptions for research on the identification of raw material ‘imports’ among the numerous and diverse products of prehistoric stonework in the Polish Lowlands. (Principles for the selection of rock samples of hypothetical non‐lowland provenance, that is, premises for indicating rocks of presumed exogenous provenance, are presented by Chachlikowski (1996, 1997) and Chachlikowski & Skoczylas (2001b); see also the information in the final section of this article.) The second group consists of samples of reference of basaltic materials from the possible source regions, that is, Sudetes (south‐west Poland), Scania (southern Sweden) and Wołyń (western Ukraine) (Table 2).2TABLESamples of reference basaltic materials.Localization (and nomenclature of the reference material)Source of samplePetrographyBulk rock compositionMineral chemical compositionX‐ray fluorescence (XRF)Yanova Dolyna Volyn, Ukraine (JD)Field works/literature dataPresent studyShumlyanskyy (2012); Kuzmenkova and Kolosov (2010); Shumlyanskyy (2008); Bakun‐Czubarow et al. (2002); Białowolska et al. (2002)Present studyShumlyanskyy and Derevska (2004)Present studyRafalivka, Volyn, Ukraine (R)Velykyi Mydsk, Volyn, Ukraine (MW)Berestovets, Volyn, Ukraine (B)Lower Silesia, PolandField works/literature dataPresent studyBirkenmajer and Pécskay (2002); Birkenmajer et al. (2004); Ladenberger (2006); Puziewicz et al. (2011); Wierzchołowski (1993)Matusiak‐Małek (2010)Present studyScania basaltoids, SwedenField works/literature dataPresent studyBergelin et al. (2011)Present studyPresent studyDolerites ScaniaLiterature dataObst et al. (2004)Obst et al. (2004)Obst et al. (2004)–Three of the basaltic artefacts (A9, A10, A14) were excavated at the archaeological sites in Goszczewo, Rybiny and Sinarzewo (Figure 1 and Table 1). The other three artefacts were surface findings collected from the ground. Artefact A8 was obtained during the archaeological survey of the surface of the site with a well‐known location in Pruchnowo, while artefacts A7 and A13 comprise the so‐called ‘loose’ findings discovered in the vicinity of the village of Dąbrowa Biskupia (Figure 1). The location of the last two artefacts was quite likely related to the dense concentration of late Neolithic culture communities, mainly the Funnel Beaker Culture (FBC) population, situated in the northern part of the village. Thus, the stone items selected for the study have a relatively well‐documented archaeological context of the discovery place, which was used for a precise definition of their chronological and cultural affiliation. Most of the analysed stone products (four artefacts) were related to the activity of stone workers of the late Neolithic communities from 4000–3000 years BCE (Table 1) and are probably related to the stonework of the FBC population or—in single cases—to the Globular Amphora Culture (GAC) population. Two other stone artefacts document the stone processing in the sediments of the Early Bronze Age in the population of the Trzciniec Culture (TC) from 2000 years BCE. Most of these artefacts are represented by stone axes, either complete or damaged. Only single finds were qualified as debitage or undefined destructive form (cf. Table 1); however, presumably also related to a product with a blade (axes or adzes).METHODSPolished petrographic thin section of artefacts, as well as of reference rocks, were prepared at the grinding‐shop (Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Wrocław) and studied under the polarizing optical microscope Zeiss Axiolab (POM) and a scanning electron microscope JEOL JSM IT100 equipped with an Oxford X‐Act energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM‐EDS), working at an accelerating voltage of 16 kV in the Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Wrocław. The nomenclature of pyroxenes is according to Morimoto et al. (1988). Powder X‐ray diffraction (XRD) was made in the University of Wrocław using a D5005 diffractometer, working under a voltage of 30 kV and current of 25 mA. Measurements were made using the Bragg–Brentano geometry, Co ka radiation, in the 2θ angle range 4–75°, with a measurement scan step time of 1 s and step‐size of 0.02°. Qualitative identification of the phase composition of the samples was made using Diffract‐EVA software. Geochemical bulk rock analyses were performed at the Bureau Veritas Mineral Laboratories (Vancouver, BC, Canada). The samples were pulverized and analysed by inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (procedure code LF202). Samples of Palaeozoic dolerites from Scania were unavailable; therefore, their descriptions are based on literature data (Obst et al., 2004).RESULTSPetrography and mineral chemical composition of the artefacts and the reference rocksArtefactsMacroscopically the material of artefacts is a dark grey to black, aphanitic to locally porphyritic basaltoid, with no visible pores (Figure 3a,b). Phenocrysts of plagioclase (± clinopyroxene) are rare. The major phases forming artefacts groundmass are plagioclase, clinopyroxene and opaque minerals. The presence of minor phases such as alkali feldspar, glass, quartz, apatite, titanite, calcite, sulphides and pseudomorphs after primary minerals (iddingsite, bowlingite, chlorite, biotite, kaolinite and sericite) is restricted only to specific artefacts.3FIGURERepresentative photomicrographs of thin sections of artefacts (a, b, in cross‐polarized light; and c–f, backscattered electron (BSE) images): (a) Rybiny, artefact A9; (b) Siniarzewo, artefact A10; (c) Dąbrowa Biskupia, artefact A7; (d) Pruchnowo, artefakt A8; (e) Siniarzewo, artefact A10; and (f) Goszczewo, artefact A14. Mineral abbreviations are after Whitney and Evans (2010): Pl, plagioclase; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Mag, magnetite; Qz, quartz; Chl, chlorite; Afs, alkali feldspar; Ap, apatite; Usp, ulvöspinel; Py, pyrite; Amp, amphibole; Cal, calcite; Zrn, zircon; Bt, biotite; and Ilm, imenite.Clinopyroxene forming fine‐grained matrix occurs as subhedral to anhedral crystals. Their size range from < 100 μm in artefacts A8, A9 and A14 (Figure 3a) to a maximum 300 μm in artefact A10 (Figure 3b). Single clinopyroxene phenocrysts (about 500 μm in size) occur in artefact A9 (Figure 3a). Plagioclase forms elongated, mostly subhedral crystals. Their size is between < 100 μm in artefacts A8, A9 and A14 and 600 μm (rarely maximum 1 mm) in artefact A10. In artefact A7 most of the plagioclase crystals are altered and replaced by sheet silicates (probably kaolinite and sericite). Phenocrysts of plagioclase (artefacts A8 and A9) occur as laths with a maximum length of 1 mm. Opaque minerals form anhedral (rarely sub‐ or euhedral) crystals of various shapes with maximum size of about 200 μm. Alkali feldspar is rare, occurs as concentrations or overgrowths on the rims of plagioclase. Glass (palagonite?) occurs as irregular concentrations up to 200 μm long/in diameter, locally enclosing fine‐crystalline chlorite. Sulphides form small (few, tens μm) sub‐ or anhedral crystals. Apatite in artefact A7 occurs as an eu‐ to subhedral prismatic crystals < 100 μm long. Silica (quartz?) is probably a secondary, postmagmatic phase and occurs in interstices between main minerals (artefacts A8–A10 and A14). It forms anhedral crystals with a maximum size of about 200 μm, occasionally occurring as a monomineral concentrations whose maximum size is about 500 μm. Titanite in artefact A13 forms columnar, euhedral crystals < 100 μm long. Calcite in artefact A7 occurs as an anhedral crystals with a usual size from 300 to 400 μm. Bowlingite forms irregular, anhedral assemblies with a usual size of < 200 μm. Aggregates of microcrystals of chlorite and biotite occur occasionally within bowliningite. Chlorite also occurs as plates with a size up to 100 μm or forms radial, oval concentrations with a size < 1 mm of euhedral plates.Our study investigates the chemical composition of major minerals (clinopyroxene, feldspar and opaque minerals) to compare chemical composition of minerals forming artefacts with their equivalents in reference rocks. Clinopyroxene is (±Al‐) augite/pigeonite (Figure 4a) with Mg# (Mg/[Mg + Fe]*100) between 0.27 and 0.75. The Al content varies from below the detection limit to 0.43 a pfu (atoms per formula unit). The plagioclase forming matrix has a composition of An2–61Or0–11, while that forming phenocrysts is An57—58Or0–2 (Figure 4b). Composition of oxides ranges from magnetite to ulvöspinel (0.00–0.79 a pfu of Ti) (Figure 4c). Ilmenite contains 0.83–0.94 a pfu of Ti. Sulphides occur mostly as Fe‐rich varieties (43.4–59.8 wt% of Fe, 40.7–56.6 wt% of S) or Cu‐Fe varieties (9.1–33.6 wt% of Cu, 29.5–50.3 wt% of Fe, 36.6–40.6 wt% of S). The Fe‐Pb (36.8 wt% of Fe, 15.9 wt% of Pb, 47.3 wt% of S) and Pb sulphides (86.4 wt% of Pb, 1.6 wt% of Fe, 12.0 wt% of S) are very rare (two grains).4FIGURECompositions of (a) pyroxene, (b) feldspar and (c) spinel from the artefacts and the reference rocks. Data for dolerites from Scania are after Obst et al. (2004).Reference rocksLower SilesiaThe Lower Silesian volcanic rocks have porphyritic texture with olivine, clinopyroxene and/or plagioclase phenocrysts (Figure 5a). The groundmass is formed of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine, opaque minerals, nepheline, alkali feldspar and scarce apatite. Glass, rhönite, analcime, haüyn and phlogopite occur as minor phases in the matrix and are restricted to individual outcrops (Ladenberger, 2006; and author’s unpublished data).5FIGURERepresentative photomicrographs of thin sections of artefacts (a–d in cross‐polarized light; and e–h backscattered electron (BSE) images): (a, e) Lower Silesia; (b, f) Scania; (c, g) Volyn—JD; and (d, h) Volyn—R. Mineral abbreviations are after Whitney and Evans (2010): Pl, plagioclase; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Mag, magnetite; Usp, ulvöspinel; Ilm, imenite; Ol, olivine; Afs, alkali feldspar; Ap, apatite; and Qz, quartz.The olivine phenocrysts are subhedral to anhedral and vary in length from 200 μm to over 800 μm, only scarcely do they exceed 4 mm. Olivine occurring in the groundmass forms sub‐ to anhedral crystals < 60 μm long, individual grains reach up to 200 μm. Phenocrysts of clinopyroxene exhibit a few types of textures: massive, spongy, patchy, zoned; clinopyroxene glomerocrysts occur locally. Phenocrysts with spongy cores surrounded by clear rim are usually subhedral and 300–500 μm long. Glomerocrysts are usually elongated (500–1200 μm) and may be formed either of a few crystals with spongy cores or of a significant amount of small (15–50 μm) subhedral crystals. Clinopyroxene in groundmass usually forms sub‐ to anhedral grains < 80 μm long. Plagioclase phenocrysts occur as about 300 μm long subhedral laths with polysynthetic twinnings. Plagioclase forming groundmass occurs as subhedral laths < 200 μm long. Alkali feldspar forms anhedral crystals up to 20 μm or subhedral laths up to 50 μm long. Opaque minerals form sub‐ to anhedral crystals (‘openwork’ or massive) varying in size from 10 to 80 μm. Nepheline crystals of size 10–100 μm are anhedral, scarcely subhedral. Some of them enclose poikilitically smaller grains of clinopyroxene and Ti‐magnetite. Apatite forms acicular crystals up to a few μm long; however, scarce grains reach the length up to 50 μm. Glass occurs in patches between rock‐forming minerals.Most of the olivine phenocrysts are chemically zoned, the Fo (Mg/[Mg + Fe]*100) content varies from 71.7% to 86.0%, and NiO content ranges from 0.08wt% to 0.37 wt%. The Fo content in groundmass olivine is 74.9–82.7, the content of NiO varies from 0.09 wt% to 0.18 wt%. Clinopyroxene phenocrysts are Al‐(±Ti, ±Cr) diopsides (Figure 4a) with Mg# from 0.65 to 0.86, Al content ranges from 0.15 to 0.57 a pfu. Clinopyroxene forming groundmass is Al‐(±Ti, ±Cr) diopside (Figure 4a) with Mg# = 0.68–0.84 and Al content from 0.17 to 0.49 a pfu. The composition of plagioclase forming groundmass is constant: An48—68Or1–5 (Figure 4b), while alkali feldspar has a composition of An3–18Or12–65. Opaque minerals are either magnetites (0.04 a pfu of Ti; Figure 4c), Ti‐magnetites (0.37–0.57 a pfu of Ti) or ulvöspinels (0.55–0.70 a pfu of Ti).Scania alkaline mafic rocksAlkaline mafic rocks from Scania (Figure 5b) are characterized by porphyritic texture and consist of porphyrocrysts of olivine, clinopyroxene and scarcely alkali feldspar embedded in fine‐grained groundmass formed of olivine, clinopyroxene, plagioclase, alkali feldspar and opaque minerals. Linear textures were not observed and not reported in the literature (Tappe, 2004).Subhedral to anhedral olivine phenocrysts typically range from 250 to 1000 μm in size. They are characterized by corrosive, altered by iddingsitization edges. In single grains of olivine phenocrysts opaques inclusions occur. Olivine forming groundmass is anhedral and < 20 μm long. Phenocrysts of clinopyroxene are usually sub‐ or euhedral and vary in size from 250 to 1000 μm. Some of the grains contain olivine inclusions, while others are spongy or zoned. Groundmass clinopyroxene grains are sub‐ or euhedral, rarely zonal, up to 30 μm in size. Scarce alkali feldspar phenocrysts are elongated, about 5 mm long with unsharp, spongy rims. Alkali feldspar occurring in groundmass forms subhedral, lathy grains about 20 μm long; crystals of plagioclase are larger (< 40 μm long, scarcely > 100 μm). Grains of opaque minerals are isometric with a common size of about 5 μm, rarely reaching 30 μm.The chemical composition of olivine phenocrysts is variable, the Fo is from 68.9% to 88.8%, the NiO content varies from 0.06 wt% to 0.29 wt%. Olivine forming groundmass mimics the chemical composition of phenocrysts (Fo70.5–71.3). Phenocrysts of clinopyroxene are Al‐diopside/augite (Figure 4a) with Mg# between 0.70 and 0.91; the Al content varies from 0.07 to 0.72 a pfu. Groundmass clinopyroxene is (±Ti‐) Al‐diopside with Mg# from 0.73 to 0.81 and an Al content from 0.32 to 0.53 a pfu. Phenocrysts of alkali feldspar have the composition of anorthoclase (Tappe, 2004). Groundmass plagioclase has the composition of An0–99Or1–2 (Figure 4b). Alkali feldspar occurring in groundmass has the composition of An0–11Or26–83, while composition of opaque minerals the composition ranges from Ti‐magnetite to ulvöspinel (0.38–0.73 a pfu of Ti; Figure 4c). Ilmenite contains 0.93–0.94 a pfu of Ti.Scania doleritesA petrographic description of rocks forming doleritic dykes was given by Obst et al. (2004). Based on their description, the dolerites are usually massive, amygdaloidal types are subordinate. The texture of dolerites varies from fine to coarse grained and is ophitic/subophitic to intergranular. The rocks are formed mostly of plagioclase (often sericitized) and clinopyroxene (often chloritized), while opaques minerals, amphibole and biotite occur as minor phases. Interstitial quartz forms intergrowths with alkali feldspar or occurs intergranular, pseudomorphoses (with rarely preserved fresh cores) after olivine are scarce. Locally the dolerites suffered from intensive hydrothermal alteration resulting in their reddish‐brown colour.VolynStudied samples of mafic rocks from Volyn have aphanitic, locally porphyritic texture and massive structure without any linear alignments (Figure 5c,d). Groundmass consists of clinopyroxene, plagioclase, opaque minerals; silica, glass and pseudomorphoses (inddingsite, bowlingite) after primary minerals are subordinate. Phenocrysts are usually altered to pseudomorphoses formed of chlorite/bowlingite, fresh clinopyroxene and plagioclase are extremely rare.Most of the phenocrysts are altered and occur as < 1200 μm long pseudomorphoses formed of platy or fibrous crystals of probably bowlingite and/or chlorite. Single, fresh phenocrysts of clinopyroxene and plagioclase occur occasionally. Clinopyroxene in groundmass occurs as sub‐ and anhedral crystals with usual size from tens up to 300 μm. Some of the clinopyroxene crystals show zonation. Plagioclase forming groundmass is subhedral and < 600 μm long (rarely up to 1000 μm), euhedral laths (up to 500 μm in length) of plagioclase occur sparsely. Alkali feldspar is very rare, occurs as rims on plagioclase. Crystals of opaque minerals are anhedral, rarely eu‐ or subhedral of variable sizes, but not exceeding a length of 200 μm. Glass (also devitrified glass or palagonite) concentrates in up to 200 μm in diameter interstices between rock‐forming minerals. Iddingsite and bowlingite occur in groundmass as irregular, anhedral assemblies with a usual size up to 400 μm (maximum size of iddingsite assembly in single sample exceed 3 cm). Silica (quartz?) is a postmagmatic phase (Kuzmenkova & Kolosov, 2010), forms anhedral, amoeboid‐shape crystals up to 50 μm in size which occurs in interstices mostly between feldspars.Clinopyroxene has a composition of (±Al‐) augite/pigeonite (Figure 4a) with Mg# between 0.21 and 0.75 and Al content from 0.03 to 0.35 a pfu. Plagioclase contains 19–67 of An and 0–11 of Or (Figure 4b). The composition of alkali feldspar is An7—17Or13–54. Crystals of plagioclase and feldspar are characterized by elevated FeO content, from 0.40 wt% to 2.6 wt%. Opaque minerals have the composition of magnetite—Ti‐magnetite—ulvöspinel (0.03–0.88 a pfu of Ti; Figure 4c) and ilmenite (0.72–1.13 a pfu of Ti). Some Ti‐magnetite‐magnetite crystals contain a significant amount of Cu (0.05–0.14 a pfu of Cu). Composition of minerals forming the studied samples fit well that presented by Shumlyanskyy and Derevska (2004), who, however, point wider ranges of An (i.e., up to 87 mol%) content in plagioclase phenocrysts.Bulk rock chemical composition of the artefacts and the reference materialsChemical composition of rocks from which the studied artefacts were made plots on the total alkali‐silica (TAS) diagram (Le Maitre et al., 1989) in the field of either basalt or basaltic andesite (Figure 6). Their Mg# (Mg/Mg + Fetot) varies from 0.51 to 0.61 and the TiO2 content is from 1.50 wt% to 2.00 wt% (Table 3). Despite generally similar composition, two of the samples (A7 and A13) are characterized by a higher content of alkali metals (Na and K) pointing to their alkaline nature, while the majority of samples are subalkaline (tholeiitic). All the rocks used to produce artefacts are enriched in light rare elements (LREE) and have significant negative anomalies in contents of Nb (5.40–12.00 ppm) and Ta (0.40–0.70 ppm). The basaltoids forming artefacts are variably enriched in Th and U (Figure 7).6FIGUREGeochemical classification of artefacts and reference sample on the total alkali‐silica (TAS) diagram (after Le Maitre et al., 1989). Data for dolerites from Scania are after Obst et al. (2004).3TABLEMajor and trace element composition of the archaeological material.No.123456Sample no.A7A8A9A10A13A14SiO247.6152.8554.8349.4649.7855.09Al2O315.6213.8013.8714.5314.2613.11Fe2O3a13.8513.1812.1915.1214.3312.99MgO5.545.133.775.504.503.46CaO8.107.256.858.296.355.19Na2O3.302.502.502.484.083.30K2O1.321.542.320.570.891.93TiO22.001.501.651.931.821.68P2O50.340.260.470.360.330.38MnO0.180.210.180.200.180.18Cr2O30.010.010.000.010.010.00LOI1.801.501.101.303.102.40Sum99.7599.7899.7999.7799.7699.80Mg#0.610.610.550.590.550.51Ba588.0644.0812.0432.0931.01212.0Sc23.032.024.031.036.029.0Be3.04.04.0< 13.0< 1Co41.036.234.146.739.332.6Cs1.5< 0.10.40.9< 0.10.3Ga20.818.317.318.320.016.6Hf4.13.26.04.24.64.4Nb12.05.49.75.96.86.3Rb45.020.240.211.614.036.7Sn1.0< 12.0< 11.02.0Sr417.1273.6220.9280.0302.7256.4Ta0.60.40.70.40.40.4Th1.42.15.62.13.93.7U0.30.62.00.61.01.3V246.0246.0192.0221.0296.0252.0W0.50.80.70.5< 0.50.6Zr145.2126.7225.8156.6171.9162.0Y23.724.639.730.336.130.9La27.319.738.919.426.125.4Ce58.740.278.342.054.153.7Pr7.75.29.95.56.76.7Nd33.020.939.924.627.626.7Sm6.54.88.05.56.25.6Eu1.91.52.01.81.81.7Gd6.25.18.06.27.06.0Tb0.90.81.21.01.11.0Dy4.95.07.56.06.65.7Ho0.91.01.61.31.41.2Er2.73.04.73.54.13.2Tm0.40.40.70.50.60.5Yb2.22.94.33.13.63.2Lu0.30.40.70.50.50.5Mo1.40.52.01.00.91.0Cu31.255.638.749.250.940.9Pb11.45.15.04.97.46.5Zn117.077.0113.093.0135.0103.0Ni39.216.036.042.218.613.2Major elements are in wt%; trace elements are in ppm.aTotal Fe is as Fe2O3.Abbreviation: LOI, lost on ignition.7FIGUREPrimitive mantle‐normalized incompatible element patterns of the investigated samples compared with distributions of reference samples. Sources: see Table 2.Mafic volcanic rocks from Lower Silesia (Poland) and Scania (Sweden) have typically composition of alkali basanites, alkali basalts and other types are subordinate (Figure 6). The Mg# and TiO2 content in alkaline rocks from Poland are 0.78–0.80 and 2.44–2.88 wt%, respectively (Table 3) (Ladenberger, 2006; Puziewicz et al., 2011). The Mg# in alkaline rocks from Sweden is from 0.65 to 0.72 and the TiO2 is from 2.00 wt% to 2.70 wt% (Table 3) (Tappe, 2004). Rocks from both areas are strongly enriched in LREE, Th, U, Nb (about 70–130 ppm) and Ta (3.00–12.00 ppm) (Figure 7). Dolerites from Scania have a composition of tholeiitic basalt and basaltic andesite (Figure 6) and have Mg# from 0.49 to 0.67 (Obst et al., 2004); the content of TiO2 varies from 2.00 wt% to 4.00 wt% (Obst et al., 2004). Those rocks are enriched in LREE, Th and U, and show slight negative Nb and Ta anomalies (10.90–31.40 and 0.95–2.24 ppm, respectively) (Figure 7).The volcanic structure formed by the middle to late Vendian (Shumlyanskyy et al., 2016) Volyn flood basalts covers a vast area (80,000 km2), but outcrops are known only from its eastern part (Ukraine and Belarus), while other areas were sampled by drilling. A multistage evolution of the mafic melts resulted in a huge chemical variability of the rocks belonging to the Volyn trapps (Ti‐poor and Ti‐rich basalts, picrites, dolerites, even felsic rocks; Nosova et al., 2008; Shumlyanskyy, 2008, 2012). The majority of the basaltoids have a composition of tholeiitic basalts and basaltic andesites, but the composition of some of the low‐Ti basalts (1.10–2.00 wt%) from western Ukraine grade towards alkaline nature (Figure 6) (Bakun‐Czubarow et al., 2002; Nosova et al., 2008). The Mg# of the Volynian picrites varies from 69 to 73 and decreases to 35–60 in the intrusive dolerites. All the mafic rocks are enriched in LREE and Ba, while the Sr, Nb and Ta contents have negative anomalies. Contents of Rb, Th, U and K are variable due to abundant hydrothermal alterations (Figure 7).X‐ray diffractionIn all the XRD patterns, taken from archaeological material, Ca‐Na feldspars (plagioclase group) and clinopyroxene are the major components (Figure 8). Their relatively intense peaks were found for d = 3.19, 3.18, 3.21, 3.78 Å (plagioclase) and 2.99, 2.52, 2.56, 3.32 Å (clinopyroxene). The peak at 3.26 Å of weak intensity and overlapping with the olivine peak is assigned to alkali‐feldspar. The aforementioned phases are accompanied by olivine (Figure 8). Since it occurs in smaller quantities, typical olivine peaks for d = 2,46, 2,51 2,77 Å are overlapped by much stronger peaks previously attributed to plagioclase and/or clinopyroxene. However, peaks for d = 1.78 or 1.52 Å certainly belongs to olivine. Peaks at 3.34, 4.26 Å document the presence of quartz (Figure 8). The remaining peaks, of relatively low intensity, are assigned to accessory minerals such as amphibole, muscovite (or structurally similar illite) and smectite (or chlorite). Amphibole (Ca amphibole), calcite and muscovite are recognized by peaks at 8.49, 3.03 and 10.0 Å, respectively, and occur only in sample A7 (Figure 8). Smectite (or chlorite) is a bit more common and occurs in samples A7, A13 and A14 (Figure 8), and was recognized by low‐angle 2θ peaks (about 14 Å).8FIGUREX‐ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of artefacts. Qz, quartz; Pl, plagioclase; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Ol, olivine; Afs, alkali, feldspar; Amp, amphibole; Ms/Ilt, muscovite/illite; and Sme/Chl, smectite/chlorite.In all the available reference rocks the most intense peaks are assigned to clinopyroxene and plagioclase (Figure 9). The peak 3.26 Å is weak and observable for sample B (Volyn) only; its presence suggests the occurrence of alkali‐feldspar. Olivine is also present but the low intensity of peaks suggests its small quantities (Figure 9). In contrast to the dominant crystalline phases, some accessory minerals are present in a few samples. The first accessory phase is nepheline (Figure 9), which is typical for samples from Scania and Lower Silesia and recognized on the basis of the peaks for d = 3.03 (the most intense peak overlaps with clinopyroxene peak), 3.87, 3.29 and 4.21 Å. Another accessory mineral is a zeolite (analcime), also found for samples from Scania and Lower Silesia only (Figure 9). The most intense zeolitic peak (d = 3.43 Å) is overlapped with a stronger peak of the rock‐forming mineral, another peak for 5.61 Å documents the presence of zeolite. Few peaks of low intensity documents presence of smectite (nontronite?, d = 15.0 Å) and/or chlorite (d = 14.4 Å) in rocks from Scania and Volyn (Figure 9).9FIGUREX‐ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the reference samples. Ol, olivine; Pl, plagioclase; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Afs, alkali, feldspar; ne, nepheline; Zeo, zeolites; and Sme/Chl, smectite/chlorite.DISCUSSIONPetrographic relationships between the artefacts and reference materialsThe presented result and the literature data point that the basaltic material used for artefact production is characterized by aphiritic, very fine‐grained to aphanitic texture and scarce porphyrocrysts of Ca‐Na feldspar. Such characteristic resembles that of the reference basaltic from Volyn and dolerites from Scania (Kuzmenkova et al., 2011; Obst et al., 2004; Shumlyanskyy et al., 2007) and differs from that of the typical basaltoids from Scania (Tappe, 2004) and Lower Silesia (Goleń et al., 2015) (Figure 5e,f) where olivine and clinopyroxene porphyrocrysts are abundant and the rock has porphyritic texture. It should be pointed that olivine is occasionally present in rocks from Volyn, but it is usually altered to bowlinigitic and iddinsitic pheudomorphoses, scarcely with remnants of olivine preserved in cores. It is worth emphasizing that although olivine occurs in some Volyn basalts, this variety of rock does not crop out on the surface. Another feature characteristic only for the studied artefacts and the reference basaltoids Volyn and dolerites from Scania is the presence of postmagmatic quartz and alkali feldspar (Figures 3d–f and 5g,h). Moreover, crystals of Ca‐rich plagioclase from basaltoids of the artefacts and from Volyn are enveloped by postmagmatic albititic rims (Emetz et al., 2006; Kuzmenkova & Kolosov, 2010) which was not observed in rocks from other reference materials.Variable mineral compositions of the artefact and reference materials are reflected also in their chemical composition: the studied artefacts, as well as reference rocks from Volyn and dolerites from Scania, have the composition of mostly tholeiitic basalts and basaltic andesites, while volcanic rocks from Scania and Lower Silesia are typically basanites or other alkali‐rich, mostly mafic rocks (Figure 6). Moreover, the rocks of artefacts and basaltoids from Volyn are characterized by strong negative Nb anomaly, whereas other reference materials are either slightly (dolerites) or significantly (mafic rocks from Scania and Lower Silesia) Nb enriched.Clinopyroxene forming basaltic artefacts have the composition of augite (with variable Ca content) to pigeonite and Mg# varying from 0.27 to 0.75 (Figure 4a). Clinopyroxene of similar composition is present only in basaltoids from Volyn, like rocks from Lower Silesia and Scania (including dolerites; Obst et al., 2004) are characterized by higher Ca contents (diopsides and augites) and Mg# values from 0.61 to 0.91. Plagioclase from the artefacts have a variable composition (from albite to labradorite), but the content of anorthite (An) never exceeds 0.61 (Figure 4b). Those values resemble that in plagioclase from Volyn tholeiitic basalts (oligoclase, andesine and labradorite of An19–67) and in dolerites (andesine to labradorite with An39–69), while in alkaline volcanic rocks plagioclase is either labradorite (Lower Silesia, An48–68) (Figure 4b) or labradorite to bytownite (Scania, An51–80). Opaque minerals in the artefacts have a composition of magnetite, Ti‐magnetite, ülvospinel, ilmenite and Fe‐Cu sulphides (Figure 4c), also resembling the minerals association in basalts from Volyn. The opaque minerals in alkaline volcanic rocks (Lower Silesia and Scania) have a composition of Ti‐magnetite, ülvospinel, and ilmenite, but do not contain magnetite and the Fe‐Cu sulphides.The petrographic studies clearly show that the alkaline volcanic rocks from Scania, which are present in the Kujawy area as erratic, were not used as raw material for the analysed artefacts production. Characteristics of the material from the artefacts also do not fit that of the Lower Silesian volcanic rocks, which have their outcrops in relatively close proximity. The geochemical characteristics of the artefacts suggest that it could have been produced of the Scania dolerites or Volynian basaltoids, but the presence of quartz and copper (as inclusions of copper sulphides in the rock‐forming minerals) clearly pointed to the Ukrainian provenance of the raw material (Białowolska et al., 2002; Małkowski, 1929). The rarely occurring copper minerals and common native copper were introduced to the Volynian basalts in two stages: (1) late magmatic and (2) postmagmamatic (hydrothermal; Kuzmenkova & Kolosov, 2010). The aforementioned stages heterogeneously triggered also albitization of plagioclase, formation of silica phases (chalcedony and quartz), crystallization of analcime and zeolite as well as olivine alterations to iddinsite and bowlingite. Therefore, both unaltered and strongly altered rocks can be observed within Volynian basalts. Despite the heterogeneous character of alterations, effects of those processes are clearly visible in the petrology and the results of instrumental analyses (XRD, SEM‐EDS) of the Volynian and artefact materials only (Figure 3c–f versus Figure 5g,h; Figure 8 versus Figure 9).Volynian basaltoids as indicators of interregional contacts of the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age communities from the Polish LowlandsPrevious studies on the stone materials used by the inhabitants of the Polish Lowlands in the Neolithic (FBC and GAC populations) and the early Bronze Age (TC population) indicate that in some of the stone products (namely culturally and/or typologically characteristic forms) evidence the phenomenon of adaptation and usage of an exogenous (non‐lowland provenance) raw materials (Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Fołtyn et al., 2000; Majerowicz et al., 1981; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c, 1986; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Szydłowski, 2017; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). The previous statements on the presence and usage of imported raw materials by these communities were based on the microscopic observations of thin sections of rocks, which do not provide clear evidence for the foreign origin of the material and do not allow correlation of the material with natural deposits. The results presented in this publication confirmed this phenomenon by mineralogical and geochemical studies on selected basaltic artefacts, which were initially identified (at the stage of macroscopic observations) as a raw material of non‐lowland provenance. Based on these results, we suggest that the raw basaltic material used in the Polish Lowlands for the production of the analysed tools (axes) came from the deposits located in the Horynia and Styr interbasins in Volyn (western Ukraine), around 700 km from the localities where basaltic artefacts are found (Figure 1). These observations lead to a conclusion that at Neolithic and early Bronze ages, either long‐distance translocations of the basaltic raw material or other, unknown forms of interregional objects exchange, took place.The presented problem of the prehistorical reception of the exogenous raw materials in the Polish Lowlands i.e., the long‐distance translocations of raw basaltic material and interregional exchange of items in the early agrarian stage of local communities may be explained by two concepts. The ‘natural and economic’ concept explains the phenomenon of ‘import’ of raw materials to the Polish Lowlands as a response to the necessity of compensation of the shortage or lack of certain high‐quality rocks (especially basalt) in the local inventory of Fennoscandian erratics (e.g., Prinke, 1983; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1980b, 1985; Skoczylas, 1990). This hypothesis leads to a controversial conclusion that the only reason for adaptation and usage of the imported raw materials in the Polish Lowlands was the need of the local population to own a highly attractive (in terms of technical and operational parameters) stone material, which was not available from the local resources. Moreover, according to the ‘natural and economic’ hypothesis, it may be assumed that the prehistoric stone workers of the Lowlands did not have sufficiently abundant and diversified rock materials, and the shortages had to be supplemented with imports (for more on that, see Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013, 2018). This hypothesis is on a contrary with the wide and diversified spectrum of erratic lithologies easily available in this area (Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2022; Szydłowski, 2017) which effectively eliminated the necessity of import of raw materials (for more on that, see Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1994b, 2013, 2017, 2018, 2022; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c). Moreover, the ‘natural and economic’ concept does not explain the differences in the intensity of use of the imported raw materials by the communities of specific early agrarian cultures of Lowlands (or even groups representing different stages of development of one culture). What is more, the discussed concept does not justify the uneven intensity (in terms of time) of the ‘import’ to the Polish Lowlands in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, as periods of the increased and decreased reception of exogenous raw materials in the local populations were reported. From the point of the ‘natural and economic’ concept, a convincing explanation for the differences in the provenance and assortment of the imported raw materials used by distinct (also in terms of time) cultures cannot be given. The interpretation of ‘import’ only as a practice aimed at supplementing the deficiencies of certain rock varieties in the local stock does not explain the fact of using material imported from different regions by individual Central European cultures. For example, communities from the Danubian cultures in the Early and Middle Neolithic ages used raw materials sourced from the circum Sudetic deposits (south‐west Poland, Bohemian Massif; mostly shales and amphibolites, rarely basalts), while in the late Neolithic (more precisely: FBC from the phases IIIB–IIIC/IVB and GAC from phases IIb–IIIa) and Early Bronze Age (TC), in communities inhabiting the Polish Lowlands the interest in Sudetic raw materials was low. The Sudetic basalt was instead replaced by, previously scarcely used, material from Volyn (western Ukraine). Moreover, the reasons why the prehistoric inhabitants of Polish Lowlands used basalt from the Volynian deposits, located at a distance of almost 700 km, are incomprehensible, as deposits of Sudetic basalt (used already in early Neolith) are only about 270 km away. In addition, basaltic material commonly used by the inhabitants of the Polish Lowlands in prehistoric stone production was available from the Fennoscandian erratics (Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2022; Szydłowski, 2017). In summary, the explanation and the interpretation of the ‘import’ only as practices aimed at compensating the alleged lack or low frequency of certain rock types in the Polish Lowlands erratics (in this case: basalt) do not sufficiently explain the causes for the phenomenon of the ‘import’ of rock material to the Polish Lowlands in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (for details, see Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013, 2018; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b).An alternative explanation of the ‘import’ of rock material phenomenon in the Polish Lowlands is given by the ‘cultural and processual’ concept (details in Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013) based on the prehistorical studies on import of raw stone material. These studies took into account a particular aspect of the cultural–social development of the communities of the Polish Lowlands that used exogenous raw materials in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. The search for cultural and social justifications provides important indications for the understanding of the ‘imports’ of that time. Important factors causing long‐distance translocations of rock raw materials to the Polish Lowlands may include (1) migrations of a population(s) from the Upland regions and (2) manifestations of relatively permanent participation of the local population in interregional contacts and long‐term exchange. Excellent examples of reception of imported material are given by artefacts of communities of cultures from the Danube region, among which products made of imported materials and constituting equipment of migrants (colonizers of the northern regions of the Lowlands) were reported. Those colonizers were later interested, most likely due to the need to continue the tradition, in the use of rocks from the areas of their origin (Chachlikowski, 1996, 1997, 2013; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Krystek et al., 2011; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c, 1986; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Szydłowski, 2017; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). The above‐mentioned phenomena are also documented by the examples of the reception of foreign patterns of pottery (of southern and south‐eastern provenance) or the use of flint and copper imports by the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age communities in the Kujawy.The assessment of the resources of erratic stone material in lowlands environments (Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2022; Szydłowski, 2017) provides serious arguments for the discussion around the phenomenon of interregional circulation of rock raw material in the past, or more precisely on the practices of acquisition and usage of imported stone in the Polish Lowlands in prehistory (in particular in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age). The abundance and diversity of glacially deposited raw material in the Lowlands had effectively eliminated the necessity to import rock raw materials from areas of their natural deposits. The Fennoscandian erratics deposited in Lowland fully satisfied the demand of the inhabitants of this area, and in this way limited the need of imported rock raw material to the minimum (Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2018, 2022; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c). This ‘import’ did not stem from the necessity to compensate for shortages (the lack of, or low presence) of certain raw materials in glacial repositories of erratic stones. This inclines us to reject the traditional explanation of most examples of long‐distance circulation of exogenous raw materials in the Polish Lowlands as purely economic acts of supplementing alleged shortages of raw materials in local erratic resources. In line with the ‘cultural‐processual’ concept presented here, the recognized manifestations of the practices of acquisition and use of Volhynian basalt (similarly to other exogenous rocks in this region) by the Kuyavian people in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age are a manifestation of the activities of this population dominated by a cultural and social factor. The adaptation of ‘imports’ and their usage in the early agricultural communities of this area, apart from its pragmatic function, also had a cultural and social aspect in a double sense—symbolic and ceremonial (for further explanations, see Appadurai, 1986; Hardig, 2013; Healey, 1990; Renfrew, 1984; see also Cauvin et al., 1998; Chachlikowski, 1996; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Christensen et al., 2003, 2006; Christensen & Ramminger, 2004; Fołtyn et al., 2000; Gunia, 2000; Klassen, 2004; Krystek et al., 2011; Majerowicz et al., 1981; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Pétrequin et al., 2012, 2017; Přichystal, 2013; Renfrew et al., 1966, 1969; Schwarz‐Mackensen & Schneider, 1983, 1986, 1987; Skoczylas et al., 2000; Wojciechowski, 1988). The reception of exogenous raw materials may have played an important role in the inter‐environmental communication (the flows of information and ideas, technology, and innovation); it was also an expression of prestige and a symbolic identification of common cultural affiliation of members of a community that used certain lithological varieties of rocks. The suggested proposal for the understanding of ‘imports’ explains well numerous differences observed in the assortment, intensity, chronology and directions of the influx of raw materials imported from the regions of their natural deposits to the Polish Lowlands in prehistory.CONCLUSIONSIn this study numerous petrographic and instrumental methods were used to identify the source region of the raw material adopted by early agrarian communities of the Polish Lowlands (in the Kujawy region). Two groups of reference materials were compared: alkali basalts (Sudetes, Scania) and tholeiitic basalts (Volyn and dolerites from Scania). Differences between those two groups of mafic rocks are marked mostly by chemical composition (contents of alkali metals) (Figure 6) and their distinction based only on microscopic observations, if possible, require great experience. Therefore, an unambiguous definition of the provenance of basaltic rocks always requires the usage of complementary analytical methods. Nevertheless, even using a set of methods presented in this study does not guarantee an unambiguous correlation of a mafic volcanic rock with its natural occurrence. This phenomenon is well visible when basaltic rocks from Scania and Sudetes are compared—they both have alkali nature, similar trace element chemical composition and mineral composition. If an artefact was made of a basaltoid from one of those localities, their distinction would require an even more advanced method, for example, isotopic studies.FINAL REMARKSIn this study a mineral and chemical composition of basaltoids used in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age artefacts from the Polish Lowlands (Kujawy region) are compared with the composition of potential source rocks. These include basaltoids from Volyn (western Ukraine), Scania (southern Sweden, two rock types), and Lower Silesia (south‐west Poland). The rocks from Scania occur in the Polish Lowlands as erratics, while rocks from Volyn and Lower Silesia must have been imported.Alkaline nature and mineral composition of basaltoids from Scania and Lower Silesia excludes them as a source of the raw material. Also dolerites from Scania, despite similar chemical and mineral composition, have to be excluded due to lack of copper mineralization. This characteristic mineralization occurs only within artefacts and Volyn basaltoids.The Neolithic and Early Bronze Age populations in the Polish Lowlands could easily obtain basaltic raw material from Fennoscandian erratics or from relatively close (about 270 km from the region inhabited by the manufacturers of the studied artefacts) deposits in Lower Silesia. Nevertheless, they have used a Volynian material from a distant region (about 700 km from the Kujawy).Usage of the material from Volyn was possibly based on cultural and processual premises, such as: (1) migrations of a population(s) from the Upland regions and (2) manifestations of relatively permanent participation of the local population in interregional contacts and long‐term subject exchange.The Volynian basalt used by the inhabitants of the Polish Lowlands (Kuyavia) in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age should be regarded as an exceptionally sensitive indicator of prehistoric long‐distance exchange and interregional contacts, both because of the high attractiveness and desirability of this raw material and because the petrological characteristics of basalt are diagnostic of the particular sources of its natural occurrence. 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eISSN: 1475-4754
DOI: 10.1111/arcm.12876
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Abstract

INTRODUCTIONThe prehistoric communities of the Polish Lowlands inhabited the areas of the last Pleistocene continental glaciation. This population obtained the raw material for stone articles/tools mainly through the intensive exploitation of the local resources of Fennoscandian erratic rocks (e.g., Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2018, 2022; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001a, 2001c). The usage of raw materials of foreign provenance, that is, ‘imports’, was of marginal importance. Moreover, the use of exogenous rocks by the local population was heterogeneous in terms of the assortment of raw materials used, area of origin of the raw material, as well intensity and chronology of the reception of the ‘imports’ (Chachlikowski, 1996, 1997, 2013, 2018; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Krystek et al., 2011; Szydłowski, 2017). The ‘imported’ material in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (i.e., from the mid‐sixth to the second millennium BCE) did not include all the lithological varieties available in natural deposits outside the Lowlands but was limited to materials used for the production of a relatively narrow range of products, usually those forms that were culturally characteristic. Among those, products with blades are the most common (such as axes, adzes and shoe‐last tools). Even within this particular category of products—except the products of the early Neolithic stone industry and, to a lesser degree, middle Neolithic colonists of the Polish Lowland that represented cultures that spread from the Danubian region—the share (and contribution) of imported raw materials was only incidental. According to the findings of A. Prinke and J. Skoczylas, eratics raw materials were used for the production of almost 95% of all tools with a blade (Prinke & Skoczylas, 1980a, 1980c; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979). The dominance of eratics in the stone industry in the Polish Lowlands in prehistory would be even greater if we consider the raw materials used to make all types of tools, that is, querns and grinders, polishing plates, hammerstones, polishers and others (e.g., Chachlikowski, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2018; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001a, 2001c). The exogenous raw materials used by the local population comprised amphibolite rocks, slate of different varieties, serpentine, and basalt of Sudetic and Volynian provenance (Chachlikowski, 1996, 1997; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Fołtyn et al., 2000; Krystek et al., 2011; Majerowicz et al., 1981; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c, 1985, 1986; Skoczylas et al., 2000; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Szydłowski, 2017; Wojciechowski, 1988; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008).The problem of the usage of imported raw basaltic materials (also other rock materials of non‐lowlands provenance) by the societies of Neolithic and Early Bronze Age cultures in the Polish Lowlands and the provenance of these materials are among the most important research problems in the studies of stone resources management in this region (Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Fołtyn et al., 2000; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c, 1986; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Szydłowski, 2017; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). The identification of the non‐lowland origin of materials used by early agricultural communities and the determination of the provenance of the exogenous materials are of great importance for the documentation of multiple manifestations of the activity of Lowlands inhabitants. The studies on the phenomenon of adoption and usage of the exogenous raw materials by these populations, the periodic increase of the reception of the materials, and the chronology and direction of the inflow have significantly broadened knowledge about the economic and cultural aspects of their activity. These studies also provide knowledge about interregional contacts undertaken by this community or its participation in a long‐term exchange of material goods and even highlight issues related to cultural traditions and genetic connections of the early agricultural communities from north and south. A good example of similar petroarchaeological studies on the origin and use of imported raw materials in prehistory is the research on the sources of the acquisition and long‐distance distribution of jadeite in Europe in the Neolithic (Klassen, 2004; Pétrequin et al., 2012, 2017) or amphibolite rocks and slate of various varieties among early and middle Neolithic communities from the Danubian cultures in Central Europe (Chachlikowski, 1996; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Christensen et al., 2003, 2006; Christensen & Ramminger, 2004; Krystek et al., 2011; Majerowicz et al., 1981; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Přichystal, 2013; Schwarz‐Mackensen & Schneider, 1983, 1986, 1987; Szydłowski, 2017; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008) as well as obsidians in the Near East by late Pleistocene hunter–gatherers and early farmers (Cauvin et al., 1998; Renfrew et al., 1966, 1969).This article presents the results of petroarchaeological studies on the origin and usage of raw basaltic materials imported to the Kujawy region (Kuyavia) in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. Kujawy is a unique area on the archaeological map of the Polish Lowlands and its importance in prehistory is disproportionate to its small size. The specific features of the natural environment played an important role in the cultural development of the societies of Kujawy, specifically its unique hydrographic and soil conditions and mineral resources as compared with the rest of the Lowlands. This region is located at the confluence of two great rivers, the Oder and the Vistula, interconnected by a number of horizontal watercourses that enabled extensive external, often long‐distance contacts in several directions. The natural resources of the environment (mainly fertile black soils, salt and proximity to amber) also provided additional important advantage. These factors contributed to the concentration and stabilization of settlements and had an indirect impact on the emergence and development of the cultural and settlement centre of Kujawy. The increase of the importance of Kujawy became possible following the influx of agrarian and pastoral societies in the period just preceding the Neolithic (i.e., the mid‐sixth millennium BCE). Since then, the distinctiveness of the region had been emerging, underlying the specific cultural phenomenon of the Kujawy. This region intrinsically concentrates the most important phenomena of cultural development of the prehistoric societies of the Polish Lowlands, and in a broader context, that of the Intermarium (the land between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea). Nowadays, Kujawy is becoming an extremely important region for scientific research, not only with respect to the whole area of the Polish Lowlands or Central Europe but also of the borderland of the East and the West of Europe. This is determined by both the degree of archaeological recognition of this region and the explicative level of the cultural processes documented here in the past (e.g., Bednarczyk et al., 2008; Chachlikowski, 1997, 2013; Cofta‐Broniewska, 1989; Cofta‐Broniewska & Kośko, 1982, 2002; Czebreszuk, 1996; Czebreszuk et al., 2001; Czerniak, 1980, 1994; Domańska, 1995, 2013; Grygiel, 2004, 2008; Ignaczak et al., 2011; Kośko, 1979, 1981, 1996, 2000, 2009, 2014; Makarowicz, 1998, 2010; Przybył, 2009; Pyzel, 2010; Rybicka, 1995; Rzepecki, 2004; Szmyt, 1996, 2010; Szmyt et al., 2019).In this article, we study petrographic and geochemical features of Neolithic and Early Bronze Age basaltic artefacts from the Kujawy region in order to decipher the reception of the imported basaltic raw material in cultural–chronological and chorological aspects. The prehistorical material was compared with the raw material collected from natural basalt outcrops from possible source areas. The obtained results point to the Volynian origin of the used material. This research proves that the population of Kujawy in in the fourth to second millenniums BCE used, except common and locally available basalt rocks from the Fennoscandian erratics, basalts from distant deposits located in the Volyn region (western Ukraine). Therefore, the phenomenon of long‐distance translocations of exogenous rock raw materials to the Polish Lowlands, their acquisition and usage by early agrarian communities in the field of stone production has been documented.PREVIOUS STUDIES ON THE RECEPTION OF IMPORTED RAW BASALTIC MATERIAL IN THE POLISH LOWLANDS IN THE NEOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE AGEMid‐sixth to second millennium BCEThe first reports on the items produced of basalt of exogenous origin (i.e., not present among the lithological varieties of this rock in the local resources of the Fennoscandian erratics) used by the Neolithic inhabitants of the Polish Lowlands were published in the 1970s and 1980s (Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; cf. Fołtyn et al., 2000). Those studies also attempted to determine the source areas for the raw material. In the 1990s and at the beginning of the 21st century, studies on the identification of the ‘imported’ raw basaltic material as well as on establishing their provenance (or even certain deposits) were continued for items used by the local Neolithic and early Bronze Age populations from Kujawy (Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). It was shown that the Neolithic stone tools from Wielkopolska and Kujawy (Central Poland) were made of basaltic material from deposits in the western Sudetes (south‐west Poland) and the Horyń River basin in Volyn (western Ukraine). The basaltic material of probable Sudetic origin used for the production of the artefacts has the composition of olivine basalt, ankaratrite or basanitoid, while the material from the deposits occurring in Volyn has the composition of olivine‐free plagioclase basalt. The western Ukrainian origin of the raw material with the characteristics of metabasalt and plagioclase pyroxene basalt is not clear but may be evidenced by the presence of pseudomorphoses after olivine (Chachlikowski, 1996; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979). The above results were based only on microscopic observations of thin sections (in transmitted, polarized light). This method, though necessary, is not sufficient for any detailed characterization of rock samples required to link the raw material with specific areas of their natural deposits. Such a task is particularly difficult for extrusive igneous rocks because they are characterized by an aphanitic texture. To obtain reliable and unambiguous results on the origin of the basalt material, more detailed petrological studies, using several complementary research methods, are necessary.Geoarchaeological settingThe artefacts (Table 1) were collected in central Poland, about 200 km north‐west of Warsaw (Figure 1). This area is entirely covered by young Quaternary glacial deposits, underlain by relatively thick, Neogene sedimentary rocks (sand, silt, interbedded with lignite; Jeziorski, 1995; Kozydra & Brzeziński, 2013; Sydow et al., 2012, 2017). The Quaternary rocks have a total thickness from a few to about 100 m (in the vicinity of Dąbrowa Biskupia) (Figure 1). They are represented by moraine tills with numerous erratics, fluvial gravel and sand, glacial lacustrine clay and mud, as well as glacial gravels and boulders (op. cit.). The youngest sediments were deposited during the Weichselian Glaciation (Jeziorski, 1995; Kozydra & Brzeziński, 2013; Sydow et al., 2012, 2017). Among the indicator erratics present in Quaternary sediments in Poland, both crystalline and sedimentary rocks occur (Czubla et al., 2006). The crystalline rocks are dominated by varieties of the felsic igneous rocks (granitoids and ‘porphyry’), while mafic volcanic rocks (basaltoids) are less common or locally absent (Czubla et al., 2019; Sokołowski & Czubla, 2016; Woźniak & Czubla, 2015).1TABLEGeneral characteristics of the studied stone monuments from the Kujawy region (Polish Lowlands).Sample numberCity/village, community, archaeological site IDType of productCultural–chronological qualificationField research, literatureCommentsA7Dąbrowa Biskupia, community. Dabrowa BiskupiaAxeLate Neolithic (FBC?)Chachlikowski with the team; Chachlikowski (1996)Figure 2bA8Pruchnowo, community. Radziejów Kujawski, 25AxeLate Neolithic (FBC/GAC?)A. Kośko with the team; Chachlikowski (1996)Figure 2aA9Rybiny, community. Topólka, 17Destructive formEarly Bronze age (TC)Makarowicz (1998, 2000, 2010)A10Siniarzewo, community. Zakrzewo, 1Piece of an axeLate Neolithic (FBC?)Kośko (2000)A13Dąbrowa Biskupia, community. Dabrowa BiskupiaPiece of an axeLate Neolithic (FBC?)P. Chachlikowski with the team; Chachlikowski (1996)A14Goszczewo, community. Aleksandrów Kujawski, 14DebitageEarly Bronze age (TC)Chachlikowski (1996); Czebreszuk (1987, 1996); Makarowicz (1998)Abbreviations: FBC, Funnel Beaker Culture; GAC, Globular Amphora Culture; TC, Trzciniec Culture.1FIGURELocalization of artefacts (grey square and inset) and reference samples (white squares).2FIGUREPhotographs and scaled drawings of artefacts A8 (a) and A7 (b). Scale bar = 3 cm.The rare occurrence of basaltoids among erratics encourages us to look for alternative provenance of the raw material. Mafic volcanic rocks, generally considered as basalts, are known from numerous areas in Central Europe. They vary in age from Neoproterozoic, through Palaeozoic to Cenozoic. As the studied archaeological material is relatively fresh, below we list only those areas where unaltered mafic volcanic rocks were described. The most widespread suite of basaltic rocks extends from the French Massif Central, through the Rhenish Massif and Black Forest‐Vosges (Germany) to the Bohemian Massif (Czechia and Poland) and forms the Central European Volcanic Province (CEVP) (Wimmenauer, 1974). Volcanic activity in this area is related to late Mesozoic–Cenozoic large‐scale rifting of Variscan basement in the foreground of Alpine orogeny (Dèzes et al., 2004; Wilson & Downes, 2006). Rocks forming in the CEVP occur as volcanic plugs, flows and dikes. The easternmost part of the CEVP comprises south‐west Poland (mostly Lower Silesia) (Figure 1), where the volcanic activity took place in the Eocene–Oligocene (34.0–26.0 Ma), Miocene (22.0–18.0 Ma) and Pliocene–Pleistocene (5.5–1.0 Ma) (Pécskay & Birkenmajer, 2013). In this area, it was related to the northern part of Eger Rift (western Bohemian Massif) and a set of north‐west–south‐east trending fault systems.Other peaks of volcanism in Central and Northern Europe were related to the initiation of rifting of the Pangea paleocontinent in the Late Carboniferous and to later stages of this process in the Mesozoic (Obst et al., 2004; Tappe, 2004). Products of the older episode of this activity are known from the North Sea basin, Oslo Graben and North German Depression, but the largest outcrops occur in southern Sweden (Scania region). The Carboniferous (possibly 294 ± 4 Ma) rocks form the north‐east trending swarm of mostly doleritic dykes (Obst et al., 2004, passim). The younger Jurassic (191–178 Ma) and possibly also Jurassic–Cretaceous (145 Ma) and Late Cretaceous (110 Ma; Bergelin et al., 2011; Tappe et al., 2016, passim) episode of basaltic volcanism in Scania formed north‐west–south‐east trending dykes and scarce plugs and lava flows (Figure 1).The last vast concentration of basaltoids in Central Europe extends from eastern Poland to western Ukraine and Belorussia. Those rocks form the Neoproterozoic (Ediacarian, about 570 Ma) Volyn Large Igneous Province (LIP) related to the breakup of the Rodinia paleocontinent (Shumlyanskyy, 2016; Shumlyanskyy et al., 2016). As in other LIPs in the world (e.g., Siberian and Indian trapps), the Volyn basalts form a thick (maximum of 400–600 m) continuous complex extending over an area of 80,000 km2 (Shumlyanskyy, 2016, passim); however, outcrops of the basaltoids are limited to western Ukraine (Figure 1)—in the remaining areas the rocks are known from drillings.Specification of the stone materialThe present study includes two sets of rock material selected for petrographic research. The first group represents six stone artefacts, that is, prehistoric stone products made of basaltic material (Table 1). Carefully selected (based on macroscopic observations) basaltic products meeting the criteria for a hypothetical import were selected. With regard to Kujawy, the verification of the hypothetical ‘imported’ material (based on the results of various and multifaceted petrological tests in laboratory conditions) is justified primarily for products made of basalt, the selection of which is included in this publication (Table 1). The suggestion of the foreign origin of some basalt products in Kujawy is supported by prehistoric premises, such as migrations of a population from the Upland areas (situated to the south of the Lowlands) and the participation of local communities in interregional contacts and long‐distance exchange (e.g., Bednarczyk et al., 2008; Cofta‐Broniewska, 1989; Cofta‐Broniewska & Kośko, 1982, 2002; Czebreszuk et al., 2001; Czerniak, 1980, 1994; Domańska, 1995, 2013; Grygiel, 2004, 2008; Ignaczak et al., 2011; Kośko, 1979, 1981, 1996, 2009, 2014; Makarowicz, 1998, 2010; Przybył, 2009; Pyzel, 2010; Rzepecki, 2004; Szmyt, 1996, 2010; Szmyt et al., 2019). Moreover, basalt is characterized by high‐quality technical and functional properties that made it a highly attractive and desirable raw material for the production of stone products in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (cf., e.g., Chachlikowski, 1996, 1997, 2013, 2018; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c, 1985; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979). Furthermore, basalt raw material can be relatively confidently identified with the areas of its natural occurrence due to the specific petrological features characteristic for rocks from specific primary deposits (cf. earlier suggestions: Chachlikowski, 1996; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). Therefore, basaltic artefacts are an efficient tool with which to study the phenomenon of taking over and using rock ‘import’ in the Polish Lowlands in prehistory. Methodological assumptions for research on the identification of raw material ‘imports’ among the numerous and diverse products of prehistoric stonework in the Polish Lowlands. (Principles for the selection of rock samples of hypothetical non‐lowland provenance, that is, premises for indicating rocks of presumed exogenous provenance, are presented by Chachlikowski (1996, 1997) and Chachlikowski & Skoczylas (2001b); see also the information in the final section of this article.) The second group consists of samples of reference of basaltic materials from the possible source regions, that is, Sudetes (south‐west Poland), Scania (southern Sweden) and Wołyń (western Ukraine) (Table 2).2TABLESamples of reference basaltic materials.Localization (and nomenclature of the reference material)Source of samplePetrographyBulk rock compositionMineral chemical compositionX‐ray fluorescence (XRF)Yanova Dolyna Volyn, Ukraine (JD)Field works/literature dataPresent studyShumlyanskyy (2012); Kuzmenkova and Kolosov (2010); Shumlyanskyy (2008); Bakun‐Czubarow et al. (2002); Białowolska et al. (2002)Present studyShumlyanskyy and Derevska (2004)Present studyRafalivka, Volyn, Ukraine (R)Velykyi Mydsk, Volyn, Ukraine (MW)Berestovets, Volyn, Ukraine (B)Lower Silesia, PolandField works/literature dataPresent studyBirkenmajer and Pécskay (2002); Birkenmajer et al. (2004); Ladenberger (2006); Puziewicz et al. (2011); Wierzchołowski (1993)Matusiak‐Małek (2010)Present studyScania basaltoids, SwedenField works/literature dataPresent studyBergelin et al. (2011)Present studyPresent studyDolerites ScaniaLiterature dataObst et al. (2004)Obst et al. (2004)Obst et al. (2004)–Three of the basaltic artefacts (A9, A10, A14) were excavated at the archaeological sites in Goszczewo, Rybiny and Sinarzewo (Figure 1 and Table 1). The other three artefacts were surface findings collected from the ground. Artefact A8 was obtained during the archaeological survey of the surface of the site with a well‐known location in Pruchnowo, while artefacts A7 and A13 comprise the so‐called ‘loose’ findings discovered in the vicinity of the village of Dąbrowa Biskupia (Figure 1). The location of the last two artefacts was quite likely related to the dense concentration of late Neolithic culture communities, mainly the Funnel Beaker Culture (FBC) population, situated in the northern part of the village. Thus, the stone items selected for the study have a relatively well‐documented archaeological context of the discovery place, which was used for a precise definition of their chronological and cultural affiliation. Most of the analysed stone products (four artefacts) were related to the activity of stone workers of the late Neolithic communities from 4000–3000 years BCE (Table 1) and are probably related to the stonework of the FBC population or—in single cases—to the Globular Amphora Culture (GAC) population. Two other stone artefacts document the stone processing in the sediments of the Early Bronze Age in the population of the Trzciniec Culture (TC) from 2000 years BCE. Most of these artefacts are represented by stone axes, either complete or damaged. Only single finds were qualified as debitage or undefined destructive form (cf. Table 1); however, presumably also related to a product with a blade (axes or adzes).METHODSPolished petrographic thin section of artefacts, as well as of reference rocks, were prepared at the grinding‐shop (Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Wrocław) and studied under the polarizing optical microscope Zeiss Axiolab (POM) and a scanning electron microscope JEOL JSM IT100 equipped with an Oxford X‐Act energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM‐EDS), working at an accelerating voltage of 16 kV in the Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Wrocław. The nomenclature of pyroxenes is according to Morimoto et al. (1988). Powder X‐ray diffraction (XRD) was made in the University of Wrocław using a D5005 diffractometer, working under a voltage of 30 kV and current of 25 mA. Measurements were made using the Bragg–Brentano geometry, Co ka radiation, in the 2θ angle range 4–75°, with a measurement scan step time of 1 s and step‐size of 0.02°. Qualitative identification of the phase composition of the samples was made using Diffract‐EVA software. Geochemical bulk rock analyses were performed at the Bureau Veritas Mineral Laboratories (Vancouver, BC, Canada). The samples were pulverized and analysed by inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (procedure code LF202). Samples of Palaeozoic dolerites from Scania were unavailable; therefore, their descriptions are based on literature data (Obst et al., 2004).RESULTSPetrography and mineral chemical composition of the artefacts and the reference rocksArtefactsMacroscopically the material of artefacts is a dark grey to black, aphanitic to locally porphyritic basaltoid, with no visible pores (Figure 3a,b). Phenocrysts of plagioclase (± clinopyroxene) are rare. The major phases forming artefacts groundmass are plagioclase, clinopyroxene and opaque minerals. The presence of minor phases such as alkali feldspar, glass, quartz, apatite, titanite, calcite, sulphides and pseudomorphs after primary minerals (iddingsite, bowlingite, chlorite, biotite, kaolinite and sericite) is restricted only to specific artefacts.3FIGURERepresentative photomicrographs of thin sections of artefacts (a, b, in cross‐polarized light; and c–f, backscattered electron (BSE) images): (a) Rybiny, artefact A9; (b) Siniarzewo, artefact A10; (c) Dąbrowa Biskupia, artefact A7; (d) Pruchnowo, artefakt A8; (e) Siniarzewo, artefact A10; and (f) Goszczewo, artefact A14. Mineral abbreviations are after Whitney and Evans (2010): Pl, plagioclase; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Mag, magnetite; Qz, quartz; Chl, chlorite; Afs, alkali feldspar; Ap, apatite; Usp, ulvöspinel; Py, pyrite; Amp, amphibole; Cal, calcite; Zrn, zircon; Bt, biotite; and Ilm, imenite.Clinopyroxene forming fine‐grained matrix occurs as subhedral to anhedral crystals. Their size range from < 100 μm in artefacts A8, A9 and A14 (Figure 3a) to a maximum 300 μm in artefact A10 (Figure 3b). Single clinopyroxene phenocrysts (about 500 μm in size) occur in artefact A9 (Figure 3a). Plagioclase forms elongated, mostly subhedral crystals. Their size is between < 100 μm in artefacts A8, A9 and A14 and 600 μm (rarely maximum 1 mm) in artefact A10. In artefact A7 most of the plagioclase crystals are altered and replaced by sheet silicates (probably kaolinite and sericite). Phenocrysts of plagioclase (artefacts A8 and A9) occur as laths with a maximum length of 1 mm. Opaque minerals form anhedral (rarely sub‐ or euhedral) crystals of various shapes with maximum size of about 200 μm. Alkali feldspar is rare, occurs as concentrations or overgrowths on the rims of plagioclase. Glass (palagonite?) occurs as irregular concentrations up to 200 μm long/in diameter, locally enclosing fine‐crystalline chlorite. Sulphides form small (few, tens μm) sub‐ or anhedral crystals. Apatite in artefact A7 occurs as an eu‐ to subhedral prismatic crystals < 100 μm long. Silica (quartz?) is probably a secondary, postmagmatic phase and occurs in interstices between main minerals (artefacts A8–A10 and A14). It forms anhedral crystals with a maximum size of about 200 μm, occasionally occurring as a monomineral concentrations whose maximum size is about 500 μm. Titanite in artefact A13 forms columnar, euhedral crystals < 100 μm long. Calcite in artefact A7 occurs as an anhedral crystals with a usual size from 300 to 400 μm. Bowlingite forms irregular, anhedral assemblies with a usual size of < 200 μm. Aggregates of microcrystals of chlorite and biotite occur occasionally within bowliningite. Chlorite also occurs as plates with a size up to 100 μm or forms radial, oval concentrations with a size < 1 mm of euhedral plates.Our study investigates the chemical composition of major minerals (clinopyroxene, feldspar and opaque minerals) to compare chemical composition of minerals forming artefacts with their equivalents in reference rocks. Clinopyroxene is (±Al‐) augite/pigeonite (Figure 4a) with Mg# (Mg/[Mg + Fe]*100) between 0.27 and 0.75. The Al content varies from below the detection limit to 0.43 a pfu (atoms per formula unit). The plagioclase forming matrix has a composition of An2–61Or0–11, while that forming phenocrysts is An57—58Or0–2 (Figure 4b). Composition of oxides ranges from magnetite to ulvöspinel (0.00–0.79 a pfu of Ti) (Figure 4c). Ilmenite contains 0.83–0.94 a pfu of Ti. Sulphides occur mostly as Fe‐rich varieties (43.4–59.8 wt% of Fe, 40.7–56.6 wt% of S) or Cu‐Fe varieties (9.1–33.6 wt% of Cu, 29.5–50.3 wt% of Fe, 36.6–40.6 wt% of S). The Fe‐Pb (36.8 wt% of Fe, 15.9 wt% of Pb, 47.3 wt% of S) and Pb sulphides (86.4 wt% of Pb, 1.6 wt% of Fe, 12.0 wt% of S) are very rare (two grains).4FIGURECompositions of (a) pyroxene, (b) feldspar and (c) spinel from the artefacts and the reference rocks. Data for dolerites from Scania are after Obst et al. (2004).Reference rocksLower SilesiaThe Lower Silesian volcanic rocks have porphyritic texture with olivine, clinopyroxene and/or plagioclase phenocrysts (Figure 5a). The groundmass is formed of plagioclase, clinopyroxene, olivine, opaque minerals, nepheline, alkali feldspar and scarce apatite. Glass, rhönite, analcime, haüyn and phlogopite occur as minor phases in the matrix and are restricted to individual outcrops (Ladenberger, 2006; and author’s unpublished data).5FIGURERepresentative photomicrographs of thin sections of artefacts (a–d in cross‐polarized light; and e–h backscattered electron (BSE) images): (a, e) Lower Silesia; (b, f) Scania; (c, g) Volyn—JD; and (d, h) Volyn—R. Mineral abbreviations are after Whitney and Evans (2010): Pl, plagioclase; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Mag, magnetite; Usp, ulvöspinel; Ilm, imenite; Ol, olivine; Afs, alkali feldspar; Ap, apatite; and Qz, quartz.The olivine phenocrysts are subhedral to anhedral and vary in length from 200 μm to over 800 μm, only scarcely do they exceed 4 mm. Olivine occurring in the groundmass forms sub‐ to anhedral crystals < 60 μm long, individual grains reach up to 200 μm. Phenocrysts of clinopyroxene exhibit a few types of textures: massive, spongy, patchy, zoned; clinopyroxene glomerocrysts occur locally. Phenocrysts with spongy cores surrounded by clear rim are usually subhedral and 300–500 μm long. Glomerocrysts are usually elongated (500–1200 μm) and may be formed either of a few crystals with spongy cores or of a significant amount of small (15–50 μm) subhedral crystals. Clinopyroxene in groundmass usually forms sub‐ to anhedral grains < 80 μm long. Plagioclase phenocrysts occur as about 300 μm long subhedral laths with polysynthetic twinnings. Plagioclase forming groundmass occurs as subhedral laths < 200 μm long. Alkali feldspar forms anhedral crystals up to 20 μm or subhedral laths up to 50 μm long. Opaque minerals form sub‐ to anhedral crystals (‘openwork’ or massive) varying in size from 10 to 80 μm. Nepheline crystals of size 10–100 μm are anhedral, scarcely subhedral. Some of them enclose poikilitically smaller grains of clinopyroxene and Ti‐magnetite. Apatite forms acicular crystals up to a few μm long; however, scarce grains reach the length up to 50 μm. Glass occurs in patches between rock‐forming minerals.Most of the olivine phenocrysts are chemically zoned, the Fo (Mg/[Mg + Fe]*100) content varies from 71.7% to 86.0%, and NiO content ranges from 0.08wt% to 0.37 wt%. The Fo content in groundmass olivine is 74.9–82.7, the content of NiO varies from 0.09 wt% to 0.18 wt%. Clinopyroxene phenocrysts are Al‐(±Ti, ±Cr) diopsides (Figure 4a) with Mg# from 0.65 to 0.86, Al content ranges from 0.15 to 0.57 a pfu. Clinopyroxene forming groundmass is Al‐(±Ti, ±Cr) diopside (Figure 4a) with Mg# = 0.68–0.84 and Al content from 0.17 to 0.49 a pfu. The composition of plagioclase forming groundmass is constant: An48—68Or1–5 (Figure 4b), while alkali feldspar has a composition of An3–18Or12–65. Opaque minerals are either magnetites (0.04 a pfu of Ti; Figure 4c), Ti‐magnetites (0.37–0.57 a pfu of Ti) or ulvöspinels (0.55–0.70 a pfu of Ti).Scania alkaline mafic rocksAlkaline mafic rocks from Scania (Figure 5b) are characterized by porphyritic texture and consist of porphyrocrysts of olivine, clinopyroxene and scarcely alkali feldspar embedded in fine‐grained groundmass formed of olivine, clinopyroxene, plagioclase, alkali feldspar and opaque minerals. Linear textures were not observed and not reported in the literature (Tappe, 2004).Subhedral to anhedral olivine phenocrysts typically range from 250 to 1000 μm in size. They are characterized by corrosive, altered by iddingsitization edges. In single grains of olivine phenocrysts opaques inclusions occur. Olivine forming groundmass is anhedral and < 20 μm long. Phenocrysts of clinopyroxene are usually sub‐ or euhedral and vary in size from 250 to 1000 μm. Some of the grains contain olivine inclusions, while others are spongy or zoned. Groundmass clinopyroxene grains are sub‐ or euhedral, rarely zonal, up to 30 μm in size. Scarce alkali feldspar phenocrysts are elongated, about 5 mm long with unsharp, spongy rims. Alkali feldspar occurring in groundmass forms subhedral, lathy grains about 20 μm long; crystals of plagioclase are larger (< 40 μm long, scarcely > 100 μm). Grains of opaque minerals are isometric with a common size of about 5 μm, rarely reaching 30 μm.The chemical composition of olivine phenocrysts is variable, the Fo is from 68.9% to 88.8%, the NiO content varies from 0.06 wt% to 0.29 wt%. Olivine forming groundmass mimics the chemical composition of phenocrysts (Fo70.5–71.3). Phenocrysts of clinopyroxene are Al‐diopside/augite (Figure 4a) with Mg# between 0.70 and 0.91; the Al content varies from 0.07 to 0.72 a pfu. Groundmass clinopyroxene is (±Ti‐) Al‐diopside with Mg# from 0.73 to 0.81 and an Al content from 0.32 to 0.53 a pfu. Phenocrysts of alkali feldspar have the composition of anorthoclase (Tappe, 2004). Groundmass plagioclase has the composition of An0–99Or1–2 (Figure 4b). Alkali feldspar occurring in groundmass has the composition of An0–11Or26–83, while composition of opaque minerals the composition ranges from Ti‐magnetite to ulvöspinel (0.38–0.73 a pfu of Ti; Figure 4c). Ilmenite contains 0.93–0.94 a pfu of Ti.Scania doleritesA petrographic description of rocks forming doleritic dykes was given by Obst et al. (2004). Based on their description, the dolerites are usually massive, amygdaloidal types are subordinate. The texture of dolerites varies from fine to coarse grained and is ophitic/subophitic to intergranular. The rocks are formed mostly of plagioclase (often sericitized) and clinopyroxene (often chloritized), while opaques minerals, amphibole and biotite occur as minor phases. Interstitial quartz forms intergrowths with alkali feldspar or occurs intergranular, pseudomorphoses (with rarely preserved fresh cores) after olivine are scarce. Locally the dolerites suffered from intensive hydrothermal alteration resulting in their reddish‐brown colour.VolynStudied samples of mafic rocks from Volyn have aphanitic, locally porphyritic texture and massive structure without any linear alignments (Figure 5c,d). Groundmass consists of clinopyroxene, plagioclase, opaque minerals; silica, glass and pseudomorphoses (inddingsite, bowlingite) after primary minerals are subordinate. Phenocrysts are usually altered to pseudomorphoses formed of chlorite/bowlingite, fresh clinopyroxene and plagioclase are extremely rare.Most of the phenocrysts are altered and occur as < 1200 μm long pseudomorphoses formed of platy or fibrous crystals of probably bowlingite and/or chlorite. Single, fresh phenocrysts of clinopyroxene and plagioclase occur occasionally. Clinopyroxene in groundmass occurs as sub‐ and anhedral crystals with usual size from tens up to 300 μm. Some of the clinopyroxene crystals show zonation. Plagioclase forming groundmass is subhedral and < 600 μm long (rarely up to 1000 μm), euhedral laths (up to 500 μm in length) of plagioclase occur sparsely. Alkali feldspar is very rare, occurs as rims on plagioclase. Crystals of opaque minerals are anhedral, rarely eu‐ or subhedral of variable sizes, but not exceeding a length of 200 μm. Glass (also devitrified glass or palagonite) concentrates in up to 200 μm in diameter interstices between rock‐forming minerals. Iddingsite and bowlingite occur in groundmass as irregular, anhedral assemblies with a usual size up to 400 μm (maximum size of iddingsite assembly in single sample exceed 3 cm). Silica (quartz?) is a postmagmatic phase (Kuzmenkova & Kolosov, 2010), forms anhedral, amoeboid‐shape crystals up to 50 μm in size which occurs in interstices mostly between feldspars.Clinopyroxene has a composition of (±Al‐) augite/pigeonite (Figure 4a) with Mg# between 0.21 and 0.75 and Al content from 0.03 to 0.35 a pfu. Plagioclase contains 19–67 of An and 0–11 of Or (Figure 4b). The composition of alkali feldspar is An7—17Or13–54. Crystals of plagioclase and feldspar are characterized by elevated FeO content, from 0.40 wt% to 2.6 wt%. Opaque minerals have the composition of magnetite—Ti‐magnetite—ulvöspinel (0.03–0.88 a pfu of Ti; Figure 4c) and ilmenite (0.72–1.13 a pfu of Ti). Some Ti‐magnetite‐magnetite crystals contain a significant amount of Cu (0.05–0.14 a pfu of Cu). Composition of minerals forming the studied samples fit well that presented by Shumlyanskyy and Derevska (2004), who, however, point wider ranges of An (i.e., up to 87 mol%) content in plagioclase phenocrysts.Bulk rock chemical composition of the artefacts and the reference materialsChemical composition of rocks from which the studied artefacts were made plots on the total alkali‐silica (TAS) diagram (Le Maitre et al., 1989) in the field of either basalt or basaltic andesite (Figure 6). Their Mg# (Mg/Mg + Fetot) varies from 0.51 to 0.61 and the TiO2 content is from 1.50 wt% to 2.00 wt% (Table 3). Despite generally similar composition, two of the samples (A7 and A13) are characterized by a higher content of alkali metals (Na and K) pointing to their alkaline nature, while the majority of samples are subalkaline (tholeiitic). All the rocks used to produce artefacts are enriched in light rare elements (LREE) and have significant negative anomalies in contents of Nb (5.40–12.00 ppm) and Ta (0.40–0.70 ppm). The basaltoids forming artefacts are variably enriched in Th and U (Figure 7).6FIGUREGeochemical classification of artefacts and reference sample on the total alkali‐silica (TAS) diagram (after Le Maitre et al., 1989). Data for dolerites from Scania are after Obst et al. (2004).3TABLEMajor and trace element composition of the archaeological material.No.123456Sample no.A7A8A9A10A13A14SiO247.6152.8554.8349.4649.7855.09Al2O315.6213.8013.8714.5314.2613.11Fe2O3a13.8513.1812.1915.1214.3312.99MgO5.545.133.775.504.503.46CaO8.107.256.858.296.355.19Na2O3.302.502.502.484.083.30K2O1.321.542.320.570.891.93TiO22.001.501.651.931.821.68P2O50.340.260.470.360.330.38MnO0.180.210.180.200.180.18Cr2O30.010.010.000.010.010.00LOI1.801.501.101.303.102.40Sum99.7599.7899.7999.7799.7699.80Mg#0.610.610.550.590.550.51Ba588.0644.0812.0432.0931.01212.0Sc23.032.024.031.036.029.0Be3.04.04.0< 13.0< 1Co41.036.234.146.739.332.6Cs1.5< 0.10.40.9< 0.10.3Ga20.818.317.318.320.016.6Hf4.13.26.04.24.64.4Nb12.05.49.75.96.86.3Rb45.020.240.211.614.036.7Sn1.0< 12.0< 11.02.0Sr417.1273.6220.9280.0302.7256.4Ta0.60.40.70.40.40.4Th1.42.15.62.13.93.7U0.30.62.00.61.01.3V246.0246.0192.0221.0296.0252.0W0.50.80.70.5< 0.50.6Zr145.2126.7225.8156.6171.9162.0Y23.724.639.730.336.130.9La27.319.738.919.426.125.4Ce58.740.278.342.054.153.7Pr7.75.29.95.56.76.7Nd33.020.939.924.627.626.7Sm6.54.88.05.56.25.6Eu1.91.52.01.81.81.7Gd6.25.18.06.27.06.0Tb0.90.81.21.01.11.0Dy4.95.07.56.06.65.7Ho0.91.01.61.31.41.2Er2.73.04.73.54.13.2Tm0.40.40.70.50.60.5Yb2.22.94.33.13.63.2Lu0.30.40.70.50.50.5Mo1.40.52.01.00.91.0Cu31.255.638.749.250.940.9Pb11.45.15.04.97.46.5Zn117.077.0113.093.0135.0103.0Ni39.216.036.042.218.613.2Major elements are in wt%; trace elements are in ppm.aTotal Fe is as Fe2O3.Abbreviation: LOI, lost on ignition.7FIGUREPrimitive mantle‐normalized incompatible element patterns of the investigated samples compared with distributions of reference samples. Sources: see Table 2.Mafic volcanic rocks from Lower Silesia (Poland) and Scania (Sweden) have typically composition of alkali basanites, alkali basalts and other types are subordinate (Figure 6). The Mg# and TiO2 content in alkaline rocks from Poland are 0.78–0.80 and 2.44–2.88 wt%, respectively (Table 3) (Ladenberger, 2006; Puziewicz et al., 2011). The Mg# in alkaline rocks from Sweden is from 0.65 to 0.72 and the TiO2 is from 2.00 wt% to 2.70 wt% (Table 3) (Tappe, 2004). Rocks from both areas are strongly enriched in LREE, Th, U, Nb (about 70–130 ppm) and Ta (3.00–12.00 ppm) (Figure 7). Dolerites from Scania have a composition of tholeiitic basalt and basaltic andesite (Figure 6) and have Mg# from 0.49 to 0.67 (Obst et al., 2004); the content of TiO2 varies from 2.00 wt% to 4.00 wt% (Obst et al., 2004). Those rocks are enriched in LREE, Th and U, and show slight negative Nb and Ta anomalies (10.90–31.40 and 0.95–2.24 ppm, respectively) (Figure 7).The volcanic structure formed by the middle to late Vendian (Shumlyanskyy et al., 2016) Volyn flood basalts covers a vast area (80,000 km2), but outcrops are known only from its eastern part (Ukraine and Belarus), while other areas were sampled by drilling. A multistage evolution of the mafic melts resulted in a huge chemical variability of the rocks belonging to the Volyn trapps (Ti‐poor and Ti‐rich basalts, picrites, dolerites, even felsic rocks; Nosova et al., 2008; Shumlyanskyy, 2008, 2012). The majority of the basaltoids have a composition of tholeiitic basalts and basaltic andesites, but the composition of some of the low‐Ti basalts (1.10–2.00 wt%) from western Ukraine grade towards alkaline nature (Figure 6) (Bakun‐Czubarow et al., 2002; Nosova et al., 2008). The Mg# of the Volynian picrites varies from 69 to 73 and decreases to 35–60 in the intrusive dolerites. All the mafic rocks are enriched in LREE and Ba, while the Sr, Nb and Ta contents have negative anomalies. Contents of Rb, Th, U and K are variable due to abundant hydrothermal alterations (Figure 7).X‐ray diffractionIn all the XRD patterns, taken from archaeological material, Ca‐Na feldspars (plagioclase group) and clinopyroxene are the major components (Figure 8). Their relatively intense peaks were found for d = 3.19, 3.18, 3.21, 3.78 Å (plagioclase) and 2.99, 2.52, 2.56, 3.32 Å (clinopyroxene). The peak at 3.26 Å of weak intensity and overlapping with the olivine peak is assigned to alkali‐feldspar. The aforementioned phases are accompanied by olivine (Figure 8). Since it occurs in smaller quantities, typical olivine peaks for d = 2,46, 2,51 2,77 Å are overlapped by much stronger peaks previously attributed to plagioclase and/or clinopyroxene. However, peaks for d = 1.78 or 1.52 Å certainly belongs to olivine. Peaks at 3.34, 4.26 Å document the presence of quartz (Figure 8). The remaining peaks, of relatively low intensity, are assigned to accessory minerals such as amphibole, muscovite (or structurally similar illite) and smectite (or chlorite). Amphibole (Ca amphibole), calcite and muscovite are recognized by peaks at 8.49, 3.03 and 10.0 Å, respectively, and occur only in sample A7 (Figure 8). Smectite (or chlorite) is a bit more common and occurs in samples A7, A13 and A14 (Figure 8), and was recognized by low‐angle 2θ peaks (about 14 Å).8FIGUREX‐ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of artefacts. Qz, quartz; Pl, plagioclase; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Ol, olivine; Afs, alkali, feldspar; Amp, amphibole; Ms/Ilt, muscovite/illite; and Sme/Chl, smectite/chlorite.In all the available reference rocks the most intense peaks are assigned to clinopyroxene and plagioclase (Figure 9). The peak 3.26 Å is weak and observable for sample B (Volyn) only; its presence suggests the occurrence of alkali‐feldspar. Olivine is also present but the low intensity of peaks suggests its small quantities (Figure 9). In contrast to the dominant crystalline phases, some accessory minerals are present in a few samples. The first accessory phase is nepheline (Figure 9), which is typical for samples from Scania and Lower Silesia and recognized on the basis of the peaks for d = 3.03 (the most intense peak overlaps with clinopyroxene peak), 3.87, 3.29 and 4.21 Å. Another accessory mineral is a zeolite (analcime), also found for samples from Scania and Lower Silesia only (Figure 9). The most intense zeolitic peak (d = 3.43 Å) is overlapped with a stronger peak of the rock‐forming mineral, another peak for 5.61 Å documents the presence of zeolite. Few peaks of low intensity documents presence of smectite (nontronite?, d = 15.0 Å) and/or chlorite (d = 14.4 Å) in rocks from Scania and Volyn (Figure 9).9FIGUREX‐ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of the reference samples. Ol, olivine; Pl, plagioclase; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Afs, alkali, feldspar; ne, nepheline; Zeo, zeolites; and Sme/Chl, smectite/chlorite.DISCUSSIONPetrographic relationships between the artefacts and reference materialsThe presented result and the literature data point that the basaltic material used for artefact production is characterized by aphiritic, very fine‐grained to aphanitic texture and scarce porphyrocrysts of Ca‐Na feldspar. Such characteristic resembles that of the reference basaltic from Volyn and dolerites from Scania (Kuzmenkova et al., 2011; Obst et al., 2004; Shumlyanskyy et al., 2007) and differs from that of the typical basaltoids from Scania (Tappe, 2004) and Lower Silesia (Goleń et al., 2015) (Figure 5e,f) where olivine and clinopyroxene porphyrocrysts are abundant and the rock has porphyritic texture. It should be pointed that olivine is occasionally present in rocks from Volyn, but it is usually altered to bowlinigitic and iddinsitic pheudomorphoses, scarcely with remnants of olivine preserved in cores. It is worth emphasizing that although olivine occurs in some Volyn basalts, this variety of rock does not crop out on the surface. Another feature characteristic only for the studied artefacts and the reference basaltoids Volyn and dolerites from Scania is the presence of postmagmatic quartz and alkali feldspar (Figures 3d–f and 5g,h). Moreover, crystals of Ca‐rich plagioclase from basaltoids of the artefacts and from Volyn are enveloped by postmagmatic albititic rims (Emetz et al., 2006; Kuzmenkova & Kolosov, 2010) which was not observed in rocks from other reference materials.Variable mineral compositions of the artefact and reference materials are reflected also in their chemical composition: the studied artefacts, as well as reference rocks from Volyn and dolerites from Scania, have the composition of mostly tholeiitic basalts and basaltic andesites, while volcanic rocks from Scania and Lower Silesia are typically basanites or other alkali‐rich, mostly mafic rocks (Figure 6). Moreover, the rocks of artefacts and basaltoids from Volyn are characterized by strong negative Nb anomaly, whereas other reference materials are either slightly (dolerites) or significantly (mafic rocks from Scania and Lower Silesia) Nb enriched.Clinopyroxene forming basaltic artefacts have the composition of augite (with variable Ca content) to pigeonite and Mg# varying from 0.27 to 0.75 (Figure 4a). Clinopyroxene of similar composition is present only in basaltoids from Volyn, like rocks from Lower Silesia and Scania (including dolerites; Obst et al., 2004) are characterized by higher Ca contents (diopsides and augites) and Mg# values from 0.61 to 0.91. Plagioclase from the artefacts have a variable composition (from albite to labradorite), but the content of anorthite (An) never exceeds 0.61 (Figure 4b). Those values resemble that in plagioclase from Volyn tholeiitic basalts (oligoclase, andesine and labradorite of An19–67) and in dolerites (andesine to labradorite with An39–69), while in alkaline volcanic rocks plagioclase is either labradorite (Lower Silesia, An48–68) (Figure 4b) or labradorite to bytownite (Scania, An51–80). Opaque minerals in the artefacts have a composition of magnetite, Ti‐magnetite, ülvospinel, ilmenite and Fe‐Cu sulphides (Figure 4c), also resembling the minerals association in basalts from Volyn. The opaque minerals in alkaline volcanic rocks (Lower Silesia and Scania) have a composition of Ti‐magnetite, ülvospinel, and ilmenite, but do not contain magnetite and the Fe‐Cu sulphides.The petrographic studies clearly show that the alkaline volcanic rocks from Scania, which are present in the Kujawy area as erratic, were not used as raw material for the analysed artefacts production. Characteristics of the material from the artefacts also do not fit that of the Lower Silesian volcanic rocks, which have their outcrops in relatively close proximity. The geochemical characteristics of the artefacts suggest that it could have been produced of the Scania dolerites or Volynian basaltoids, but the presence of quartz and copper (as inclusions of copper sulphides in the rock‐forming minerals) clearly pointed to the Ukrainian provenance of the raw material (Białowolska et al., 2002; Małkowski, 1929). The rarely occurring copper minerals and common native copper were introduced to the Volynian basalts in two stages: (1) late magmatic and (2) postmagmamatic (hydrothermal; Kuzmenkova & Kolosov, 2010). The aforementioned stages heterogeneously triggered also albitization of plagioclase, formation of silica phases (chalcedony and quartz), crystallization of analcime and zeolite as well as olivine alterations to iddinsite and bowlingite. Therefore, both unaltered and strongly altered rocks can be observed within Volynian basalts. Despite the heterogeneous character of alterations, effects of those processes are clearly visible in the petrology and the results of instrumental analyses (XRD, SEM‐EDS) of the Volynian and artefact materials only (Figure 3c–f versus Figure 5g,h; Figure 8 versus Figure 9).Volynian basaltoids as indicators of interregional contacts of the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age communities from the Polish LowlandsPrevious studies on the stone materials used by the inhabitants of the Polish Lowlands in the Neolithic (FBC and GAC populations) and the early Bronze Age (TC population) indicate that in some of the stone products (namely culturally and/or typologically characteristic forms) evidence the phenomenon of adaptation and usage of an exogenous (non‐lowland provenance) raw materials (Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Fołtyn et al., 2000; Majerowicz et al., 1981; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1978, 1980b, 1980c, 1986; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Szydłowski, 2017; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). The previous statements on the presence and usage of imported raw materials by these communities were based on the microscopic observations of thin sections of rocks, which do not provide clear evidence for the foreign origin of the material and do not allow correlation of the material with natural deposits. The results presented in this publication confirmed this phenomenon by mineralogical and geochemical studies on selected basaltic artefacts, which were initially identified (at the stage of macroscopic observations) as a raw material of non‐lowland provenance. Based on these results, we suggest that the raw basaltic material used in the Polish Lowlands for the production of the analysed tools (axes) came from the deposits located in the Horynia and Styr interbasins in Volyn (western Ukraine), around 700 km from the localities where basaltic artefacts are found (Figure 1). These observations lead to a conclusion that at Neolithic and early Bronze ages, either long‐distance translocations of the basaltic raw material or other, unknown forms of interregional objects exchange, took place.The presented problem of the prehistorical reception of the exogenous raw materials in the Polish Lowlands i.e., the long‐distance translocations of raw basaltic material and interregional exchange of items in the early agrarian stage of local communities may be explained by two concepts. The ‘natural and economic’ concept explains the phenomenon of ‘import’ of raw materials to the Polish Lowlands as a response to the necessity of compensation of the shortage or lack of certain high‐quality rocks (especially basalt) in the local inventory of Fennoscandian erratics (e.g., Prinke, 1983; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1980b, 1985; Skoczylas, 1990). This hypothesis leads to a controversial conclusion that the only reason for adaptation and usage of the imported raw materials in the Polish Lowlands was the need of the local population to own a highly attractive (in terms of technical and operational parameters) stone material, which was not available from the local resources. Moreover, according to the ‘natural and economic’ hypothesis, it may be assumed that the prehistoric stone workers of the Lowlands did not have sufficiently abundant and diversified rock materials, and the shortages had to be supplemented with imports (for more on that, see Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013, 2018). This hypothesis is on a contrary with the wide and diversified spectrum of erratic lithologies easily available in this area (Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2022; Szydłowski, 2017) which effectively eliminated the necessity of import of raw materials (for more on that, see Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1994b, 2013, 2017, 2018, 2022; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c). Moreover, the ‘natural and economic’ concept does not explain the differences in the intensity of use of the imported raw materials by the communities of specific early agrarian cultures of Lowlands (or even groups representing different stages of development of one culture). What is more, the discussed concept does not justify the uneven intensity (in terms of time) of the ‘import’ to the Polish Lowlands in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, as periods of the increased and decreased reception of exogenous raw materials in the local populations were reported. From the point of the ‘natural and economic’ concept, a convincing explanation for the differences in the provenance and assortment of the imported raw materials used by distinct (also in terms of time) cultures cannot be given. The interpretation of ‘import’ only as a practice aimed at supplementing the deficiencies of certain rock varieties in the local stock does not explain the fact of using material imported from different regions by individual Central European cultures. For example, communities from the Danubian cultures in the Early and Middle Neolithic ages used raw materials sourced from the circum Sudetic deposits (south‐west Poland, Bohemian Massif; mostly shales and amphibolites, rarely basalts), while in the late Neolithic (more precisely: FBC from the phases IIIB–IIIC/IVB and GAC from phases IIb–IIIa) and Early Bronze Age (TC), in communities inhabiting the Polish Lowlands the interest in Sudetic raw materials was low. The Sudetic basalt was instead replaced by, previously scarcely used, material from Volyn (western Ukraine). Moreover, the reasons why the prehistoric inhabitants of Polish Lowlands used basalt from the Volynian deposits, located at a distance of almost 700 km, are incomprehensible, as deposits of Sudetic basalt (used already in early Neolith) are only about 270 km away. In addition, basaltic material commonly used by the inhabitants of the Polish Lowlands in prehistoric stone production was available from the Fennoscandian erratics (Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2022; Szydłowski, 2017). In summary, the explanation and the interpretation of the ‘import’ only as practices aimed at compensating the alleged lack or low frequency of certain rock types in the Polish Lowlands erratics (in this case: basalt) do not sufficiently explain the causes for the phenomenon of the ‘import’ of rock material to the Polish Lowlands in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (for details, see Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013, 2018; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b).An alternative explanation of the ‘import’ of rock material phenomenon in the Polish Lowlands is given by the ‘cultural and processual’ concept (details in Chachlikowski, 1994a, 1996, 1997, 2013) based on the prehistorical studies on import of raw stone material. These studies took into account a particular aspect of the cultural–social development of the communities of the Polish Lowlands that used exogenous raw materials in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. The search for cultural and social justifications provides important indications for the understanding of the ‘imports’ of that time. Important factors causing long‐distance translocations of rock raw materials to the Polish Lowlands may include (1) migrations of a population(s) from the Upland regions and (2) manifestations of relatively permanent participation of the local population in interregional contacts and long‐term exchange. Excellent examples of reception of imported material are given by artefacts of communities of cultures from the Danube region, among which products made of imported materials and constituting equipment of migrants (colonizers of the northern regions of the Lowlands) were reported. Those colonizers were later interested, most likely due to the need to continue the tradition, in the use of rocks from the areas of their origin (Chachlikowski, 1996, 1997, 2013; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Krystek et al., 2011; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Prinke & Skoczylas, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c, 1986; Skoczylas & Prinke, 1979; Szydłowski, 2017; Wójcik & Sadowski, 2008). The above‐mentioned phenomena are also documented by the examples of the reception of foreign patterns of pottery (of southern and south‐eastern provenance) or the use of flint and copper imports by the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age communities in the Kujawy.The assessment of the resources of erratic stone material in lowlands environments (Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2022; Szydłowski, 2017) provides serious arguments for the discussion around the phenomenon of interregional circulation of rock raw material in the past, or more precisely on the practices of acquisition and usage of imported stone in the Polish Lowlands in prehistory (in particular in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age). The abundance and diversity of glacially deposited raw material in the Lowlands had effectively eliminated the necessity to import rock raw materials from areas of their natural deposits. The Fennoscandian erratics deposited in Lowland fully satisfied the demand of the inhabitants of this area, and in this way limited the need of imported rock raw material to the minimum (Chachlikowski, 1994b, 1997, 2013, 2017, 2018, 2022; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001a, 2001b, 2001c). This ‘import’ did not stem from the necessity to compensate for shortages (the lack of, or low presence) of certain raw materials in glacial repositories of erratic stones. This inclines us to reject the traditional explanation of most examples of long‐distance circulation of exogenous raw materials in the Polish Lowlands as purely economic acts of supplementing alleged shortages of raw materials in local erratic resources. In line with the ‘cultural‐processual’ concept presented here, the recognized manifestations of the practices of acquisition and use of Volhynian basalt (similarly to other exogenous rocks in this region) by the Kuyavian people in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age are a manifestation of the activities of this population dominated by a cultural and social factor. The adaptation of ‘imports’ and their usage in the early agricultural communities of this area, apart from its pragmatic function, also had a cultural and social aspect in a double sense—symbolic and ceremonial (for further explanations, see Appadurai, 1986; Hardig, 2013; Healey, 1990; Renfrew, 1984; see also Cauvin et al., 1998; Chachlikowski, 1996; Chachlikowski & Skoczylas, 2001b; Christensen et al., 2003, 2006; Christensen & Ramminger, 2004; Fołtyn et al., 2000; Gunia, 2000; Klassen, 2004; Krystek et al., 2011; Majerowicz et al., 1981; Majerowicz, Prinke, & Skoczylas, 1987; Majerowicz, Skoczylas, & Wiślański, 1987; Pétrequin et al., 2012, 2017; Přichystal, 2013; Renfrew et al., 1966, 1969; Schwarz‐Mackensen & Schneider, 1983, 1986, 1987; Skoczylas et al., 2000; Wojciechowski, 1988). The reception of exogenous raw materials may have played an important role in the inter‐environmental communication (the flows of information and ideas, technology, and innovation); it was also an expression of prestige and a symbolic identification of common cultural affiliation of members of a community that used certain lithological varieties of rocks. The suggested proposal for the understanding of ‘imports’ explains well numerous differences observed in the assortment, intensity, chronology and directions of the influx of raw materials imported from the regions of their natural deposits to the Polish Lowlands in prehistory.CONCLUSIONSIn this study numerous petrographic and instrumental methods were used to identify the source region of the raw material adopted by early agrarian communities of the Polish Lowlands (in the Kujawy region). Two groups of reference materials were compared: alkali basalts (Sudetes, Scania) and tholeiitic basalts (Volyn and dolerites from Scania). Differences between those two groups of mafic rocks are marked mostly by chemical composition (contents of alkali metals) (Figure 6) and their distinction based only on microscopic observations, if possible, require great experience. Therefore, an unambiguous definition of the provenance of basaltic rocks always requires the usage of complementary analytical methods. Nevertheless, even using a set of methods presented in this study does not guarantee an unambiguous correlation of a mafic volcanic rock with its natural occurrence. This phenomenon is well visible when basaltic rocks from Scania and Sudetes are compared—they both have alkali nature, similar trace element chemical composition and mineral composition. If an artefact was made of a basaltoid from one of those localities, their distinction would require an even more advanced method, for example, isotopic studies.FINAL REMARKSIn this study a mineral and chemical composition of basaltoids used in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age artefacts from the Polish Lowlands (Kujawy region) are compared with the composition of potential source rocks. These include basaltoids from Volyn (western Ukraine), Scania (southern Sweden, two rock types), and Lower Silesia (south‐west Poland). The rocks from Scania occur in the Polish Lowlands as erratics, while rocks from Volyn and Lower Silesia must have been imported.Alkaline nature and mineral composition of basaltoids from Scania and Lower Silesia excludes them as a source of the raw material. Also dolerites from Scania, despite similar chemical and mineral composition, have to be excluded due to lack of copper mineralization. This characteristic mineralization occurs only within artefacts and Volyn basaltoids.The Neolithic and Early Bronze Age populations in the Polish Lowlands could easily obtain basaltic raw material from Fennoscandian erratics or from relatively close (about 270 km from the region inhabited by the manufacturers of the studied artefacts) deposits in Lower Silesia. Nevertheless, they have used a Volynian material from a distant region (about 700 km from the Kujawy).Usage of the material from Volyn was possibly based on cultural and processual premises, such as: (1) migrations of a population(s) from the Upland regions and (2) manifestations of relatively permanent participation of the local population in interregional contacts and long‐term subject exchange.The Volynian basalt used by the inhabitants of the Polish Lowlands (Kuyavia) in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age should be regarded as an exceptionally sensitive indicator of prehistoric long‐distance exchange and interregional contacts, both because of the high attractiveness and desirability of this raw material and because the petrological characteristics of basalt are diagnostic of the particular sources of its natural occurrence. The presented findings provide a unique opportunity for a programme of future research into reconstructing the routes of the long‐distance distribution of Volynian basalt in prehistory (e.g., Gimbutas, 1965; Kośko, 2009).DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENTThe data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Repozytorium Otwartych Danych Badawczych RepOD at https://doi.org/10.18150/ZQLGLN, referencenumber RepOD, V1.PEER REVIEWThe peer review history for this article is available at https://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer-review/10.1111/arcm.12876.REFERENCESAppadurai, A. (Ed.). (1986). The social live of things. Commodities in cultural perspective, Cambridge University Press.Bakun‐Czubarow, N., Białowolska, A., & Fedoryshyn, Y. (2002). Neoproterozoic flood basalts of Zabolottya and Babino beds of the volcanogenic Volhynian series and Polesie series dolerites in the western margin of the east European craton. 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Archaeometry – Wiley

Published: Apr 24, 2023

Keywords: basaltic artefacts; Early Bronze Age; import from Volhyn; Neolithic; petrological research; Polish Lowlands

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Provenance studies of basaltic tools from the Polish Lowlands in the light of geochemical and mineralogical studies

Provenance studies of basaltic tools from the Polish Lowlands in the light of geochemical and mineralogical studies

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Provenance studies of basaltic tools from the Polish Lowlands in the light of geochemical and mineralogical studies

Provenance studies of basaltic tools from the Polish Lowlands in the light of geochemical and mineralogical studies

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